Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects

Journal Pre-proof Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects

Y.H.Ahssein Amran, Y.H.Mugahed Amran, Rayed Alyousef, Hisham Alabduljabbar PII:

S0959-6526(19)34472-5

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119602

Reference:

JCLP 119602

To appear in:

Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date:

22 September 2019

Accepted Date:

06 December 2019

Please cite this article as: Y.H.Ahssein Amran, Y.H.Mugahed Amran, Rayed Alyousef, Hisham Alabduljabbar, Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects, Journal of Cleaner Production (2019), https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119602

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier.

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Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects

 Author affiliation  Y. H. Ahssein Amran, MEng Position: Senior Lecturer Address: -

1Department

of Telecommunication and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,

Sana’a University, PO Box 1247, Sana’a, Yemen. Email: [email protected] 

Y. H. Mugahed Amran, PhD Position: Head of the department Address: -

2Department

of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz

University, 11942 Alkharj, Saudi Arabia -

3Department

of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, Amran University,

9677 Quhal, Amran, Yemen. Corresponding author: Tel.: +966115888265; Fax: +966115888201; Email: [email protected] and [email protected]  Rayed Alyousef, PhD Position: Dean of college of engineering Address: 2Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 11942 Alkharj, Saudi Arabia. Email: [email protected]  Hisham Alabduljabbar, PhD Position: Vice dean of registration for technical affairs Address: 2Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 11942 Alkharj, Saudi Arabia. Email: [email protected]

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Renewable and sustainable energy production in Saudi Arabia according to Saudi Vision 2030; Current status and future prospects Abstract Renewable and sustainable energy (RnSE) resources have recently been marked as a major key for a stable economy worldwide, particularly in developed countries, such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). RnSE has been used in diverse technological applications and is shown to be an auspicious and reliable substitute for common hydrocarbon as an energy source. The KSA is a dynamic state that faces a rapid growth in population rate, which has caused large electricity consumption. Thus, the KSA has invested billions of dollars in installing huge RnSE projects in many locations around the country with robust financing capabilities. However, this study aims to review the current status, growth, potential, resources, the sustainability performance and future prospects of RnSE technologies in KSA according to Saudi Vision 2030. The resources of RnSE such as wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, and biomass have been reviewed. It is found that the solar power, as an example, has been proven to be one of the sufficient RnSE source with abundant technological advancement in electricity generation for more than 50 years. The usage of RnSE resources reduces the reliance on oil and natural gas and introduces RnSE from clean and maintainable resources for the Saudi national economy. The shortages of electricity and the challenges to conquer the increment in the demands of electrical in the nearest future have been also deliberated. The studies found that some of RnSE technologies have not been used adequately at present and might play a significant role in the upcoming of KSA’s RnSE. Besides, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential of offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy. Further, this review attempts to provide a comprehensive insight into the potential applications of RnSE technologies for developing a sound energy policy to attain energy security and reduce cost, thereby ensuring the efficiency of RnSE applications toward the long-term prosperity and energy reservation in the KSA. This paper has been concluded with several recommendations for the use of these RnSE resources. Keywords: Alternative Energy, CO2 Emissions, Fossil fuels, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), Nonrenewable/Renewable and Sustainable Energy (NRnSE/RnSE), RnSE Resources, Saudi Electricity.

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Table of Contents 1 2

Introduction Energy demand and growth 2.1 Electricity consumption in the KSA 2.2 Saudi water desalination 3 Potential and efficiency of RnSE in the KSA 4 Non-renewable and sustainable energy 4.1 Effect 4.1.1 CO2 emissions 4.1.2 Volume and cost of consumption 5 Renewable energy sources in the KSA 5.1 Solar energy 5.2 Wind energy 5.3 Water energy 5.4 Geothermal energy 5.5 Biomass energy 6 Trends of energy consumption in the KSA 7 Renewable energy distribution 8 Economic return from RnSE technology 9 Benefits of RnSE in the KSA 9.1 RnSE applications in the KSA 10 Conclusion 11 Acknowledgment 12 Conflict of interest 13 References

4 9 12 14 15 18 19 19 21 22 24 27 28 30 32 33 37 38 40 43 45 48 48 48

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List of Acronyms KSA RnSE NRnSE SAR GWe MWh OPEC GCC ME GW GDP CO2 AC TWh KACARE mbbl/d US PV IO KACST IRENA bbl NGL TCM BCM MCM/day CSP REPDO ERI WtE CCGT mb GTC

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Renewable and sustainable energy Nonrenewable/renewable and sustainable energy Saudi riyal Gigawatt electrical Million watt per hours Organization of the petroleum exporting countries Gulf cooperation council Middle East Giga Watt Gross domestic product Carbon dioxide Air-conditioning Terawatt hours King Abdullah city for atomic and renewable energy Million oil barrels per day United States Photovoltaic Invert osmosis King Abdullah city for science and technology International renewable energy agency Billion barrels Natural gas liquid Trillion cubic meters Billion cubic meters Million cubic meters/day Concentrated thermal power Renewable energy project development office Energy research institute Waste-to-energy Combined cycle gas turbine Millibars Gas turbine cogen

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1

Introduction

The increasing global energy demand and ecological awareness have led to significant pressure on applying sustainable energy (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Dincer, 2000). Conservatively, natural gas, coal, and oil, which amount to more than 80% of total energy resources, are the main sources of energy being used worldwide (Hosenuzzaman et al., 2015; Tlili, 2015). As traditional energy sources provide ecological contamination via greenhouse gas emissions and additional means, sustainable clean energy sources seem to be feasible substitutes for preserving the atmosphere and public health (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Bilgen, 2014). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), with a total area of approximately 2.25 million km2, is the biggest state in the Arabic Peninsula and Middle East (ME). In the KSA, oil was discovered nine decades ago, that is, in 1938, and the country began exporting oil in 1939 (Report, 2012; Tlili, 2015). As such, the KSA became the top oil producer and exporter worldwide within a few years (Jun, 2013; Stambouli et al., 2012). The KSA is a vibrant nation with considerable energy demand due to the increasing population rate, the use of low-charged electricity, and increasing desalinated water (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). The Saudi economic growth has multiplied for the past 30 years due to the available natural gas and oil wealth (Ong et al., 2011). The KSA, with a population of more than 31 million, is seeing a rapid development in the manufacturing sector to meet the growing energy demand, with a rate of 5% per year (Fig. 1) (Al-Sulaiman and Jamjoum, 1992). The use of national electricity and oil in the KSA has increased at an alarming rate in comparison with other countries worldwide (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Almost 70% of the population is under 30 years old, and the yearly claim for new houses is projected to be 2.32 million by 2020 (Alrashed and Asif, 2015). The electricity demand in the KSA is also predicted to reach 60 GW in the same year (Qader, 2009). Meanwhile, a 1% decrease in the yearly electricity consumption is expected to lessen the energy bill by $35 billion by 2020 (Alaidroos and Krarti, 2015). The dominant energy grid scheme has delivered electricity to almost 80% of the population residing in the kingdom’s reserves and

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manufacturing centers. Around US $117 is estimated to be invested in the state’s energy sector with regard to the 25-year tactical energy plan (Salam and Khan, 2018).

Fig. 1: Saudi power transmission network (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006; COMPANY, 2013; Jun, 2013)

Along with government assessments, the predicted electricity demand in the KSA is expected to surpass 120 GW by 2032 (Salam and Khan, 2018). Saudi Vision 2030 (SV2030) aims to set up renewable and sustainable energy (RnSE) projects to afford 9.5 GW of RnSE (Khan, 2019). If energy preservation and substitute energy measures are hindered, the global demand of fossil fuels for energy, manufacturing, desalination, and transportation is projected to increase from 3.4 to 8.3 million oil barrels per day (bbl/d) to in 2010 and 2028, respectively (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). The goal is to shape an energy platform that can encounter a significant share of this increasing demand and advance practical knowledge, expertise, and 5

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skills. The King Abdullah City for Atomic and Renewable Energy (KACARE) planned to use a stable mix of viable atomic and feasible RnSEs in a sustainable manner to produce energy and maintain the KSA’s resources of natural gas and oil for future use (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a; Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Kinninmont, 2010; Qader, 2009; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a). Thus, the KSA is known for its role as an international energy provider while guaranteeing the long-term affluence and energy security of the KSA. Electricity production in the KSA is essentially based on gas and oil capitals, and up to 240 terawatt hours (TWh) of electricity is expended. The state is expected to consume 736 TWh by 2020 (International Energy Agency, 2011; Jun, 2013; Sidawi, 2011). Almost 80% of electricity is used for air-conditioning (AC) purposes. An additional 17 million kWh is expended by water distillation industries to afford 235 L/day of drinking water per person. Moreover, the KSA has serious issues from fuel incineration, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. Emissions have grown from 252,000 to 446,000 Gg in 2000 and at present, correspondingly; the influence of gas is almost 77,000 Gg, whereas that of oil is approximately 175,000 Gg (International Energy Agency, 2011). The current CO2 emission per person has increased from 0.012 Gg to 0.016 Gg in 2000 (Al-mulali, 2012; Energy Technology Perspectives 2015, 2015; International Energy Agency, 2011; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). The KSA authorities are now concentrating on emerging RnSE resources that do not require large amounts of gas and oil reserves (Khan, 2019). The KSA has the highest rank in gross domestic product (GDP) among the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), but it produces the highest CO2 rate, indicating a reliance on gas and oil for energy production (Erroukhi et al., 2016; Kinninmont, 2010; Qader, 2009; Wogan et al., 2017). The KSA, as the chief economy in the GCC, is considerably reliant on nonrenewable energy sources, and the need for the KSA to discover a substitute energy source is persisting (Fig. 2) (Bekhet et al., 2017; Connolly et al., 2010). To reverse this situation, the KSA is strongly advised to build an RnSE system

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(Casper, 2004; Salam and Khan, 2018). The main reasons for the development of a wide-ranging energy strategy are energy security and cost reduction. Therefore, embracing a substitute energy plan in this country will contribute to job creation and can be a driving force for local RnSE (Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015; Van der Zwaan et al., 2013). The dependence on oil and its byproducts accounts for approximately 35%–45% of the GDP, 75% of the budget, and 90%–95% of KSA income (Rodney et al., 2012). Considering the sustainability growth method, vending the oil at a price replicating its increasing scarcity and value indicates a setting price that may obtain its destined production level in the future. However, this approach would mean additional talks with other producers of oil, in particular the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), on the approved capacity in barrel terms to be made. Vicissitudes would be established with respect to price. Hence, the KSA’s oil production has reduced from 17% in 1980 to 10.4% at present. Furthermore, the current price trend and long-term tendency for oil prices has gone down due to increased global production, great competences in novel technologies, and tactic conservation.

