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Religious Glasnost: Freedom, expression, and media usage by religious groups in the Soviet Union
Public
Relations
Review, 18(3):265-274
ISSN: 0363-8111
Ghria M. Boone
Copyright 0 1992 by IAI Press Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
Religious Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media Usage by Religious Groups in the Soviet Union ABSTRACT: After decades of censorship and oppression, Glasnost has allowed religious freedom, expression, and public relations. Soviet media now cover religious press conferences, debates, speciaI events, sermons, evangelical videos, and religious rock operas. From 1987 to 199 1, four periods of religious communication emerged: a thaw, the Umillennium,” revival and debate, and celebration after the failed coup. Dr. Boone is an associate professor of communication and journalism at Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts,
Since 1986, Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) have created a period of new thinking and a search for pluralism in Soviet society.’ These changes are often attributed to factors such as to Gorbachev’s leadership, the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, the increase in Soviet education, the increase in media coverage, and the sociological perspective of Tatiana Zaslavskaya.2 Glasnost and Perestroika have created great changes in the Russian media’s outlook on foreign policy, domestic policy, economic affairs, social commentary, and media formats. The Soviet press, which once offered a monolithic Marxist viewpoint on the state, party and life, now offers critical assessments Fall 1992
265
Public Relations
Review
of the Communist party, Afghanistan, environmental degradation, and the economic crisis. Social problems and former forbidden topics are now openly discussed. One forbidden topic that is now openly discussed in the Soviet media is religion. Once forbidden to actively propagate the faith, churches in the Soviet Union now use a wide variety of public relations techniques including press releases, press conferences, special events, photo opportunities, evangelical rallies and broadcast serm0ns.j This is quite a change from the religious oppression and media censorship before Gorbachev. Lenin declared illegal the propagation of the faith outside the home and began a massive anti-religion campaign by the Union of Militant Atheists.4 Stalin ruthlessly killed millions of believers, blew up churches, and banned the normal activities of religious education or charity.” Khruschev, Brezhnev, and Andropov mandated the teaching of atheism in the schools, and oppressed religion by KGB house-searches, confiscation of religious material and arrest.6 Out of this hostile and sometimes deadly environment emerged religious freedom, expression, and publicity under Gorbachev. Specifically, four stages of Religious Glasnost emerged:
1.
A thaw from censorship
2.
Celebration
3.
Religious
4.
Celebration present).
and hostility
of the Religious revival and debate of freedom
(1986-May
Millennium
(June
1988). 1988).
(July 1988-August
1991).
and faith after the failed coup (August
1991-
A close symbiotic relationship exist between religious freedom and glasnost. Religious freedom and an increased openness about religion in the press act as a barometer for freedom in the Soviet Union.
THE
THAW:
1986
TO
JUNE
1988
Glasnost begins with Gorbachev’s December 1984 speech at a conference on ideology. Glasnost in 1985 was tied to conservative reform against alcoholism and corruption. Events of 1986 such as Chernobyl and the Icelandic Summit led to a policy of Glasnost by the end of 1986 with the freeing of Sakharov. Religious glasnost begins in the Soviet media at the end of 1986. The Chairman of the Council on Religious Affairs pointed out to his party comrades: “there are approximately 1,000 points of unrest where citizens are demanding the Kharchev concludes that the “Party and the government opening of churches.” are losing more and more control over them (believers) . . . what is more useful to the Party-a person who believes in God, (or) one who believes in nothing.“’ 266
Vol. 18, No. 3
Religious Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media UsaBe
Anti-religious articles continued to be regularly published, but it was no longer taboo for Pravda to admit that religion was not only surviving but attracting new members, particularly among young people. The religious themes and Christian ethics by leading writers such as Aitmatov and Rasputin were discussed in some detail8 Aitmatov’s novel, Hakha, was criticized by a leading atheists, Dr. Kryvelev, whose editorial stated “To reject principled, logical atheism is to reject the very foundations of a scientific and materialist world view.” He criticized religion as a “tendency to flirt with the good old Lord . . . that should be fought by Marxism as spiritual moonshine.“9 The metaphors of playing, flirting, and moonshine are typical of the scientific atheists rhetoric that sees religion or belief as illogical, emotional, or irrational. In 1987, in Komsomolskaia Pravda, Yevtushenko defended religion by saying that the Church contributed massively to the collective victory in the war, were important in the peace movement, and often led the struggle against imperialism.“’ Only a few negative stories appeared in the press during this period. These articles discussed conflict within the Russian Orthodox Church, Vatican support for Lithuanian extremists, or the weakness of believers. Religious information from the Samizdat and religious broadcasts on the Voice ofAmerica continued to provide coverage of religious ideas, theories, and questions that were missed by the Soviet media.” A 1987 article in Novyi Mir linked an increase of religious spirit with glasnost. “The spread of glasnost, honesty in the press, and democracy in general may prompt a wave of quite unexpected revelations of religiosity and mysticism in our Interviews with priests, rabbis, and various religious leaders started to culture.“” appear in both the print and broadcast media. Russian Orthodox Metropolitan Aleksei in Moskovsie Novosti noted that an “enormous number of believers are veterans of labor, of the Great Patriotic War” but that the “believers are treated as second-rate people to be approached with suspicion and extreme care.“13 Various journalists interviewed Metropolitan Filarct on church-state relations. Soviet television showed a documentary on imprisoned Lithuanian priests, the news covered religious protests in the Ukraine, and new approaches to Islam were discussed. Interviews with religious people seemed to focus on why someone would enter a religious order or seek a spiritual way of life. People of various faiths answered the questions of a curious public. An interview with several young nuns in Moskovskii Komsomolets in October 1987 examined the reasons for entering monastic life. The interview recorded their feelings about the “spiritual impoverishment” of materialism and about the problems of drugs, divorce, and abortion in Soviet society. These young women expressed their “quest for Russia’s spiritual and their “sense of freedom” in choosing a spiritual life. The inheritance” interviewer offered some positive commentary about religion by stating: “I believe that our attitude toward democracy is defined by our attitude toward religious people.“14 The media tried to correct some of the distortions of Soviet history. Many of the victims of Stalin’s Terror were shown to be rabbis, priests, and Fall 1992