Fig. 2: Full depiction sign of the power system (Connolly et al., 2010) 7

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With these factors, the KSA was motivated to create a solid sustainable economic development in the upcoming decades (Table 1). For instance, RnSE is their priority in the development plan, aiming to set up 9500 MW of RnSE projects by 2023 (Khan, 2019). Moreover, the KSA, like other countries worldwide relying on RnSE resources, must critically inspect the oil production relative to sustainability and overall cost. A substitution of technology or other sources could be considered for resilient properties in the future. However, varying revenue resources have led RnSE to become one of the topmost priorities in the progressive SV2030 development. This study reviews the demand, growth, source, and effect of non-RnSE (NRnSE) in the KSA. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive insight into the potential applications of RnSE technologies for developing a sound energy policy that attains energy security and energy cost reduction. This goal ensures beneficial economic returns, contributions, and efficiency of RnSE applications toward the long-term prosperity and energy reservation of the KSA in modern industries today. Table 1: Major projects to be constructed as a part of SV2030 Location

Year of Notice

Total Area (km²)

Cost, Billion USD

Expected Date of completation

Taif

2017

1250

3

2020

Diriyah Al-Qiddiya, southwest of Riyadh

2017

1.5

-

2030

2017

334

2.7

2022

Al-Faisaliah project

West of Makkah

2017

2,450

-

2020

Downtown Jeddah

Jeddah Northwest of Saudi Arabia

2017

5.2

4.8

2022

(Salman and Riyadh, 2019) (Parliament and Arabia, 2019) (Lawati, 2019)

2017

26,500

500

2025

(Hadfield, 2017)

Multiple Locations

2018

-

200

2030

(Reuters, 2018)

Along the Red Sea Between Dammam and Al-Ahsa Al-`Ula

2018

3,800

-

2020

2018

50

1.6

2021

(Hadfield, 2017) (Salman and Riyadh, 2019)

2019

22500

-

2030

Riyadh

2019

+149

23

-

Mecca

2017

250,000

21.3

2018

Mall of Saudi

Riyadh

2017

8666,000

3.2

2020

New Jeddah Downtown – Phase 1

Jeddah

Project Name New Taif Project Diriyah Gate Project Al-Qiddiya Project

NEOM The Renewable Energy Project Amaala Project King Salman Energy Park Al-Ula Vision King Salman Park, Sports Boulevard, Green Riyadh Great Mosque of Mecca

2017

-

8

2

-

Refs (Parliament and Arabia, 2019)

(Salman and Riyadh, 2019) (Rahman and Khondaker, 2012) (Salman and Riyadh, 2019) (Salman and Riyadh, 2019)

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Energy demand and growth

In the KSA, significant alterations were well known in the total main energy consumption between 2007 and 2018 (Fig. 3) (British Petroleum Company, 2017; Production et al., 2019). Moreover, all GCC countries follow the same tendency, but levels are altered as a result of numerous factors, such as economic growth, suburbanization, and population. The manufacturing sectors account for majority of the energy consumption in the GCC, signifying 50% of the total demand. The transportation sector ranks second, accounting for approximately 32% of the total demand, followed by 5% in the commercial sector, 10% in the residential sector, and 2% in other sectors (International Renewable Energy Agency, 2013). For energy consumption, the residential sector ranks the highest in demand in the KSA (Demirbas et al., 2017). Between 2002 and 2018 (Production et al., 2019), electricity consumption in the KSA exhibited an average of 193,472,186 MWh, with an average yearly growth rate of 6%–7%. This rate is mostly by the residential sector, accounting for nearly 44% of the total consumption (Demirbas et al., 2017). With reference to predictions delivered by the Saudi ministry of economy and planning (Sidawi, 2011), almost 2.2 million affordable apartments, housings, and villas will be affected along the period between 2010 and 2025. Furthermore, with the international alarm over ecological and energy problems, unawareness of competent building design themes and the lack of time-of-use voltage rates contribute to around 80% of energy being utilized for cooling (Alnaser and Flanagan, 2007). Subsequently, electricity scarcities are severe throughout the summer season, when utilization is at its maximum. Nevertheless, it is predicted that a decrease of 40% is likely in Saudi domestic electricity consumption from energy-saving application and preservation (Matar, 2017; Matar et al., 2016; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018). Desalinated water has also expended approximately 5% of the total energy in the KSA (Ouda et al., 2018).

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Fig. 3: Total of KSA electricity consumption between 2005 and 2018 by MWh (Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Wogan et al., 2019)

Furthermore, the Saudi authority has set a huge investment (a capital of $384 billion) to diverse the resources of energy, aiming to meet the demands of power to all sectors at the whole regions all over the country, with a capacity of more than 123 GW by 2032, with about 52 GW, 46 GW, 5 GW, 2 GW, to be produced by PV, nuclear energy, CSP, and wind, respectively. In addition to the other clean resources of RnSE such as combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), gas turbine cogen (GTC), steam, steam cogen and open cycle GT, to be installed in the period between 2015 and 2032 (Fig. 4) (Walid et al., 2015).

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Fig. 4: The RnSE technology parts in the entire electricity production (TWh) 2015-2032 (Walid et al., 2015)

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2.1

Electricity consumption in the KSA

The KSA’s population has increased to 27 million from 1960 (4 million) to 2016 (31 million) (Key World Energy Statistics 2016, 2016; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). The KSA is deemed as the chief electricity consumer and producer in the GCC, with a total of 345 TWh gross manufactures in 2016. Approximately 59% (205 TWh) of total output was from gas and nearly 41% (140 TWh) was from oil (Erroukhi et al., 2016). The KSA expends around 1/4 of its oil supply, and energy claim is predicted to upsurge considerably, with a consumption rate of approximately 9500 kWh/year per person amid heavy subsidies (Khan et al., 2017). Production volume is more than 60 gigawatt electrical (GWe) (Buckley and Shah, 2018). However, the electricity authority declared that about 8.6 million subscribers consume 297 thousand GWh in 2016 (Authority, 2017; Demirbas et al., 2017). The peaks of demand to electricity are predicted to be 120 and 70 GWe by 2032 and 2020, respectively, with an increasing rate of approximately 8–10% yearly, which is driven partially by an upsurge in water desalination (Salam and Khan, 2018). However, KACARE reported that the yearly upsurge in national demand for power varies currently between 5% and 10% (Fig. 5) (National and Energy, 2017). Prediction signposts show that the KSA plans to upsurge its production of power to 80 GWe by 2025 (Ouda et al., 2016). Electricity consumption in the KSA increased abruptly during 1990–2010 thanks to hasty commercial growth (Qader, 2009) (Table 2). The peak loads attained almost 24 GW in 2001, which was at least 25 times more than that in 1975; it is predicted to produce 75 GW by 2023 (Wogan et al., 2019). The trade required to attain this claim may surpass 337.5 billion Saudi riyal (SAR). Therefore, energy preservation strategies must be developed for sustainable growth (U.S. Energy Information Agency, 2013). Generation rates of electricity are 8%, 40%, and 52% from steam, natural gas, and oil, respectively (EIA, 2017a). The KSA administration has contracted the production of a $300 million facility to shift waste into energy (Ouda et al., 2018, 2016). The

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facility has processed around 180 tons of waste to distill water and generate electricity with volumes of approximately 950 m3 and 6 MW per day, respectively (Jones et al., 2019). The KSA has several strategies for connecting to 24 and 50 GWe of sustainable electricity aptitude by 2020 and 2040, respectively. Approximately 50 GWe in 2040 is expected to encompass 16 GWe solar photovoltaic (PV), 25 GWe concentrated solar power (CSP), and 4 GWe waste and geothermal power (generating up to 190 TWh, up to 30% of energy), supplementing 18 GWe nuclear energy (generating 131 TWh/year, 20% of energy), and complemented by 60.5 GWe of hydrocarbon for half the year (Ouda, 2015; Ouda et al., 2018; U.S. Energy Information, 2015; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016; U.S. Energy Information Agency, 2013). From 2016 onward, RnSE objectives climbed back from 50% to 10% of electricity consumption by 2040, as tactics transferred mainly to gas, aiming to increase its share by 20%, that is, from 50% to 70% (COMPANY, 2013). In general, the Saudi government planned to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels in generating electricity by shifting to clean resources with a reasonable price, particularly for domestic use. Other 4%

Industrial 18%

residential 49% governmental 13%

commercial 16%

Fig. 5: Electricity consumption by sectors in 2016 (Authority, 2017; Demirbas et al., 2017)

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Table 2: Production and consumption of electricity in KSA (Matar et al., 2016; Qader, 2009; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016)

Year

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018

2.2

Peak load

300 9,424 12,173 17,706 21,673 21,673 41,229 60,785 80,341

Total generating capacity (MW) 7,038 16,762 20,214 21,910 25,995 33,386 37,913 42,440 46,967

Generated (billion kWh)

18,909 44,502 64,899 93,898 126,191 176,123 217,081 258,039 298,997

Actual generation capacity (MW) 5,913 13,939 16,459 17,494 22,060 32,301 44,582 56,863 69,144

Power sold billion Kwh

Residential

Industrial use

10,611 28,733 42,305 64,520 86,504 119,483 158,818 198,153 237,488

6,841 11,586 16,667 21,388 27,657 33,800 34,654 35,508 36,362

Customers (Thousands)

Total

Average consumption for every customer, kWh/year

872 1,761.80 2,366.90 2,926.30 3,622 4,727.30 5,701.50 6,676 7,650

17,452 40,319 58,972 85,908 114,161 153,283 193,472 233,661 273,850

20,014 22,885 24,915 29,357 31,819 32,425 33,934 35,443 36,952

Saudi water desalination

In the KSA, the saline water conversion corporation produced approximately 5.1 million m3/day of distilled water volume in 2017, which is targeted to increase to 7.3 million m3/day by 2020 (Ouda, 2013). Connecting desalination plants with energy generation decreased energy requirements for distillation by 50% (Jones et al., 2019). Hence, hybrid plants are preferred as autonomous water and power production amenities. The KSA endures to build up a huge distillation capacity as a multiple-effect distillation and thermal multistage flash distillation, which is mainly invert osmosis (IO) operated by electricity (AlZahrani and Baig, 2011; Khawaji et al., 2008). For example, the Shoaiba and Yanbu plants produce 1.5 million m3/day amplitude (Lujan and Missimer, 2014). Meanwhile, the Ras Al Khair supplies more than 1 million m3/day, whereas the Jubail was expanded to generate higher than 2 million m3/day (Ouda, 2015). The chief of the three stages of the King Abdullah Initiative for Solar Water Desalination started operating by early 2014 (Shahzad et al., 2016). Stage I includes building two solar plants, generating 10 MW of energy for a 30,000 m3/day IO distillation plant at Al-Khafji. Stage II involves assembling a 60,000 m3/day 14

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IO distillation plant until 2018, producing 15 MWe of polycrystalline PV (Mayankutty et al., 1989). Stage III aims to achieve the initiative of solar water all over the KSA, with the ultimate goal of having the state’s distillation plants driven by solar power by 2020 (Shahzad et al., 2016). Furthermore, King Abdullah City for Science and Technology (KACST) (Al-Hallaj et al., 2006) seeks to desalt seawater at a charge of not more than US $0.40/m³ in comparison with the present charge of thermal distillation, which KACST confirmed is in the limit between US $0.53/m³ and US $1.47/m³. Distillation by IO is in the range of US $0.67–1.47/m3 for a distillation plant generating 30,000 m3/day. In general, the KSA plans to increase the use of RnSE in water desalination all over the country due to its cleanliness and affordability as a power source. 3

Potential and efficiency of RnSE in the KSA

Considering the global struggle with the current and progressively persistent need for power diversification, the KSA has the physical potential to seize huge opportunities in the RnSE sector. Although world growth has been comparatively diffident thus far, notwithstanding the decreasing production costs of RnSE, the KSA has the status that empowers it to protect a pivotal condition in future power markets. The potential of the KSA to produce solar power is significant (Alnatheer, 2006), which lies in the ”Global Sunbelt” (Fig. 6), a topographical area located between 35°N and 35°S and commonly categorized by great solar radioactivity (AT Kearney et al., 2010). Its solar irradiances are amongst the uppermost technology worldwide (Doukas et al., 2013), with a yearly average of daily universal horizontal irradiance determined at 5700–6700 Wh/m2 (Zell et al., 2015). A surface area greater than 59% of the GCC has considerable possibility for solar PV arrangement (Mani and Pillai, 2010; Monto and Rohit, 2010). Emerging only 1% of this region can possibly result in 470 GW of solar PV capability for the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (Erroukhi et al., 2016; IRENA, 2015). Ecological and economic influences that support RnSEs are seen across the GCC. In line with the IRENA (Birol, 2004; International Renewable Energy

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Agency, 2013; IRENA, 2015), the considerable solar reserve potential and decreasing cost of related technologies (mostly PV components) are the main features prompting the attraction of solar energy in the state (IRENA, 2015). An important solar PV element for reserving the natural atmosphere is to neutralize the misuse of its resources to meet the necessities of life for upcoming generations and attain economic growth (Khan et al., 2017; “Wind and solar power systems: design, analysis, and operation,” 2013)(International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). The KSA focused on efforts to discover alternate energy bases, aiming to work in parallel with the SV2030 in electricity production using RnSE sources (Khan, 2019). Furthermore, the National Renewable Energy Program with the SV2030 and the National Transformation Program (Alnatheer, 2006; Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi Vision 2030, 2016) launched its targets to upsurge the RnSE shares sustainably to up to 3.45 and 9.5 GW by 2020 and 2023, with almost 4% and 10% of the KSA’s total energy generation, respectively (Khan, 2019). This investment is predicted to reach SAR 59 billion (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Moreover, obtaining technology for transforming solar energy to electrical energy can be effectively attained by direct transformation via PV cells (Fig. 7). Therefore, we can conclude that the KSA is geologically appropriate, as it is placed in the so-called Sunbelt with potential to develop into one of the biggest solar power manufacturers.

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Fig. 6: Solar PV opportunity mapping of global Sunbelt countries (Alnatheer, 2006; AT Kearney et al., 2010)

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Fig. 7: Solar energy transmitted into power alteration technologies

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Non-renewable and sustainable energy

Saudi Electricity Company (SEC) is presently becoming the major supplier of electricity in the KSA, with a total obtainable production capacity of approximately 74.3 GW (Company, 2014). The KSA intends to upsurge the electricity production capacity to 120 GW by 2032 in response to the rapidly growing demand for electricity in the state, with more than 95% generated from NRnSE sources (Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA generated 330.5 billion kWh of electricity in 2016, approximately 7% greater than that in 2015 (British Petroleum Company, 2017). The KSA faces an abruptly increasing demand for energy, motivated by the increasing population, rapidly extending industrial division contributed by the growth of petrochemical towns, great demand for AC during summer months, and strongly supported electricity prices (Helen, 2012; Rodney et al., 2012; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014b). Almost the entire current production capacity of electricity is powered by solar (0.1%), natural gas (59.6%), and oil (40.3%) sources (Fig. 8), but the KSA aims to expand fuel utilization for production, partly to liberalize oil for exporting (IHS MARKIt, 2016). In 2007, the Saudi government announced a scaled-down plan to build up nuclear power capacity, with a project named Saudi National Project for Atomic Energy, with a smalland large-scale capacity of approximately 1.2–1.6 GW in locations that are outside the domestic grid (National and Energy, 2017).

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Saudi electric power supply, %

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Natural gas, 59.6

70 60 50

Oil, 40.3

40 30 20 10

Solar , 0.1

0 Oil

Natural gas

Solar

Type of fuel

Fig. 8: Current Saudi electric power supplied by fuel (Anonymous, 2017; IHS MARKIt, 2016)

4.1

Effect

All energy sources have several effects to the ecological system. Fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas can cause substantial damage, such as water and air pollution; harm to public health; locale, human and wildlife loss; land and water use; and CO2 emissions. In 2003, statistics showed that the world’s yearly population increased to approximately 35 billion tons of inorganic resources, with a charge of around US $895.92 billion (Salam and Khan, 2018). Singularly, the KSA intended to improve energy consumption. A 4% upgrade in energy competence per year can cost between almost SAR 50 billion and 100 billion per year in further income to the Saudi government by 2030 (Al-mulali, 2012). 4.1.1

CO2 emissions

In 2009, the KSA was categorized as the 15th top emitter of CO2 per person worldwide, with a value of approximately 18.56 tons per person (Le Quéré et al., 2013). The Saudi government, with a full fund sponsored by Aramco, is now operating for a project of the inoculation of CO2 amount of 40 million cubic meters/day (MCM/day) in the Ghawar area, which is the largest amount in 2012 worldwide (Shamseddine, 2019). The technological means of the project has been industrialized in collaboration with associates from advanced countries, universal companies, and governments. At the end of 2010, the project of pipelines in