267
Public Relations
Review
believers. In 1987 and 1988, Stalinism was a controversial and emotional topic. The very popular Anti-Stalinist film, Repentance, pointed to the need for truth and repentance. The last line of the film asked what use is a street if it doesn’t lead to a Church. Even more controversial was the March 1988 letter of Nina Andreeva, a Leningrad teacher, who sparked a nationwide furor by praising Marxist-Leninist principles and Stalin. She attacked perestroika, religion, pluralism, and glasnost.15 These nationalistic, anti-religious, and anti-Semitic comments were debated for months in all the major newspapers and on various television shows. Religious groups and church leaders responded with open letters, sermons, and counter demonstrations. Glasnost brought out the anti-Semitic campaign of Pamyat whose public demonstrations used a quasi-religious rhetoric to preserve the Holy Memory of Mother Russia and to spread their gospel of hate against Zionism and Freemasonry. Church leaders often attacked Pamyat and their anti-Semitic rhetoric by noting the incompatibility of Christianity with hatred and by linking anti-Semitic publications with the KGB.16
THE MILLENNIUM:
JUNE
1988
In June 1988, Russia celebrated, one thousand years of Christianity by remembering the baptism of Prince Vladmir and the people of Kiev in 988. The Millennium created an explosion of news coverage about religion, spiritual life, and the believers themselves. More was said about religion in the seventy days around The Millennium than in the seventy years of Soviet rule. Five weeks before the celebration, Gorbachev received the Orthodox Patriarch Pimen at the Kremlin. That night on V~emya, the national evening news program, Gorbachev welcomed the religious leaders and offered regret for past “mistakes made with regard to church and believers.“” Patriarch Pimen prayed for the success of perestroika and the new political thinking. A press center was set up and hundreds of TV crews and reporters from around the world stayed in Moscow after the Summit meeting that had just concluded. The celebration of the Christian Millennium opened on June 6, 1988 with a Church Council (Sobor) of Russion Orthodox bishops, priests, and lay people. Worldwide religious leaders such as the Archbishop of Canterbury, several Roman Catholic Cardinals, and Protestant leaders as diverse as Billy Graham and Bishop Tutu attended.” Television provided extensive coverage of the Sobor and the celebrations. Live coverage was offered of the canonization of nine new saints at the shrine of St. Sergius and the speeches of religious leaders and political figures were covered.” 268
Vol. 18. No. 3
Rel$+wr Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media UsaBe -_-~
In the next few days, Soviet citizens could not escape the Millennium celebrations that appeared on Soviet television. Live coverage of the Bolshoi concert for the ~llennium featured Patriarch Pimen, Raisa Gorbachev, and the choir of the Holy Trinity Monastery. The next night Mikhail Gorvachev attended the event.20 The media showed a worldwide array of religious leaders greeted at the Kremlin by Andrei Gromyko, chairman of the Supreme Soviet. He promised separation of church and state, the importation of Bibles, and increased rights for believers to engage in charity and private educational works2* Soviet television broadcast an hour long film about Russion Orthodox faith called Church. The film showed a history of the church, including black and white clips of the Stalin’s dynamiting of the Savior Cathedral in Moscow, and interviews with priests and believers. Father Zinon, the leading icons artist in the Soviet Union displayed his work. One woman expressed her faith by saying “You have to believe in God. Without God, you are dead.” A nun, shown making bread, said “Human work that isn’t framed by prayer has no meaning. Prayer is the only answer to the industrial age. Otherwise the machine will destroy US.“~~ That Sunday, a special outdoor church service was televised from the Danilov Monastery. Over ten thousand people attended.23 Monday’s celebrations featured the ground breaking for the Holy Trinity Church, the first new church in Moscow since the revolution in 1917. In the next several days, official ceremonies shifted to Kiev. A televised concert featuring the choir of Saint Vladimir’s Cathedral was followed by coverage of a service at the Monastery of the Caves in the hills above the Dnieper River. The Millennium created dissent among Ukrainian nationalists who believed that the Russian Orthodox Church was trying to claim all the glory for the ~llennium that happened in the Ukraine. The Ukrainian Catholic Church was merged by force with the Russian Orthodox Church in 1946. The Uniates endured continuing persecution even during the period of glasnost and reform. In the months after the Millennium, Uniate priests began emerging “from the underground, and in 1989 the Ukrainian Catholic Church began a vigorous campaign for legal recognition.“24 A positive result of the ~Millennium was a report on Moscow television linking Epiphany Cathedral with a local hospital .25The connection of religion and charity was being reestablished. One other reaction to the flood of publicity for the Russian Orthodox Church was the attempt of other churches and religious groups to advertise. The Baptists of Kiev printed 4,000 handbills to advertise a service in June of 1988. Thousands attended.2b RELIGIOUS REVIVAL AND DEBATE: JULY 1988 TO AUGUST 1991 In the two years following the Millennium, the Soviet people experienced new religious freedoms, laws, and media formats. With the exception of the winter of 1990-91, in which the Baltic crackdown, press I-ail 1992
269
Public
Relations
Review
censorship and a rollback of reform occurred, this period showed a great increase in freedom of religion and its expression. In many ways, this period is reflected in the public meetings of Gorbachev with the Pope (December 1990) and Yeltsin’s attendance at church services. These events and others like them become a symbol for the new religious tolerance in Soviet society. A variety of freedoms emerged before the new law on religious freedom went into effect in October, 1990. Law followed practice. The church groups invited the media to the reopening of churches, the construction of new churches, religious education classes and interviews with emigres. The last groups permitted any real freedom or offered meaningful press coverage were the Ukrainian Catholics and the Pentecostals. A variety of charities sprang up to meet the needs of hospitals, prisons, the poor, and the elderly. 27 The Soviet government seemed to encourage religious charity to meet the needs of society as governmental structures broke down. The revival of religious freedom meant that the number of churches increased by about 50 percent in five years, while the number of mosques rose by nearly 300 percent. 28 A study in Argumenty i Fakty reported that more than 90 million citizens, or one-third of the population considered themselves believers.29 This number may be low because the number of Moslems practicing Islam is usually underestimated. Religious instruction, previously underground, became public in Latvia, Lithuania, and in the Central Asian Republics in 1989. Linked with the study of religion was the study of other languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Travel, pilgrimages, and even emigration became easier and were now publicized.jO In 1990, over 186,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.31 A series of new laws in late 1988 to the fall of 1990 produced greater religious freedom. In the fall of 1988, the new law on publishing and the press allowed religious newspapers or books to be published. The problems of finding printing facilities and the lack of paper limited the extent of real freedom. A variety of religious Samizdat are published including the Choice, the Herald, the Bulletin of the Christian Community, Hara Krisna, and 7&e Problems of Refusenih.32 Many articles in the Soviet media in 1989 and 1990, concerned the proposed law of conscience. People questioned the need for the state Council of Religious AfIairs, and if religion or atheism should be taught in state schools. The Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations was passed on October 1, 1990 and published later in Praada.33 This law says the government will not restrict the study or spread of religion. It further restricts the state support or financing of atheism. 34 The Russian Republic, later in October, approved a more liberal law of religious freedom. The right to use school buildings after hours for religious instruction and the right to refuse military service on religious grounds were permitted. These new laws and freedoms changed the scope and the style of Soviet religious media. Much more religious material was published or broadcast. Over 4 million Bibles have been distributed in the Soviet Union since Gorbachev came to power.35 Groups such as the American Bible Society, The Slavic Gospel Association and others have tried to begin to fill the need for religious materials. 270
Vol. 18, No. 3
Religious Glamost: Freedom, Expression, and Media lJ~a+~e
Sunday sermons now appear on local and national television. Radio stations such as Leningrad Radio carry programs like “For Believers and Unbelievers.“36 New magazines such as the Baptists publication Protestant have appeared. Crusades by evangelicals are appealing to youth. For example, in 1990, over 30,000 heard John Guest speak in Moscow. Part of his sermon was carried on Soviet television.37 New media formats were also tried for religious messages. The appeal to young people also took the form of a Russian Christian rock opera, The Toymaber-i Dream. A video Bible for Russian children, Superbook, was produced and videos by the Slavic Gospel Association and Campus Crusade for Christ are being produced. 38 A Congress on Evangelization was held in October 1990. Over 1,000 people attended this event. 39 Some of the Congress’s chief speakersHouston, Ford, Bright-were interviewed for twenty minutes on “Good Evening, MOSCOW.“~” The religious revival is also shown by Russian Orthodox Christmas (January 7) being declared a holiday in Russia, the Ukraine, and Moldavia.41 A Jewish religious revival is being carried out by the Jewish Religious Congress in Moscow, as is the importation of kosher foods and Hebrew texts, and the founding of Jewish cultural societies. 42 The small number of synagogues in the Soviet Union-about one hundred-is hampering religious activity. Islam is being revived with a rapid increase in the number of mosques and by the creation of the Islamic Resistance Party that was established in June 1990. “Islam is the fastest growing system of belief” with “up to sixty million Muslims” living in the Soviet Union. 43 The Islamic Resistance Party, despite its growth, was officially banned in 1990 and for most of 1991.
RECOVERY THE COUP:
OF RELIGION AFTER AUGUST 1991-
The attempted coup of August 19, 1991 provided both great anxiety and great opportunities for the churches and believers in the former Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin called on the churches to come out against the coup. The reaction of Patriarch Aleksii II, Father Gleb Yakunin, and countless others was swift. The Patriarch publicly condemned the COUP.~~ The next day, he anathematized the coup members. Father Gleb Yakunin and other priests took part in the defense of the Parliament.45 Outside of the country, Pope John Paul II, Archbishop of Canterbury, and many other religious leaders quickly condemned the coup, praised Gorbachev, and expressed concern that religious oppression might begin anew. By August 22 the coup had collapsed. Religious celebrations occurred in many cities, and religious leaders along with millions of people mourned the deaths “of two young Russian Orthodox men and one Jewish man who were killed. . . . It was a national event in which prayer was central . . . . After separate religious ceremonies, the three were buried side by side.“46 Fall 1992
271
Public Relations
Review
The quick collapse of the coup was greeted with religious celebrations. “Suddenly, the Soviet Union is crawling with religious proselytizers . . . . tapping into a deeply religious undercurrent that has surged to the surface with the collapse of atheistic communism.“47 Part of the celebration is due to the closing of the KGB Department of Religion. 48 Another reason for excitement is the opening up of state schools for religious debate and discussion. The Education Department in the Russian Republic has asked Campus Crusade for Christ to distribute 65,000 copies of the Russian language video JESUS to Russian schools and to train Russian teachers about teaching Christianity.“’ The Russian Republic is also trying to revive Birobidzhan as a Jewish Center for Culture.5o Gorbachev denounced hatred of Jews and regretted that “our compatriots are leaving,” he asked for an “atmosphere of tolerance and condemnation of any expression of anti-Semitism. 5’ Gorbachev’s statement was read at a ceremony marking the 50th anniversary of the Nazi massacre of over 30,000 Jews at Bari Yar. Some 15,000 people, carrying the photographs or names of those killed, attended the gathering. More than 5,000 mosques and 9 The Islamic revival is building. medressehs are now open. 52 The Islamic Resistance Party (IRP) was officially registered on September 9, 1991. In Tajikistan, the IRP was banned near the end of September when the Communists led by Rashmon Nabiyev seized control. Demonstrations by the IRP led to his ouster but the area remains under a state of emergency.