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the state were listed as a clean development device assignment, and it comprises the Medina project for landfill gas, implemented by the Swiss company Vitol (Williams et al., 2012). Currently, a new landfill is available for accommodating 900 tons of civic waste. By 2025, the shutdown of outdated landfill locations and the upgrade of good practices for management waste are predicted to transform technology and decrease greenhouse gas emissions (Bououdina and Davim, 2014). The CO2 avoidance costs are obtained from the decrease in CO2 emissions by adopting RnSEs-based technologies rather than fossil fuel-based technologies (Alkhathlan and Javid, 2015; Hosenuzzaman et al., 2015; Olivier et al., 2016; Panwar et al., 2011). Nowadays, the CO2 avoidance costs for energy production from geothermal, wind, biomass, and thermal energies plants are between US $44.81/t CO2 and $89.61/t CO2 (Fig. 9), whereas the evasion costs for PV systems in Middle Europe remain slightly small, with values between US $895.92/t CO2 and $1120/t CO2 (Al-Maamary et al., 2016). Therefore, the utilization of RnSE sources can not only decrease CO2 emissions but also consequently condense domestic spending on electricity production. However, less values will considerably be applied in states with considerable sunshine, such as the KSA (Al-mulali, 2012; Bekhet et al., 2017). In Northern Europe, a substantial possibility for decreasing avoidance costs exists due to mass production and the use of less expensive materials. The CO2 avoidance costs for biomass use are extremely reliant on the increase in warming fuel (biomass and fossil) (Sgouridis et al., 2016; Stambouli et al., 2012). Heating production in a lumber heating industry previously caused adverse CO2 avoidance costs for lumber chip bills from remaining lumber of around 1 Connecticut/(kWh). Furthermore, the Saudi government participates in developing a technologic means that can contribute in its energy divergence policy to assist in reducing considerable CO2 emissions with a right to share in the executive procedure (Wogan et al., 2019).

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Metric tons per capita

30 25 20 15 10 5

20 19 20 15 20 13 20 12 20 11 20 10 20 05 20 00 19 95 19 90 19 85 19 80 19 75 19 70 19 65 19 60

0 Year of CO2 emissions

Fig. 9: CO2 emissions in the KSA (Alkhathlan and Javid, 2015)

4.1.2

Volume and cost of consumption

The KSA’s consumption from the production of domestic oil has progressively increased, and it currently uses approximately 1/4 of its oil production, that is, around 3 mbbl/d (U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a). In 2012, the KSA sold a petrol at a low price compared with bottled water, that is, nearly SAR 1.88 per gallon (Key World Energy Statistics 2016, 2016). The KSA currently consumes a higher amount of oil than Germany, as an industrial state with a tripartite population and a budget that is approximately 500% greater (Ouda et al., 2016; U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a). A statement by Citigroup’s analyst (Matar et al., 2016) to Saudi government sponsorships indicated that the loss of oil and natural gas revenues of the KSA in 2011 is more than $80 billion at most. At the domestic level, the loss of fossil fuels relied on the ways to justify energy consumption that would reduce funding levels (Bilgen, 2014). Moreover, the KSA mainly depends on crude oil and fossil fuels, for example, petrol products, including natural gas, for domestic consumption (Fig. 10) (Al-Maamary et al., 2017; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). The KSA’s direct crude oil reached a maximum record in the summer of 2015, that is, around 0.9 mbbl/d compared with the identical period of 2018, which was 41% lesser at 0.5 21

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mbbl/d. Apart from a 20% increase in wealth spending, a separate set of directed measures maintained

KSA

300

UAE

Qatar

Kuwait

250 200 150 100 50

19 20

18 20

16 20

15 20

14 20

13 20

12 20

11 20

20

20

10

0 09

Energy consumpt. in million tones oil

certain rate of progress in domestic consumption (Fahd M. A;turki, Asad Khan, 2015).

Year of consumption

Fig. 10: Energy consumption by the KSA and other GCC countries

5

Renewable energy sources in the KSA

SEC planned to decrease the burning of crude for electricity supply by switching to natural gas, thereby targeting to build up RnSE sources for electric energy supply. KACARE had also raised calls for extra wind, nuclear, and solar powers with capacities of 9, 17.6, and 41 GW, respectively, by 2040 (Panwar et al., 2011; Salam and Khan, 2018) (Table 3). These objectives are aspiring for the slow growth of presently intended nuclear and RnSE projects. RnSE is a power resulting from bases that can be continually renewed by nature, such as solar, wind, water, geothermal energy, and biomass (Kazem and Chaichan, 2012). RnSE can be a substitute of relic fuels, for instance coal, natural gas, and oil. RnSE is a sustainable and natural source and a green, clean, and ecofriendly energy because its generation does not result in ecological pollution. The KSA has set diverse RnSE sources, particularly wind and solar energies. Fig. 11 illustrates a smart grid planning perspective of RnSE (Avancini et al., 2019). Fig. 5 is also included in circulated supply sources, such as fossil fuel, wind, and solar energies, and other RnSE resources. Masses include electric 22

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automobiles, smart households, intelligent homes, and a data center, which are accountable for handling the entire arrangement. Table 3: RnSE resources in the KSA, in 2017 (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi Vision 2030, 2016) Technology Nuclear PV CSP Wind Geothermal Waste-to-energy

Capacity (GW) by 2040 Capacity (%) by 2040 These aims started in 2017 by 1/10 of RnSE faculties with a great demand on natural gas in total primary power mix 17.6 12.2 16 11.2 25 17.5 9 6.3 1 0.7 3 2.1

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Fig. 11: Smart grid perspective of clean RnSE (Avancini et al., 2019)

5.1

Solar energy

In 2012, at the climate change forum held in Qatar, the Saudi authority declared its plan to supply 1/3 of its demand for electricity from solar energy (Salam and Khan, 2018) in parallel with another investment in novel nuclear vessels in the next two decades (Mahdi and Roca, 2012). The KSA has ranked sixth in solar energy generation worldwide by reducing its reliance on fossil fuel-based power agencies by varying the source mix (Chu and Majumdar, 2012). RnSE is a smart selection and intelligent technology, and the state 24

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has targeted to build up 9500 MW of RnSE projects by next 5 years (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). Solar energy is one of the main RnSE resources; however, the KSA can benefit and is anticipated to be the major supplier to attain the established goal of SV2030 (Khan, 2019). The historical sequences of solar power projects in the KSA are as presented in Table 4 (Ball, 2015; Mahdi and Roca, 2012; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Öst and Paldanius, 2018). The first KSA solar energy plant was constructed on 2011 at Farasan Island, with a 500 kW static tilt PV plant, whereas more than half of electricity is supplied using crude oil (Steve Hargreaves, 2011). The US and KSA built a solar-group-for-research station in Al-Uyaynah Village to provide electrical facility, which is operated by the KACST (Ball, 2015). The technologies on the assembly line were purchased from Europe, whereas the solar cells were ordered from Taiwan; subsequently, the line capacity increased fourfold within a year (Ball, 2015). In early 2012, the authority set up a pilot assembly line at the place to produce solar panels. The capability of solar power was lower than 10 GW and estimated to be augmented to 24 GW by 2020 and then 41 GW by 2032 (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016). By the end of 2012, the KACARE project announced its aim to develop approximately 16 GW of PV energy and 25 GW of thermal energy, with a total RnSE of 24 GW by 2020 and 54 GW by 2032, but merely 0.003 GW of solar power was generated (Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015b; Tlili, 2015). By early 2013, 900 MW of concentrated thermal power (CSP) and 1,100 MW of PV were anticipated to be constructed (Mahdi and Roca, 2012). Meanwhile, solar energy in the KSA attained grid equality and could supply electricity at prices equivalent to traditional sources (Öst and Paldanius, 2018). In 2016, the KSA’s electricity production capacity was reduced by 77 GW with the replacement of the same capacity produced by clean solar energy. This capacity was consequently increased to 100 GW due to the installation of large solar power plants in 2017. In 2018, the KSA and Softbank declared a 12-year strategic plan to set up 200 GW of solar energy, which is expected to be finished by 2032 (Fig. 12) (Said, 2019). At that time, one of the largest solar projects with a 3.5 MW capacity was installed at Al-Khafji (Fig. 13) (Reuters, 2018).

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Recently, Bahah and Hail have the minimum and maximum rates in terms of solar power use with 0.59% and 2.80%, respectively. In general, the Saudi government plans to reduce the reliance on fossil fuels for generating power and substitute them with clean, cost-effective, and RnSE sources.

Percentage of increaments, %

Solar PV

Wind

CSP

120 100

58.7

80 60

27.3

40

7 20

9.5 2.4 5.9

20

16

0 initial

revised

5-Year Target

2030 Target

12-Year Target

Fig. 12: The 12-year strategic plan on solar energy in the KSA (Reuters, 2018)

Table 4: Historical sequences of solar power projects in the KSA (Ball, 2015; Mahdi and Roca, 2012; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Öst and Paldanius, 2018) Duration 1981-87 1981-87

Project PV system Solar Cooling solar hydrogen

Capacity 350 kW (2155 MWh) -

1987-90 1986-94 1987-93

PV test system Solar thermal dishes PV hydrogen production plant

3 kW 2 × 50 kW 350 kW (1.6 MWh)

1989-93

solar hydrogen generator

1 kW (20-30 kWh)

1988-93 1990

Solar dryers Long-term performance of PV

3kW)

1986-91

2 kW (50 kWh)

26

Application DC/AC electricity for isolated zone Emerging of solar freezing workroom Testing dissimilar electrode materials solar hydrogen farms Demo of weather changes Innovative solar sterling engine Demo plant for solar hydrogen fabrication Hydrogen production, testing and assessment workshop scale Food dryers (dates, vegetables) Performance evaluation

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1993-95 1994-95 1994-95 1995-96 1994-96 1996 1996 1996-97 2012 2013 2016 2017 2018 2020 2023 2030 2032

Fuel cell development Internal combustion engine (ICE) Wind energy measurement Solar radiation measurement Geothermal power assessment PV water desalination PV in agriculture PV system PV system PV solar power PV solar power Solar PV capacity.