THE
HOPE
AND
THE
FEAR
Overall, the freedom of religion and corresponding growth of religious information, media coverage, and free speech has occurred rapidly under glasnost. The churces and the believers now have a chance to use publicity and advertising to reach their publics. Forbidden topics are now freely discussed; the underground has become public; the dissidents have become national heroes. Religious freedom to speak, pray or publish acts as a barometer for change in the Soviet Union. Religious glasnost went through several distinct periods: a thaw in 1986 and early 1988; freedom for dominant groups during the Millennium; religious revival and debate from the summer of 1988 to the summer of 1991; and religious celebration after the coup. The situation in the former Soviet Union is still very uncertain. Economic problems, potential starvation, and political collapse and anarchy are still very real possibilities. Any of these events could turn the tide against religious freedom and open media coverage.
NOTES 1. See Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989); Jonathan Eisen, The Glasnost Readev(NewYork: New American 272
Vol. 18, No. 3
-
Reli@ous Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media Usage
-
2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Library, 1990); Andrei Melville and Gail Lapidus, The Glasnost Papers: Voices of Reformfiom Moscow (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Alec Nove, Glasnost in Action: Cultural Reniassance in Russia (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990). Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals: Television and Politics in the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 31-68; Hedrick Smith, Z%e New Russians(New York: Random House, 1990), pp. 79-232. For other examples of Public Relations in the Soviet Union see: Stuart Anderson, “Special Report: Advertising and Public Relations in the East,” Bloc 3 (March/April 1991), pp. 17-24. Sergei Savelyev, “Top Secret: Protocols of Godless Sages,” Moscow News Weekly, 32 (1991), p. 8. See Roy Medvedev, On Stalin And Stalinism, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979). Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church, (Keston: Keston College, 1986), pp. 287448. Konstanin Kharchev, “Religion and Perestroyka,” Russkaya Mysl (May 20, 1988), p. 4. Kent K. Hill, 7%e Puzzle of the Soviet Chuvch, (Portland: Multnomah Press, 1989), pp. 248-249. Iosif Kryvelev, “Flirting with Dear Little God,” Komsomolskaya Pravda (July 30, 1986). Yevgeniy Yevtushenko, “The Source of Morality is Culture,” Komsomolskaya Pravda (December 10, 1986). Zoya Krakhmalnikova, “A Labor of Love,” The Samizdat Bulletin 186, 1990, pp. 18-20. Melville and Lapidus, Op cit., p. 128. Ibid., p. 131. Ibid., pp. 131-133. “I Cannot Forsake Principles,” Sovetskaya Rossiya (March 13, Nina Andreyeva, 1988), p. 3. See ‘The Samizdat Bulletin, 186 (Summer 1990), pp. 12-13. Pravda, April 30,1988. James H. Forest, Religion in the New Russia (New York: Crossroads, 1990), pp. 21-30. Michael Bourdeaux, Gorbachev, Glasnostand the Gospel (Kent: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990), pp. 48-54. Forest, op. cit., p. 21. Izvestiya, June 12, 1988; Press Release of the Moscow Patriarchate, June 12, 1988. Forest, op. cit., p.25. Ibid., p. 27. Ibid., p. 111. Bourdeaux, op. cit., p. 36. Ibid., p. 54. Press Release of the Moscow Patviavchate, June 8, 1988. Current History (October 1991), pp. 328, David E. Powell, “Revival of Religion,” 331. Ibid., p. 328. Oxana Antic, “Recent Progress in Jewish Life,” Report on the USSR 3, (August 30, 1991), pp. 19-21.
Fall 1992
273
Public Relations
Review
31. Powell, op. cit., p. 328. 32. Sergi Grigoryants, “Spreading the Word in the Soviet Capital,” The Sumizdat Bulletin 185, pp. 1-5. 33. Pravda, October 10, 1990. in Church Life,” Report on the USSR 3 (January 4, 34. Oxana Antic, “Developments 1991), pp. 15-16. 35. Ken Sidney, “The Bible Comes in from the Cold,” Chistianity Today 34, (October 8, 1990), pp. 66-67. 36. Hill, op. cit., p. 287. 37. Ken Sidney, “New Law Extends Religious Freedom,” Christianity Today 34, pp. 76-77. 38. Sidney (October 8, 1990), op. cit., p. 66. 39. Russell Chandler, “Evangelism Finds a Place on New Soviet Agenda,” Christianity Today 34 (December 17, 1990), p. 39. 24, 1990) p. 52. 40. “Lausanne to Meet in Moscow,” Christianity Today 34 (September 41. Hill, op. cit., p. 284-285. 42. Antic (August 19, 1991), op. cit., pp. 19-21. 21, 1991), pp. 58-60. 43. “The Next Islamic Revolution,” Economist (September 44. TASS, August 20, 1991. 20, 45. Oxana Antic, “Church Reaction to the Coup,” Report on the USSR 3, (September 1991), pp. 15-17. 46. New Yoyovk Times, August 31, 1991. 47. Boston Globe, September 22, 1991, p. 15. 48. Izvestia, September 13, 1991. 49. Bill Bright, “Letter,” (September 1991). 50. Antic (September 20, 1991), op. cit. 51. TASS, October 6, 1991. 52. Economist, op. cit.
274
Vol.
18. No. 3
Relations
Review, 18(3):265-274
ISSN: 0363-8111
Ghria M. Boone
Copyright 0 1992 by IAI Press Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
Religious Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media Usage by Religious Groups in the Soviet Union ABSTRACT: After decades of censorship and oppression, Glasnost has allowed religious freedom, expression, and public relations. Soviet media now cover religious press conferences, debates, speciaI events, sermons, evangelical videos, and religious rock operas. From 1987 to 199 1, four periods of religious communication emerged: a thaw, the Umillennium,” revival and debate, and celebration after the failed coup. Dr. Boone is an associate professor of communication and journalism at Suffolk University in Boston, Massachusetts,
Since 1986, Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) have created a period of new thinking and a search for pluralism in Soviet society.’ These changes are often attributed to factors such as to Gorbachev’s leadership, the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, the increase in Soviet education, the increase in media coverage, and the sociological perspective of Tatiana Zaslavskaya.2 Glasnost and Perestroika have created great changes in the Russian media’s outlook on foreign policy, domestic policy, economic affairs, social commentary, and media formats. The Soviet press, which once offered a monolithic Marxist viewpoint on the state, party and life, now offers critical assessments Fall 1992
265
Public Relations
Review
of the Communist party, Afghanistan, environmental degradation, and the economic crisis. Social problems and former forbidden topics are now openly discussed. One forbidden topic that is now openly discussed in the Soviet media is religion. Once forbidden to actively propagate the faith, churches in the Soviet Union now use a wide variety of public relations techniques including press releases, press conferences, special events, photo opportunities, evangelical rallies and broadcast serm0ns.j This is quite a change from the religious oppression and media censorship before Gorbachev. Lenin declared illegal the propagation of the faith outside the home and began a massive anti-religion campaign by the Union of Militant Atheists.4 Stalin ruthlessly killed millions of believers, blew up churches, and banned the normal activities of religious education or charity.” Khruschev, Brezhnev, and Andropov mandated the teaching of atheism in the schools, and oppressed religion by KGB house-searches, confiscation of religious material and arrest.6 Out of this hostile and sometimes deadly environment emerged religious freedom, expression, and publicity under Gorbachev. Specifically, four stages of Religious Glasnost emerged:
1.
A thaw from censorship
2.
Celebration
3.
Religious
4.
Celebration present).
and hostility
of the Religious revival and debate of freedom
(1986-May
Millennium
(June
1988). 1988).
(July 1988-August
1991).
and faith after the failed coup (August
1991-
A close symbiotic relationship exist between religious freedom and glasnost. Religious freedom and an increased openness about religion in the press act as a barometer for freedom in the Soviet Union.
THE
THAW:
1986
TO
JUNE
1988
Glasnost begins with Gorbachev’s December 1984 speech at a conference on ideology. Glasnost in 1985 was tied to conservative reform against alcoholism and corruption. Events of 1986 such as Chernobyl and the Icelandic Summit led to a policy of Glasnost by the end of 1986 with the freeing of Sakharov. Religious glasnost begins in the Soviet media at the end of 1986. The Chairman of the Council on Religious Affairs pointed out to his party comrades: “there are approximately 1,000 points of unrest where citizens are demanding the Kharchev concludes that the “Party and the government opening of churches.” are losing more and more control over them (believers) . . . what is more useful to the Party-a person who believes in God, (or) one who believes in nothing.“’ 266
Vol. 18, No. 3
Religious Glasnost: Freedom, Expression, and Media UsaBe
Anti-religious articles continued to be regularly published, but it was no longer taboo for Pravda to admit that religion was not only surviving but attracting new members, particularly among young people. The religious themes and Christian ethics by leading writers such as Aitmatov and Rasputin were discussed in some detail8 Aitmatov’s novel, Hakha, was criticized by a leading atheists, Dr. Kryvelev, whose editorial stated “To reject principled, logical atheism is to reject the very foundations of a scientific and materialist world view.” He criticized religion as a “tendency to flirt with the good old Lord . . . that should be fought by Marxism as spiritual moonshine.“9 The metaphors of playing, flirting, and moonshine are typical of the scientific atheists rhetoric that sees religion or belief as illogical, emotional, or irrational. In 1987, in Komsomolskaia Pravda, Yevtushenko defended religion by saying that the Church contributed massively to the collective victory in the war, were important in the peace movement, and often led the struggle against imperialism.“’ Only a few negative stories appeared in the press during this period. These articles discussed conflict within the Russian Orthodox Church, Vatican support for Lithuanian extremists, or the weakness of believers. Religious information from the Samizdat and religious broadcasts on the Voice ofAmerica continued to provide coverage of religious ideas, theories, and questions that were missed by the Soviet media.” A 1987 article in Novyi Mir linked an increase of religious spirit with glasnost. “The spread of glasnost, honesty in the press, and democracy in general may prompt a wave of quite unexpected revelations of religiosity and mysticism in our Interviews with priests, rabbis, and various religious leaders started to culture.“” appear in both the print and broadcast media. Russian Orthodox Metropolitan Aleksei in Moskovsie Novosti noted that an “enormous number of believers are veterans of labor, of the Great Patriotic War” but that the “believers are treated as second-rate people to be approached with suspicion and extreme care.“13 Various journalists interviewed Metropolitan Filarct on church-state relations. Soviet television showed a documentary on imprisoned Lithuanian priests, the news covered religious protests in the Ukraine, and new approaches to Islam were discussed. Interviews with religious people seemed to focus on why someone would enter a religious order or seek a spiritual way of life. People of various faiths answered the questions of a curious public. An interview with several young nuns in Moskovskii Komsomolets in October 1987 examined the reasons for entering monastic life. The interview recorded their feelings about the “spiritual impoverishment” of materialism and about the problems of drugs, divorce, and abortion in Soviet society. These young women expressed their “quest for Russia’s spiritual and their “sense of freedom” in choosing a spiritual life. The inheritance” interviewer offered some positive commentary about religion by stating: “I believe that our attitude toward democracy is defined by our attitude toward religious people.“14 The media tried to correct some of the distortions of Soviet history. Many of the victims of Stalin’s Terror were shown to be rabbis, priests, and Fall 1992