100-1000 W 0.6 m3/h 4 kWp 4 kW 6 kW 10 GW 1,100 MW 1,800 MW

Hydrogen operation Hydrogen

Solar power PV system PV solar energy Smart solar energy, PV test system PV solar energy

3,200 MW 200 GW til 2030 24 GW 9500 MW 58.7GW 41 – 54 GW

Saudi solar atlas Foundation of accurate data PV/RO interface DC/AC grid connected DC/AC electricity isolated zones Grid connection PV/RO interface Concentrated thermal power (CSP) Power Converter, Transformers, and Fiber-optic Cables DC/AC electricity isolated zones Grid connection PV/RO interface Intelligent technologies Grid connection DC/AC electricity for isolated zone

Fig. 13: Largest solar energy project with a 3.5 MW capacity at Al-Khafji, KSA (Reuters, 2018)

5.2

Wind energy

The weather fluctuations at the atmosphere are motivated by changing temperatures on the Earth surface under sunshine. Wind power is utilized to drive water or produce electricity, but it needs a wide-ranging areal network to supply considerable volumes of power (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011; Erroukhi et al., 2016; Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015; Ramli et al., 2017). In 2017, the Renewable Energy Project Development

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Office (REPDO) of the Saudi Ministry of Energy funded the Dumat Al Jandal Project with $500 million for generating wind power (Intelligence and Service, 2019; Malik et al., 2019). Avantha Group Company and CG Holdings Belgium NV Systems signed a contract for installing wind technologies to supply 400 MW energy to KSA farms (Energy, 2019), as the parameters of wind speed for 20 climatological stations along the KSA’s regions (Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011; Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi et al., 2016; Khawaji et al., 2008) (Table 5). This project is considered the first large-scale onshore wind plant and it is the largest up to now in the ME. Another project was expected to generate an average yearly wind power of almost 1.4 TWh with a contract priced at approximately €12.5 million (Energy, 2019; Khan, 2019). This project was comprised of large-voltage mini-stations that will bond the Dumat Al Jandal wind plant to the KSA electricity conduction network. EDF Renewables and Masdar has accepted the accountability of installing wind plants at the Al Jouf region, which is approximately 560 mi from the capital of Riyadh, as a SEC supplementary, to supply energy to the Saudi Power Procurement Company at 21.3 US$/MWh. The equivalent price for the wind energy plan is predicted at 16 GW capacity by 2030 (Malik et al., 2019). In 2019, the REPDO was awarded an additional wind energy capacity of 850 MW, which is predicted to be completed in 2021–2022 (Birol, 2004; Khan, 2019). However, the SV2030 plans to become the ME’s largest wind energy marketplace in the upcoming five decades because of the natural potential for wind energy at the KSA based on the results of previous field studies (Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015; Tlili, 2015). Table 5: Parameters of wind speed for 20 climatological stations in KSA (Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi et al., 2016)

Station

Wind speed (m/s)

Max Abha 14.9 Al-Wejh 11.8

Mean 2.94 4.43

Mean Pressure (mb) 794 1,007.90

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Al-Jouf 15.9 Bisha 10.3 Arar 12.9 Dhahran 11.8 Gassim 9.3 Gizan 16.5 Guriat 7.7 Hail 10.8 Jeddah 11.3 Khamis 12.9 Nejran 8.8 Qaisumah 11.8 Rafha 12.4 Riyadh 8.8 Tabouk 15.5 Taif 10.3 Turaif 10.3 Yanbu 14.4 5.3

4.02 2.47 3.61 4.38 2.78 4.22 3.24 3.24 3.71 3.14 2.1 3.55 3.86 3.09 2.73 3.66 3.76 4.33

936.1 884 949.6 1,006.70 937.6 954.8 1,007.70 901.3 1,007.30 797.9 879.4 969.5 960.3 942.4 926 855.4 1,007.80 916.9

Water energy

This form of energy source uses the gravitational capability of water that was elevated from the oceans or seas due to sunlight. The KSA is one of the main distillation markets worldwide generating approximately 4 MCM/days of desalted water (Al-Zahrani and Baig, 2011; Erftemeijer and Shuail, 2012; Erroukhi et al., 2016; Khawaji et al., 2008). The KSA has more than 28 distillation plants that are active to achieve the distillation supply capacity of approximately 8.5 MCM/day by 2025, which accounts for 18% of the total global production (Hepbasli and Alsuhaibani, 2011). The KSA still plans to pair distillation volume within 10 years because the water consumption in the country is at seriously high levels (Rambo et al., 2017). However, the consumption of distilled water is increasing at approximately 14% per year, that is, 200% of the total national water consumption and 600% of the increase rate in population. The regular per person consumption of water rate is approximated at 15–20 L for countryside zones and 100–350 L per day for city zones (News, 2014). This result exhibited that the KSA is the topmost water user among the GCC countries. The statistic shows that nearly 3/4 of water consumption in the KSA is due to cultivation, which accounts for approximately 1/4 of the water used locally. The residual volume is shared between grazing 29

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and industrial purposes (Taleb and Sharples, 2011). The high charges and water energy consumption relative to distillation process have affected the KSA’s distillation aptitude; hence, water security is strictly connected to the steadiness of its oil production (Kajenthira Grindle et al., 2015). Therefore, the main problem is that distillation is relatively expensive and unmaintainable in its present procedure in the long term. Distillation accounts for up to 20% of the water energy consumption in the KSA (Kajenthira Grindle et al., 2015; News, 2014; Ouda et al., 2016). The low water prices paid by the end users in the state are equal to 1/10 at most of the real generation charge in the government sector (Lujan and Missimer, 2014). Further, hydroelectricity is also deemed to be recognized as one of the universal’s largest resources of RnSE, where power is produced from gravity energy thanks to the fall of water from variable levels to accomplish the RnSE turbines (General Authority of Statistics, 2017). In many locations of projects along the regions of the Kingdom, in particular, Ras Al khair (Fig. 14) is reported that the sum hydroelectricity supplied from the plants of water distillation has attained greater than 45 Million MW/H in 2017, in comparison to 23 Million MW/H in 2012. The overall demands for crude oil for water energy in distilled water production and its transportation to the users are approximately 3.4 and 8.33.4 mbbl/day in 2010 and 2028, respectively (Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA consumes 200% as much water as the UK at 300 L/day. Hence, the total investment is expected to surpass US $50 billion by 2020, moving forward to water energy generation and its related services (General Authority of Statistics, 2017; “Indicators of Renewable Energy Statistics in Saudi Arabia 2016,” 2016). In general, KSA has varied RnSE resources specially wind energy.

30

25000000

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000

ir lk ha A

iq lsh A

Ra s

uq a

bu an Y

’ib ah

A

lsh

ua

Je dd ah

ji A lk ha f

ar ho b K

ba i

l

0 Ju

Hydroelectricity generated from desalination plants, MW/H

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Loaction of projects

Fig. 14: Hydroelectricity produced from the plants of distillation of water at KSA (General Authority of Statistics, 2017)

5.4

Geothermal energy

The remaining energy in the planet increased by temperature from radioactivity declines gradually on a daily basis (Stambouli et al., 2012). In several zones, the geothermal gradient that generally upsurges in heat with depth is sufficient to produce electricity. This type of energy can reduce the energy requirement for preserving convenient temperatures in houses (Bull, 2001). Geothermal energy is a potential energy source (Demirbas, 2009). Geothermal power is possibly used in numerous practices, such as electricity production, direct use, swimming, showering, space warming, fish farming (6%), heat devices (35%), balneology (42%), greenhouse warming (9%), and engineering usage (6%) (Demirbas, 2008). Geothermal energy becomes significant for electrical energy sources in the future generation (Bull, 2001; International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). The KSA possesses rich resources of geothermal energy, but no plant has been constructed and installed for geothermal energy production to date (Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015). Wadi Al-Lith area (Ain Al-Harrah) covers one of the greatest guaranteed geothermal structures in the KSA, that is, a site close to the shore of the Red Sea that is influenced by its tectonic 31

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movement and physical systems (Hussein et al., 2013). In the Ain Al-Harrah area, a geothermal energy capacity of 26.99 MWt is projected, which is significant and suitable for commercial investment technology. Meanwhile, direct applications existed 5 years ago, which is attributable to the size and possible considerable enthalpy outbursts of the Harrats; hence, it is deemed a chance for emerging geothermal energy (Rehman S, 2010). These geological developments may be suitable for allocating geothermal technologies between 150 °C and 300 °C. The probability remains unclear due to the shortage of deep drilling. Thus, the steam turbines for condensation to generate binary-type energy can be utilized to transform geothermal temperature to energy (Hussein et al., 2013). Overall, several areas in the KSA, such as Jizan, Arar, Al Lith, and Tabuk (Fig. 15), based on recent studies, have temperatures between 150 °C and 300 °C; thus, these locations are sufficient for the insulation of geothermal energy plants (Table 6).