267
Public Relations
Review
believers. In 1987 and 1988, Stalinism was a controversial and emotional topic. The very popular Anti-Stalinist film, Repentance, pointed to the need for truth and repentance. The last line of the film asked what use is a street if it doesn’t lead to a Church. Even more controversial was the March 1988 letter of Nina Andreeva, a Leningrad teacher, who sparked a nationwide furor by praising Marxist-Leninist principles and Stalin. She attacked perestroika, religion, pluralism, and glasnost.15 These nationalistic, anti-religious, and anti-Semitic comments were debated for months in all the major newspapers and on various television shows. Religious groups and church leaders responded with open letters, sermons, and counter demonstrations. Glasnost brought out the anti-Semitic campaign of Pamyat whose public demonstrations used a quasi-religious rhetoric to preserve the Holy Memory of Mother Russia and to spread their gospel of hate against Zionism and Freemasonry. Church leaders often attacked Pamyat and their anti-Semitic rhetoric by noting the incompatibility of Christianity with hatred and by linking anti-Semitic publications with the KGB.16
THE MILLENNIUM:
JUNE
1988
In June 1988, Russia celebrated, one thousand years of Christianity by remembering the baptism of Prince Vladmir and the people of Kiev in 988. The Millennium created an explosion of news coverage about religion, spiritual life, and the believers themselves. More was said about religion in the seventy days around The Millennium than in the seventy years of Soviet rule. Five weeks before the celebration, Gorbachev received the Orthodox Patriarch Pimen at the Kremlin. That night on V~emya, the national evening news program, Gorbachev welcomed the religious leaders and offered regret for past “mistakes made with regard to church and believers.“” Patriarch Pimen prayed for the success of perestroika and the new political thinking. A press center was set up and hundreds of TV crews and reporters from around the world stayed in Moscow after the Summit meeting that had just concluded. The celebration of the Christian Millennium opened on June 6, 1988 with a Church Council (Sobor) of Russion Orthodox bishops, priests, and lay people. Worldwide religious leaders such as the Archbishop of Canterbury, several Roman Catholic Cardinals, and Protestant leaders as diverse as Billy Graham and Bishop Tutu attended.” Television provided extensive coverage of the Sobor and the celebrations. Live coverage was offered of the canonization of nine new saints at the shrine of St. Sergius and the speeches of religious leaders and political figures were covered.” 268
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In the next few days, Soviet citizens could not escape the Millennium celebrations that appeared on Soviet television. Live coverage of the Bolshoi concert for the ~llennium featured Patriarch Pimen, Raisa Gorbachev, and the choir of the Holy Trinity Monastery. The next night Mikhail Gorvachev attended the event.20 The media showed a worldwide array of religious leaders greeted at the Kremlin by Andrei Gromyko, chairman of the Supreme Soviet. He promised separation of church and state, the importation of Bibles, and increased rights for believers to engage in charity and private educational works2* Soviet television broadcast an hour long film about Russion Orthodox faith called Church. The film showed a history of the church, including black and white clips of the Stalin’s dynamiting of the Savior Cathedral in Moscow, and interviews with priests and believers. Father Zinon, the leading icons artist in the Soviet Union displayed his work. One woman expressed her faith by saying “You have to believe in God. Without God, you are dead.” A nun, shown making bread, said “Human work that isn’t framed by prayer has no meaning. Prayer is the only answer to the industrial age. Otherwise the machine will destroy US.“~~ That Sunday, a special outdoor church service was televised from the Danilov Monastery. Over ten thousand people attended.23 Monday’s celebrations featured the ground breaking for the Holy Trinity Church, the first new church in Moscow since the revolution in 1917. In the next several days, official ceremonies shifted to Kiev. A televised concert featuring the choir of Saint Vladimir’s Cathedral was followed by coverage of a service at the Monastery of the Caves in the hills above the Dnieper River. The Millennium created dissent among Ukrainian nationalists who believed that the Russian Orthodox Church was trying to claim all the glory for the ~llennium that happened in the Ukraine. The Ukrainian Catholic Church was merged by force with the Russian Orthodox Church in 1946. The Uniates endured continuing persecution even during the period of glasnost and reform. In the months after the Millennium, Uniate priests began emerging “from the underground, and in 1989 the Ukrainian Catholic Church began a vigorous campaign for legal recognition.“24 A positive result of the ~Millennium was a report on Moscow television linking Epiphany Cathedral with a local hospital .25The connection of religion and charity was being reestablished. One other reaction to the flood of publicity for the Russian Orthodox Church was the attempt of other churches and religious groups to advertise. The Baptists of Kiev printed 4,000 handbills to advertise a service in June of 1988. Thousands attended.2b RELIGIOUS REVIVAL AND DEBATE: JULY 1988 TO AUGUST 1991 In the two years following the Millennium, the Soviet people experienced new religious freedoms, laws, and media formats. With the exception of the winter of 1990-91, in which the Baltic crackdown, press I-ail 1992
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censorship and a rollback of reform occurred, this period showed a great increase in freedom of religion and its expression. In many ways, this period is reflected in the public meetings of Gorbachev with the Pope (December 1990) and Yeltsin’s attendance at church services. These events and others like them become a symbol for the new religious tolerance in Soviet society. A variety of freedoms emerged before the new law on religious freedom went into effect in October, 1990. Law followed practice. The church groups invited the media to the reopening of churches, the construction of new churches, religious education classes and interviews with emigres. The last groups permitted any real freedom or offered meaningful press coverage were the Ukrainian Catholics and the Pentecostals. A variety of charities sprang up to meet the needs of hospitals, prisons, the poor, and the elderly. 27 The Soviet government seemed to encourage religious charity to meet the needs of society as governmental structures broke down. The revival of religious freedom meant that the number of churches increased by about 50 percent in five years, while the number of mosques rose by nearly 300 percent. 28 A study in Argumenty i Fakty reported that more than 90 million citizens, or one-third of the population considered themselves believers.29 This number may be low because the number of Moslems practicing Islam is usually underestimated. Religious instruction, previously underground, became public in Latvia, Lithuania, and in the Central Asian Republics in 1989. Linked with the study of religion was the study of other languages such as Hebrew and Arabic. Travel, pilgrimages, and even emigration became easier and were now publicized.jO In 1990, over 186,000 Jews emigrated to Israel.31 A series of new laws in late 1988 to the fall of 1990 produced greater religious freedom. In the fall of 1988, the new law on publishing and the press allowed religious newspapers or books to be published. The problems of finding printing facilities and the lack of paper limited the extent of real freedom. A variety of religious Samizdat are published including the Choice, the Herald, the Bulletin of the Christian Community, Hara Krisna, and 7&e Problems of Refusenih.32 Many articles in the Soviet media in 1989 and 1990, concerned the proposed law of conscience. People questioned the need for the state Council of Religious AfIairs, and if religion or atheism should be taught in state schools. The Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations was passed on October 1, 1990 and published later in Praada.33 This law says the government will not restrict the study or spread of religion. It further restricts the state support or financing of atheism. 34 The Russian Republic, later in October, approved a more liberal law of religious freedom. The right to use school buildings after hours for religious instruction and the right to refuse military service on religious grounds were permitted. These new laws and freedoms changed the scope and the style of Soviet religious media. Much more religious material was published or broadcast. Over 4 million Bibles have been distributed in the Soviet Union since Gorbachev came to power.35 Groups such as the American Bible Society, The Slavic Gospel Association and others have tried to begin to fill the need for religious materials. 270
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Sunday sermons now appear on local and national television. Radio stations such as Leningrad Radio carry programs like “For Believers and Unbelievers.“36 New magazines such as the Baptists publication Protestant have appeared. Crusades by evangelicals are appealing to youth. For example, in 1990, over 30,000 heard John Guest speak in Moscow. Part of his sermon was carried on Soviet television.37 New media formats were also tried for religious messages. The appeal to young people also took the form of a Russian Christian rock opera, The Toymaber-i Dream. A video Bible for Russian children, Superbook, was produced and videos by the Slavic Gospel Association and Campus Crusade for Christ are being produced. 38 A Congress on Evangelization was held in October 1990. Over 1,000 people attended this event. 39 Some of the Congress’s chief speakersHouston, Ford, Bright-were interviewed for twenty minutes on “Good Evening, MOSCOW.“~” The religious revival is also shown by Russian Orthodox Christmas (January 7) being declared a holiday in Russia, the Ukraine, and Moldavia.41 A Jewish religious revival is being carried out by the Jewish Religious Congress in Moscow, as is the importation of kosher foods and Hebrew texts, and the founding of Jewish cultural societies. 42 The small number of synagogues in the Soviet Union-about one hundred-is hampering religious activity. Islam is being revived with a rapid increase in the number of mosques and by the creation of the Islamic Resistance Party that was established in June 1990. “Islam is the fastest growing system of belief” with “up to sixty million Muslims” living in the Soviet Union. 43 The Islamic Resistance Party, despite its growth, was officially banned in 1990 and for most of 1991.
RECOVERY THE COUP:
OF RELIGION AFTER AUGUST 1991-
The attempted coup of August 19, 1991 provided both great anxiety and great opportunities for the churches and believers in the former Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin called on the churches to come out against the coup. The reaction of Patriarch Aleksii II, Father Gleb Yakunin, and countless others was swift. The Patriarch publicly condemned the COUP.~~ The next day, he anathematized the coup members. Father Gleb Yakunin and other priests took part in the defense of the Parliament.45 Outside of the country, Pope John Paul II, Archbishop of Canterbury, and many other religious leaders quickly condemned the coup, praised Gorbachev, and expressed concern that religious oppression might begin anew. By August 22 the coup had collapsed. Religious celebrations occurred in many cities, and religious leaders along with millions of people mourned the deaths “of two young Russian Orthodox men and one Jewish man who were killed. . . . It was a national event in which prayer was central . . . . After separate religious ceremonies, the three were buried side by side.“46 Fall 1992
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The quick collapse of the coup was greeted with religious celebrations. “Suddenly, the Soviet Union is crawling with religious proselytizers . . . . tapping into a deeply religious undercurrent that has surged to the surface with the collapse of atheistic communism.“47 Part of the celebration is due to the closing of the KGB Department of Religion. 48 Another reason for excitement is the opening up of state schools for religious debate and discussion. The Education Department in the Russian Republic has asked Campus Crusade for Christ to distribute 65,000 copies of the Russian language video JESUS to Russian schools and to train Russian teachers about teaching Christianity.“’ The Russian Republic is also trying to revive Birobidzhan as a Jewish Center for Culture.5o Gorbachev denounced hatred of Jews and regretted that “our compatriots are leaving,” he asked for an “atmosphere of tolerance and condemnation of any expression of anti-Semitism. 5’ Gorbachev’s statement was read at a ceremony marking the 50th anniversary of the Nazi massacre of over 30,000 Jews at Bari Yar. Some 15,000 people, carrying the photographs or names of those killed, attended the gathering. More than 5,000 mosques and 9 The Islamic revival is building. medressehs are now open. 52 The Islamic Resistance Party (IRP) was officially registered on September 9, 1991. In Tajikistan, the IRP was banned near the end of September when the Communists led by Rashmon Nabiyev seized control. Demonstrations by the IRP led to his ouster but the area remains under a state of emergency.