Fig. 15: Recent geothermal activity at the A) Jizan area and B) swimming pool at the Bani Malik area (Hussein et al., 2013)

Table 6: Regional distribution of geothermal energy sources (Hussein et al., 2013; Rehman S, 2010) Region

Location

Temperature range (°C)

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Harrat Arar Al-Lith Riyadh Jizan Medina Tabuk Hail

5.5

Western Northern Western Central South Western Western Northern

175–200 46–50 40–79 34–70 31–76 31–41 26–28 25–29

Biomass energy

Biomass is the terminology for power produced from plants. Biomass energy is a form of power that is regularly utilized globally (Bull, 2001; Demirbas, 2009; International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014; Kazem and Chaichan, 2012; Ong et al., 2011; Panwar et al., 2011). Unfortunately, the excessive in burning trees for warmth and cooking led to increase the smog and air pollution. This method emits abundant volumes of CO2 into the air and is a main contributor to harmful atmosphere in numerous regions worldwide. Approximately 16% of the world’s ultimate power consumption originates from RnSE, with 10% produced from conventional biomass (Hussein et al., 2013). The recent types of biomass power are alcohol generation and methane production for vehicle fuel and powering electric energy plants (Demirbas, 2009). The KSA has remarkable waste-to-energy (WtE) prospective as a result of obtaining considerable wastes, such as municipal (24%), wood (64%), landfill gas (5%), and farming (5%) wastes (Demirbaş, 2001; Ouda et al., 2016; Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2015). Almost 38% of the power expended is obtained from bioenergy/biomass, which accounts for approximately 13% of the global power. Considering the energy supply charges, considerable concern has presently been taken on alternate bioenergy resources in the industrialized countries. However, the conventional biomass consumption in the KSA was described at 0.00848% in 2012 (The World Bank, 2015). The KSA government set their SV2030 objectives to promote sustainable generation and utilization of energy for achieving high revenue and a clean power source. 6

Trends of energy consumption in the KSA

Since the 1970s, several stages have been commenced in the RnSE sector, but it has not been necessarily invested (Table 7) (Al-Saleh et al., 2008). The consumption level showed a stable and rapidly increasing 33

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outline at a regular level of 5.5%/year for 28 years, and the level was triplicated within 10 years from 1990 (Al-mulali, 2012; Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). In 2010, the KSA consumed energy with a volume of approximately 6.7 tons per person, that is, assessed 3.6% higher than the world’s consumption rate of 1.9 tons per person (Rambo et al., 2017). The majority of energy was consumed by engineering sectors at approximately 24% and 19% in 2010 and 1990 of the overall consumed energy, respectively, and approximately 19% and 27% for the petrochemical and power sectors, respectively (Demirbas et al., 2017; Production et al., 2019; Salam and Khan, 2018; Stambouli et al., 2012; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). For average electricity, the KSA consumed nearly 8,300 kWh/person versus 2,700 kWh/person, thereby indicating the average global consumption in 2010 (The World Bank, 2015). These results showed that the energy consumption in 1990 and 2010 increased from 13 % to 17%, indicating that the electricity consumption has been increasing rapidly by 6.2%/year for almost three decades (Al-mulali, 2012; Le Quéré et al., 2013). This growth was due to the use in the service and residential sectors with nearly 73% and 82% of the overall consumption of electricity in 1990 and 2010, respectively (Fig. 16) (Asif, 2016; Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Saeed, 1989; Salam and Khan, 2018; The World Bank, 2015; Us et al., 2019). The local consumption trends have been urged by the commercial sector to gain high oilassociated incomes up to mid-2014 (Al-Maamary et al., 2017, 2016). However, the Saudi government have paid a huge cost of petrol subsidies of approximately $61 billion in 2015, which have contributed to the growing demand of approximately 7% yearly for the last decades (Coady et al., 2010). In 2016, the KSA was listed as the first consumer of petroleum in ME, mainly in the area of direct unpolished oil burning for energy production and transporting fuels, with an increase in a part of petrol demand accounting for the direct oil burning for electric energy supply and reached as much as 900,000 bbl/d during summer months (Demirbas, 2009; Hadfield, 2017; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). In 2018, the KSA was ranked as the world’s 10th biggest consumer of energy at 266.5 million tons of oil equaling to almost 63%

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and 37% of petroleum liquid- and oil-based products and natural gas, respectively (Olivier et al., 2016; Salam and Khan, 2018).

Petroleum liquids and crude oil banks remain abundant, but they are still

searching for diversity mixes of energy sources, such as RnSE. On the basis of the SV2030, the KSA has set its energy urgencies into of the utilization of solar power for electricity supply, aiming to exceed Germany’s level. As a response for this demand, the Saudi Ministry of Energy has invested in the solar power sector with a fund of approximately $200 billion (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011). The country plans to generate approximately 200 GW of electricity from solar PV power by 2030 (Khan, 2019; Said, 2019). Overall, the KSA has enormous banks of oil and other abundant resources of power, counting biomass, and wind energies. The measures of solar PV energy are engaged in the KSA in a long time (Table 7).

Energy consumption by sector

End-energy usage and losses in buildings 35

20

Energy consumption, %

15 10 5 0

30 25 20 15 10 5

D

The end-energy usage and losses in buildings

by sector wise

Fig. 16: Energy consumption trends in the KSA (Matar et al., 2014; Tlili, 2015)

35

s

l O

th

er

se

ct

or

ci a

m er

tio n

Co

m

rta

es Tr

as

po

tri

l

us

tia en

In d

Type of sector

em oe

Type of uses

id

sti M c ho L isc t w igh tin el a la nc ter h g eo us eati n pl ug g G lo la ad zi s ng ef Th fe er ct m al m as s Fl Ce o ili or ng /ro o Co f ol in In fil g tra tio n O th er s

0

Re s

Energy consumption, %

25

Table 7: Development trends of RnSE projects in the KSA Year of project approval 1977 1980 - 1987 1984 1993 -2000

Project title Research and development (R&D) Projects Solar power growth A solar thermal seawater distillation pilot farms Solar radiation supply

External involved agencies (Sub-contractors) USA and Germany USA -

A PV powered brackish water distillation plant 1994

1996

1100 solar flat plate for rooftop of w380 residences A 3 kw PV power system

1999

The power production of Solar Village Project (the PV modules)

1999

PV technology to control highway devices

2000

Energy research institute (ERI)

2004

Several pilot projects Solar thermal dish project (100 KW) with two thermal dishes A 350 KW solar hydrogen supply plant

2009

Water distillation project

2011

Connery founded the initial big-scale solar system-2 mw on the roof of KAUST Solar energy plant (a 500 KW fixed-tilt PV plant)

2012

Rooftop system close to 200 Kw The first pilot project by solar energy

2013

KACST Multi-locations over the KSA Yanbu Multi-locations over the KSA

(Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015) (Alawaji, 2001) (Al-Badi et al., 2011)

Sadous village, Riyadh

(Alawaji, 2001)

-

(Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015)

Riyadh, at the solar village

(Huraib et al., 2002)

Multi-locations over the KSA -

Germany Universities and research centres - Us green building council. - Princess nora university Jeddah municipality

Yanbu Plant project to produce 2650 MW of power Madinah Municipality An efficient photosynthesis system

2014

Refs.

USA Atlas

2010

Location

Madinah’s taibah university

Solar cells for two different desalination projects

KACST

36

Southern mountains of Saudi Arabia

(Alawaji, 2001)

-

(Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015) (EIA, 2017b)

Multi-locations over the KSA

(Alawaji, 2001)

KACST and IBM Thuwal Farasan Island - Riyadh, Nofa Equestrian Resort Ruwais Madinah and its surroundings villages Madinah Madinah Aramco’s Headquarters

(Al-Badi et al., 2011)

(Khan et al., 2017) (Reuters, 2018)

(Al-Sulaiman et al., 2017) (U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a)

Car Parking CPV plant The ‘dry Sweep’ a entirely automatic dirt and dust cleaning technology Solar energy system 2015 2016 2017

Effective systems for drying dates using solar power. Water-pumping and distillation using a PV generator 54 new production solar radiation data collection stations Solar based water distillation projects

2019

12 pre-developed projects with a total capacity of ~3.1 GW

- KAUST, Australian physics teacher georg eitelhuber The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah, and Guidance Ministry of Agriculture and Water

Multi-locations over the KSA

(Waggoner and Baldava, 2009)

Anywhere in KSA

(Almasoud and Gandayh, 2015a)

Multi-locations over the KSA (Alawaji, 2001)

-

Sadous village, Riyadh

Ministry of Agriculture

Multi-locations over the KSA

Universities and research centres

The Um Al-Khair plant

Saudi Vision 2030

Alfaisalia, Qurrayat and in another 10 locations in the KSA

37

(Al-Badi et al., 2011)

(Khan, 2019)

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7

Renewable energy distribution

The predicted slow reduction in relic fuel reserves in parallel with the upsurge in power charges is motivating world energy production in the direction of high RnSE resources in the next 10 years (Energy Technology Perspectives 2015, 2015). With these conditions, unexploited RnSE resources signify an enormous prospective for powering a huge share of increasing power demands in the KSA (Lund et al., 2010). The ME is not excluded; this area particularly a substantial applicability for RnSE improvement due to its terrestrial and ecological features, mainly for wind and solar energies (Shahsavari et al., 2019). Although the area owns the largest capabilities for RnSE and solar power, its RnSE remains immature, supplying merely approximately 5% of the overall energy production mix essential for ME, as 1% of the total is shared by the KSA (Energy, 2015; International Energy Agency and Agency, 2011). In 2012, it is reported that the total generated Saudi electricity energy is commonly distributed among gasoline generators, steam plants, gas turbine plants, desalination plants, combined cycle plants and other with percentage at 1%, 40%, 39%, 10%, 7% and 3%, respectively (Fig. 17) (Tlili, 2015). In 2015, the KSA and Iran have authoritatively aimed to achieve a 4% reduction in its total CO2 emissions by 2030. The climate strategy was connected to RnSE targets of 5 and 7.5 GW by 2020 and 2030, respectively (Abid et al., 2017). However, the KSA’s electricity consumption is about 256 TWh/year, which is the maximum consumption level among the GCC countries (British Petroleum, 2015). In 2032, top energy demand is predicted to increase from 55 GW to 121 GW, with a shortage of 61 GW between the demand and supply volumes (Ramli et al., 2017). However, field investigations exhibited a large potential for RnSE, in particular solar energy, to cover this shortage (Sven Teske, 2017). The strategy was anticipated to maintain the SV2030 plan by achieving 10% of RnSE production, greatly emphasizing on the use of natural gas (Khan, 2019). The other plan comprises strategy of producing a 9500 MW capacity of RnSE by 2023 (Lude et al., 2015). Accordingly, the KSA agreed a divergence strategy with the aim of upsurging the part of

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RnSE production to 15%, concentrating primarily on wind and solar technologies, by 2030 (Sgouridis et al., 2016). With the dependence on hydrocarbon resources for power generation, the state has prepared a triple plan, that is, 27%, 30%, and 50% of RnSE technologies by 2020, 2030, and 2050, respectively (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). Maintaining the upsurge of RnSE share to the overall energy resources in the KSA was also planned, thereby attaining approximately 3.45 and 9.5 GW, which account for 4% and 10% of the KSA’s total energy supply, by 2020 and 2023, respectively (Khan, 2019). In general, the potential of RnSE in other GCC counties has been studied, and 28 GW from RnSE resources can be attained by 2030 (Sgouridis et al., 2016). The deployment level is reduced by 8.5% and 15.6% in oil and natural gas consumption, respectively, which can be accomplished by 2030 (Olivier et al., 2016). The RnSE technologies in the KSA have been recently integrated and linked to respond to the demand for electricity in the KSA, which is increased by 6.6% annually.

Fig. 17: Electrical energy distribution by generation in 2012 (Tlili, 2015)

8

Economic return from RnSE technology

According to the IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014; IRENA, 2015), the KSA may gain fossil fuel decrease in the water and energy sectors of approximately 25% by 2030. The 39

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KSA has the largest solar plant the covers car parking of the Saudi Aramco Oil Company (Fig. 18). This case motivated the KSA to expand its economy and stimulating development partly by cultivating money into RnSe, thereby reforming its power mix at a homeland and appearing as a world force in clean energy (Reed Stanley, 2018). In addition to clean atmosphere benefits, the increase in RnSE resources also allows economic profits. These factors lead to the growth of job opportunities and a decrease in the trading shortfall, thereby endorsing technical enhancements, dropping charges in RnSE sources, and decreasing the adverse influences of CO2 emissions and unrelieved universal warming on commercial activities. In 2008, the general charges in the KSA subsidized by the Saudi government was almost SAR 0.15/kWh (Kroposki et al., 2009) and SAR 50.4/kWh as a total cost of energy production for an identical GCC utility at international market charges (El-katiri, 2014). However, solar power charges have weakened from approximately US $101/kWh to approximately US $23/kWh in 1980 and at present, respectively (Bull, 2001). The present price of solar PV in Western countries varies from US $20.15/kWh to $26/kWh, with the anticipation that it will be reduced to US $5.6–$11.2/kWh by 2015 (Gong et al., 2017). Western countries have a plan to make PV supply electricity charges competitive with traditional power resources by 2020 (Kroposki et al., 2009). At present, the charge of solar PV is approximately US $2.5/Wp, and the plan is to decrease this amount to almost $1/Wp (Kroposki et al., 2009), that is, equal to SAR 0.45 because 1 ton of petrol is equivalent to approximately 7 bl and may afford 11,630 kWh of conservatively supplied energy (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2014). The global oil charges are predicted to upsurge from US $70 to US $95 and $108 per bl by 2015 and 2020, respectively (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2016). This result indicates that the charges in electricity generation from traditional supply resources will upsurge quickly. Therefore, the energy production cost from RnSE resources would be less than that from relic fuels when the concealed charges of relic fuels, such as public health and ecological prices, are measured (Qader, 2009). In conclusion, the solar PV power economics at the KSA will remain

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high in areas such as the northern regions, with considerable solar radioactivity features. Field studies also reported on defined features, for example, health and ecofriendly influences. The regular external charges of NOx, SO2, and CO2 are 0.0412, 0.0086, and 0.0001 SAR/g, respectively (Alnatheer, 2006), whereas the entire indirect cost in the KSA is approximately 0.1688 SAR/kWh (Kroposki et al., 2009).

Fig. 18: Largest solar plant of car parking at Saudi Aramco, KSA (Reed Stanley, 2018)

9

Benefits of RnSE in the KSA

The world relies on energy to power its daily life activities and is headed for higher RnSE resources than relic fuel, which is an NRnSE resource (Al-Saleh et al., 2008; Anuradha et al., 2014; Birol, 2004; Kajenthira Grindle et al., 2015; Salam and Khan, 2018). The KSA has no exclusion to this trend as its SV2030 aims to secure the outline of RnSE resources (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Buckley and Shah, 2018; Khan, 2019). The applicability of investment in RnSE resources into the KSA and GCC countries can provide the states with reserves equal to US $87 billion and reduces approximately one gigaton of CO2 41

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emissions (Kinninmont, 2010). To meet the desired demand, KACARE is progressively endorsing the overview of atomic and RnSE energy, aiming to secure 50% of the total consumed electricity from nonfossil fuels by 2032 (Khan, 2019). The growth of the RnSE sector also influences job opportunities, services, and training in the KSA (Al-Badi et al., 2011; Chu and Majumdar, 2012; Us et al., 2019; Van der Zwaan et al., 2013; Wogan et al., 2017). The amount of careers funded by the world RnSE industry is expected to triple by 2030, with a probability of 80,000 jobs in the KSA alone (Erroukhi et al., 2016). However, the provision of a sustainable and effective energy is beneficial for the future of the KSA. Therefore, KACARE conducted an inclusive assessment of the RnSE sources to guarantee the root of their superior benefits (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Lekshmi Vijayan Krishna, 2015; National and Energy, 2017). KACARE targets to save the economics of hydrocarbons, water and electricity demand arrangements, selection of technologies, requirements of infrastructural development, human capability growth, and value chain enhancement (Fig. 19) (Khan, 2019; National and Energy, 2017). However, this factor has contributed to reaching a solid decision in producing hydrocarbons, as residual primary components in the potential power mix resources by 2032, and endorses subsidiary values of 9 GW of wind, 41 GW of solar (25 GW of concentrated solar and 16 solar PV cells), 17.6 of GW nuclear, 1 GW of geothermal, and 3 GW of WtE sources, with a total 60 GW hydrocarbon capacity (Stambouli et al., 2012; Yamani, 2012). Hence, geothermal, nuclear, and WtE can meet the demand of nighttime base load in winter season. PV power can meet the total energy demand yearly for daytime, whereas concentrated solar energy, with storage, can meet the peak demand variance between the base load and PV technologies; hydrocarbons can also encounter the residual demand (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Helen, 2012; Khan, 2019; Sgouridis et al., 2016). The execution of the activities of KACARE aims to follow a transparent and open market rule to lead investors satisfied with the used procedures and guarantees competitive cost.

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The eventual goal is to create wide-ranging partnership policies with domestic and global stakeholders in emerging RnSE and atomic sectors; this aspect comprises energy preservation and power support facilities such that 3/5 of all contributions for nuclear energy advancements and 4/5 of solar-associated accomplishments will be obtained locally (Yamani, 2012). The KSA set almost 30% localization demands of RnSE in 2017 and intended to upsurge to more than 50% working onward. The high rates of end-use efficacy propose the chance to meet the developing energy demand, thereby preserving oil banks and decreasing the CO2 emission by closely 3 kg for every m3 of produced water with an energy consumption level of 5 kWh/m3, with proper technologies, which can be reduced by shifting from traditional fuels to RnSE (Mansouri et al., 2013). Hence, the KSA government should endorse the capability of rotating WtE by using the supply of electricity and waste disposal (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006). This phenomenon also leads to the decrease in oil consumption of the KSA by enhancing RnSE efficacy on the supply and demand sides. Energy maintenance and RnSE technology are the chief drivers for partially attaining the SV2030 (Khan, 2019). Further, Table 8 tabulates some of the benefits, implications and drawbacks of RnSE technologies in

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 RD Re & Ef liab D V f i al ue A ecti lity Ch va ven Ca ai ila es pi n E bil ta co it lI n y n o E In ne Ru ves my cr rg nn tm ea y in e sin C g nt o C Ce g A st S ost s rta se av In in ts ing cr ty V ea sin of alu M Go g A E an ve n E w Sav e da rn ha ne a in to m nc rg ren g ry en e y e Re t U Pu Sec ss Pr new tili blic uri ic a ty I ty e o b In m n le E ce age Ca n nt rb erg ive o y s Ta n E Us x m e Bu Inc issi ild en on in tiv g es Co de s

Total percentage of efficiency, %

the short- and long-terms, in particular, when these technologies decommissioned in the future.