THE
HOPE
AND
THE
FEAR
Overall, the freedom of religion and corresponding growth of religious information, media coverage, and free speech has occurred rapidly under glasnost. The churces and the believers now have a chance to use publicity and advertising to reach their publics. Forbidden topics are now freely discussed; the underground has become public; the dissidents have become national heroes. Religious freedom to speak, pray or publish acts as a barometer for change in the Soviet Union. Religious glasnost went through several distinct periods: a thaw in 1986 and early 1988; freedom for dominant groups during the Millennium; religious revival and debate from the summer of 1988 to the summer of 1991; and religious celebration after the coup. The situation in the former Soviet Union is still very uncertain. Economic problems, potential starvation, and political collapse and anarchy are still very real possibilities. Any of these events could turn the tide against religious freedom and open media coverage.
NOTES 1. See Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989); Jonathan Eisen, The Glasnost Readev(NewYork: New American 272
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2.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Library, 1990); Andrei Melville and Gail Lapidus, The Glasnost Papers: Voices of Reformfiom Moscow (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Alec Nove, Glasnost in Action: Cultural Reniassance in Russia (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990). Ellen Mickiewicz, Split Signals: Television and Politics in the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 31-68; Hedrick Smith, Z%e New Russians(New York: Random House, 1990), pp. 79-232. For other examples of Public Relations in the Soviet Union see: Stuart Anderson, “Special Report: Advertising and Public Relations in the East,” Bloc 3 (March/April 1991), pp. 17-24. Sergei Savelyev, “Top Secret: Protocols of Godless Sages,” Moscow News Weekly, 32 (1991), p. 8. See Roy Medvedev, On Stalin And Stalinism, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979). Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church, (Keston: Keston College, 1986), pp. 287448. Konstanin Kharchev, “Religion and Perestroyka,” Russkaya Mysl (May 20, 1988), p. 4. Kent K. Hill, 7%e Puzzle of the Soviet Chuvch, (Portland: Multnomah Press, 1989), pp. 248-249. Iosif Kryvelev, “Flirting with Dear Little God,” Komsomolskaya Pravda (July 30, 1986). Yevgeniy Yevtushenko, “The Source of Morality is Culture,” Komsomolskaya Pravda (December 10, 1986). Zoya Krakhmalnikova, “A Labor of Love,” The Samizdat Bulletin 186, 1990, pp. 18-20. Melville and Lapidus, Op cit., p. 128. Ibid., p. 131. Ibid., pp. 131-133. “I Cannot Forsake Principles,” Sovetskaya Rossiya (March 13, Nina Andreyeva, 1988), p. 3. See ‘The Samizdat Bulletin, 186 (Summer 1990), pp. 12-13. Pravda, April 30,1988. James H. Forest, Religion in the New Russia (New York: Crossroads, 1990), pp. 21-30. Michael Bourdeaux, Gorbachev, Glasnostand the Gospel (Kent: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990), pp. 48-54. Forest, op. cit., p. 21. Izvestiya, June 12, 1988; Press Release of the Moscow Patriarchate, June 12, 1988. Forest, op. cit., p.25. Ibid., p. 27. Ibid., p. 111. Bourdeaux, op. cit., p. 36. Ibid., p. 54. Press Release of the Moscow Patviavchate, June 8, 1988. Current History (October 1991), pp. 328, David E. Powell, “Revival of Religion,” 331. Ibid., p. 328. Oxana Antic, “Recent Progress in Jewish Life,” Report on the USSR 3, (August 30, 1991), pp. 19-21.
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31. Powell, op. cit., p. 328. 32. Sergi Grigoryants, “Spreading the Word in the Soviet Capital,” The Sumizdat Bulletin 185, pp. 1-5. 33. Pravda, October 10, 1990. in Church Life,” Report on the USSR 3 (January 4, 34. Oxana Antic, “Developments 1991), pp. 15-16. 35. Ken Sidney, “The Bible Comes in from the Cold,” Chistianity Today 34, (October 8, 1990), pp. 66-67. 36. Hill, op. cit., p. 287. 37. Ken Sidney, “New Law Extends Religious Freedom,” Christianity Today 34, pp. 76-77. 38. Sidney (October 8, 1990), op. cit., p. 66. 39. Russell Chandler, “Evangelism Finds a Place on New Soviet Agenda,” Christianity Today 34 (December 17, 1990), p. 39. 24, 1990) p. 52. 40. “Lausanne to Meet in Moscow,” Christianity Today 34 (September 41. Hill, op. cit., p. 284-285. 42. Antic (August 19, 1991), op. cit., pp. 19-21. 21, 1991), pp. 58-60. 43. “The Next Islamic Revolution,” Economist (September 44. TASS, August 20, 1991. 20, 45. Oxana Antic, “Church Reaction to the Coup,” Report on the USSR 3, (September 1991), pp. 15-17. 46. New Yoyovk Times, August 31, 1991. 47. Boston Globe, September 22, 1991, p. 15. 48. Izvestia, September 13, 1991. 49. Bill Bright, “Letter,” (September 1991). 50. Antic (September 20, 1991), op. cit. 51. TASS, October 6, 1991. 52. Economist, op. cit.
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