Type of solar applications

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Fig. 19: Efficiency of RnSE technologies in the KSA (Khan, 2019; National and Energy, 2017)

Table 8: Benefits, implications and drawbacks of RnSE technologies Source of energy Geothermal energy (Hussain et al., 2017)

Hydropower

Benefits Affords limitless production of energy Generates no water or air pollution

Implications and drawbacks Growth costs could be costly Conservation costs, as a result of corrosion, could be a an issue subsiding, landscape alteration, contaminating watercourses, air releases It may cause the flooding of nearby societies and landscapes. Dams own major environmental influences on local hydrology. It may cause a considerable ecological influence It can be utilized merely where there is a water outfit Best locations for dams have previously been constructed Alteration in national eco-systems, alteration in weather circumstances, communal and cultural influences

Plentiful, pure, and safe energy Simply to be stored in tanks Comparatively cost-effective method to generate electricity Proposals frivolous advantages like fishing, boating, etc.

(Ellabban et al., 2014)

Biomass energy

Plentiful and sustainable It could be utilized to burn waste outputs

Sweltering biomass can effect in air contamination It may be expensive It may not be CO2 accepted level, may reduce universal heating gases like methane at the time of the generation of biofuels, alteration of landscape, worsening of soil efficiency, dangerous waste

It is a free basis of power Generates no air or water pollution Wind farms are moderately reasonable to form. Land around wind farms could own other usages

It may necessitate continuous and considerable volumes of wind Wind farms need substantial extents of land It can own a considerable visible influence on lands It probably cause a noises in the zone, alteration on landscape, soil destruction, murder of animals including birds by blades It requires improved methods to store energy

Possibly unlimited energy production Origins no water or air pollution

It can be expensive It necessary requires a backup and storage Its consistency relies on accessibility of sunlight It causes soil erosion, alteration on landscape, and dangerous waste.

(Kazem and Chaichan, 2012)

Wind energy (Intelligence and Service, 2019; Malik et al., 2019). Solar energy (Matar and Elshurafa, 2018; Öst and Paldanius, 2018).

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9.1

RnSE applications in the KSA

The RnSE initiative was considered in the KSA from a long time ago. Beginning in the early 1960s, the RnSE initiative went a long way in the outline of a national power strategy (Alawaji, 2001). The RnSE application depends on the obtainability of energy source found at the area. Radiation in kWh/m2 per period is a main measure for defining the type of energy source and determining the total volume of diffuse and direct solar radiation that falls on a parallel surface; it can also measure the volume of solar radiation receipted by a surface that is continuously held vertical to straight solar sunbeam (U. S. Energy Information Administration, 2014a). The Saudi government set a strategy to achieve an RnSE supply of 9.5 GW by 2030, as part of SV2030 (Khan, 2019), and 3.5 GW by 2020, as part of the National Transformation Plan (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Saudi Vision 2030, 2016); the nonpublic sector is encouraged to hasten and reinforce the attainment of this plan. The applicability reserves are substantial, with the aim to reduce the consumption of fossil fuel energy by almost 25% by 2030 (Erroukhi et al., 2016). In 2019, Saudi REPDO achieves 2225 MW capacity in solar project. The recent Saudi RnSE strategy plans to increase the solar plan from 5.9 GW to 20 GW, targeting the RnSE technologies reviewed to increase from 9.5 GW to 27.3 GW by 2023 (Al-Ajlan et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2017) and by 2030; REDPO has also introduced 40 and 58.7 GW capacities for solar energy and RnSE by 2030, respectively (Alyahya and Irfan, 2016; Khan, 2019). REPDO has assigned a Sakaka PV project as its first sequence of tendering processes for wind and solar energies to supply approximately 700 MW of RnSE production capacity, accounting for 300 and 400 MW of solar and wind energies in 2018, respectively (Power, 2019). In addition, the globe’s biggest supplier of oil comprehends the worth of developing RnSE plants, having a multitude of practical and applications uses, particularly electricity supply so as to afford road, tunnel, and traffic lights and road coaching signs (Tlili, 2015) as well as to reduce the rely on the crude fuels (Fig. 20). Furthermore, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential of offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy.

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Fig. 20: An outlook of the needed RnSE applications in KSA (KAPSARC-UNESCWA, 2017)

10 Conclusion The steady shift from crude fuel (i.e., oil and natural gas) to RnSE resources is an urgent call for world ecological protection. The KSA, as a leading state, has remarkable perspective for RnSE sources, mainly wind and solar PV, as electricity supply at present and in the near future. During the last five decades, the generation and use of traditional energy not only were vital to public health and economies but also caused the lack of ecological balance, such as CO2 emissions. RnSE is a main source that contributes considerably to the global power mix in light of increasing nonrenewable power source charges. Although the KSA is a top oil-producing country, it recognizes the crucial requirement for RnSE application technologies and advancement to achieve power security and release hydrocarbon sources for export instead of meeting national demand at greatly funded charges. Sustainable electricity production and water distillation, in addition to other industrialized applications, are the main beneficiaries. Wind and solar energy can participate significantly to the network of a considerable share of energy demand in the KSA. The KSA can produce and export RnSE in terms of electricity after emerging wind and solar PV energy transformation 46

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systems. With the ongoing decrease in the charge of solar PV cells, using abundant solar energy in certain KSA areas is realistic, competitive, and profitable. This process can reduce the reliance on huge volumes of oil in comparison with RnSE resources in producing electricity and the obtainability of subsidies by the Saudi government for electricity and oil production, as well as the unavailability of the same subventions for solar power agenda. Dust can condense solar power by up to 20% in certain regions of the KSA. The KSA has set a plan to produce electricity for grid-linked schemes and wind and solar hybrid applications for isolated towns to apply this clean resource. The WtE and geothermal energies can lead to the diversity of energy mix in the near future. The development of RnSE technologies, in particular associated with wind and solar energy, should be improved to meet the supply and demand for energy sides for a clean and efficient resource. This phenomenon leads the KACARE to announce certain initiatives in conducting extensive and in-depth studies for discovering the potential and distribution of RnSE advanced technologies. Meanwhile, the RnSE technologies are still having some implications when these technologies decommissioned in the future, such as landscape alteration, contaminating waterways, air contamination, deteriorating of soil efficiency, dangerous waste, environmental influences on local hydrology, costly dismantling as well as that the hydropower may cause the flooding of nearby landscapes and communities. The existence of experienced specialists and scientists from industrialized states at domestic research institutes and laboratories will improve such goal and determination. Progressive arrangement and strategy agendas are essential to inspire global and local private sector contributions. The long-standing advancement of RnSE is promising, as a high decrease in CO2 emissions will be attained when applying RnSE sources rather than traditional crude fuel. In conclusion to this comprehensive review and to admire the promising use of RnSE rather than NRnSE, RnSE is used as a superior substitute for generating energy from clean and sustainable resources to improve growth, particularly on embracing the

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freeing strategy, for instance, privatization for commercial divergence and job creation. The following recommendations and procedures should be considered: -

Embrace and improve flexible and integrated planning methods that permit the deliberation of various goals and allow amendment to encounter shifting requirements.

-

Schedule and manage activities with regard to supply and demand sides for energy. Inspect heavy developing procedures for RnSE and their budget efficiency.

-

Encourage the installation of fuel cells technology that prompt to store chemical energy sources, for example, methane, hydrogen, and gasoline and then transmit it straightway to electricity.

-

The environment and energy cluster should give global experiences and insights on a wide assortment of disruptive developing technologies and boards extending from energy storage, progressed batteries, and bio-energy, geothermal energy, wind energy and energy transmission.

-

Project economic inducements to catalyze the maintainable use of affordable resources in the generation method of RnSE, not simply to exploit the product. This phenomenon is specifically significant in location-based generation activities.

-

Consider the contribution of RnSE in reducing air pollution, as a reserve in the production route when forecasting solar, wind, water, geothermal, WtE, and biomass energies as alternative to fossil fuels in the near future.

-

The adoption of RnSE rather than NRnSE resources can reduce the burden of the Saudi government in paying subsidies to produce energy for all sectors with the continuous increase in the population rate and climate change, including for cooling in the summer season and for heating in the winter season.

-

Further, it is found that there is a need to inspect the potential of offshore-wind, biomass, and thermal energy.

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11

Acknowledgment

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the department of civil engineering, college of engineering, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University (PSAU), Saudi Arabia and the department of civil engineering, faculty of engineering and IT, Amran university, Yemen; for this research. 12

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. 13

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Conflict of Interest and Authorship Conformation Form Please check the following as appropriate: 

All authors have participated in (a) conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (b) drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and (c) approval of the final version.

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This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is under review at, another journal or other publishing venue.

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The following authors have affiliations with organizations with direct or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in the manuscript:

Author’s name Y. H. Ahssein Amran Y. H. Mugahed Amran Rayed Alyousef Hisham Alabduljabbar

Affiliation Sana’a University,

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Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia Amran University, Yemen and Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

Journal Pre-proof Highlights -

RnSE is the most superior alternative recourse to traditional energy source. Fossil fuels are currently used to produce more than 80% of the total energy demands in KSA. The predicted electricity demand in the KSA is expected to surpass 120 GW by 2032. The Saudi government set a strategy to achieve an RnSE supply of 9.5 GW by 2030. KSA has prepared a triple plan, that is, 27%, 30%, and 50% of RnSE technologies by 2020, 2030, and 2050, respectively.