Renewable energy production in the Łódzkie Voivodeship. The PEST analysis of the RES in the voivodeship and in Poland

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 737–750

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable energy production in the Łódzkie Voivodeship. The PEST analysis of the RES in the voivodeship and in Poland Bartłomiej Igliński n, Anna Iglińska, Marcin Cichosz, Wojciech Kujawski, Roman Buczkowski Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Faculty of Chemistry, Gagarina 7, 87-100 Toruń, Poland

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 28 January 2015 Received in revised form 2 November 2015 Accepted 18 December 2015

The current state and prospects for the development of the renewable energy sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship have been presented. In this area there are 195 wind power installations of total power of 404 MW, 40 hydropower stations of total power of 6.6 MW. In the locality of Leśmierz second generation biofuels are produced. Moreover, there are five biogas power plants located at municipal waste sites, three biogas power plants at sewage treatment works and two agricultural biogas power plants. The PEST analysis of the polish renewable energy sector has been described. The conducted PEST analysis indicates that the renewable energy sector stands a chance of further growth both in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and in Poland. The most favourable are the economic macro-environmental factors whilst the technological ones are the least favourable. & 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: PEST analysis Renewable energy Energy policy Poland Łódzkie Voivodeship

Contents 1. 2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PEST analysis – methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. PEST analysis – examples of use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. The description of the Łódzkie Voivodeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Aeroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. The potential and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Hydroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. The potential and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Biomass in the Łódzkie Voivodeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1. The potential and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Helioenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1. The potential and prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. Geothermal energy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1. Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. PEST analysis – political macro-environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. PEST analysis – economic macro-environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. PEST analysis – social macro-environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. PEST analysis – technological macro-environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aeroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biomass in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Helioenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat pumps in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

n

Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 48 56 611 43 31; fax: þ48 56 654 24 77. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Igliński).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.341 1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Appendix B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geothermal plant “Geotermia Uniejów” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uniejów Thermal Pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction Poland is a country where nearly 90% of power is obtained from hard and brown coal. The European Union's requirements and willingness to protect the natural environment contribute to the development of renewable energy sector. Wind power, hydropower and biomass [1–4] are mainly used. The distribution of renewable energy installations in Poland is uneven. They tend to concentrate in the areas with favourable environmental conditions (e.g. wind conditions) and where there is interest among numerous investors willing to invest in the renewable energy sector. This paper aims to present the current state and development prospects of the renewable energy sector in the Łódzkie Voivodship as well as the PEST analysis at the level of both the voivodeship and the whole of Poland. PEST analysis only for the wind power sector in Poland was carried out in the publication [5]. In the paper [6] Poland is also taken into consideration; however, due to a huge number of analysed countries (12 countries), the PEST analysis for the RES sector in Poland is not too detailed. In our opinion, a rigorous PEST analysis of the RES sector in Poland needed to be undertaken, which was carried out in this paper. It is worth adding that the publication [6] was written over 5 years ago; during that time many changes took place in the economy and RES sector in Poland (e.g. the new Act on Renewable Energy Sources came into force). PEST analysis for Poland was needed because:

 Poland is still a country where fossil fuels are used, which leads to high environmental and health (and also material) damage,

 Poland has a great RES potential that is currently utilised only to a small degree,

 the RES market keeps developing and remains important for both domestic and foreign investors,

 in the near future the significance of the RES sector will continue to increase, which will impact on the economic situation in Poland and Central Europe.

2. PEST analysis – methodology

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In the adopted research methodology it was intended to present investigated factors on a point scale, depending on how much they favour the development of renewable energy sector. Within the used scale, particular points from 1 to 5 are defined as:

    

1 2 3 4 5

– – – – –

a highly unfavourable factor, an unfavourable factor, a neutral factor, a favourable factor, a higly favourable factor.

It was decided to use the formula of the mean value of selected factors, assuming that the impact on the development of renewable energy sector is as the following:

 below 2.00 points – a highly unfavourable macroenvironmental factor,

 2.00–2.99 points – an unfavourable macro-environmental factor,

 3.00–3.49 – a neutral macro-environmental factor,  3.50–4.49 – a favourable macro-environmental factor,  4.50–5.00 – a highly favourable macro-environmental factor. The PEST analysis was conducted using the information provided by the renewable energy producers/consumers (surveys – Appendix A), literature sources data, the strategy for the development of renewable energy sources as well as legal acts and regulations (in Poland and in Łódzkie Voivodeship). 2.1. PEST analysis – examples of use A PEST analysis can be used to survey company, product, industry sector, energy sector or region/country. For example, Balkans Investment Consulting Agency presented a PEST analysis for Bulgaria after 1989 [10]. This analysis provides more information (e.g. to foreign business) about the political, economic, social and technological situation of the whole country. Using a PEST analysis helps business to understand various macroenvironmental factors that they need to take into consideration when determining the decline or growth of a particular market. It is also a crucial tool for ascertaining business position, the potential of a business and the direction the business should

The PEST (Political, Economic, Social, Technological) method (analysis) is one of the methods used to examine the environment, in this case – the renewable energy sector (Fig. 1) [7–9]. Most often the environment can be specified as:

 Political macro-environmental factors: among others, political stability, renewable energy policy, legislative framework,

 Economic macro-environmental factors: among others, the  

current business environment in Poland and the rest of the world, job market, interest rates, Social macro-environmental factors: among others, demographics, knowledge of renewable energy sources, human resources structure and availability of workforce, Technological macro-environmental factors: among others, economic innovation in the renewable energy sector, transfer of techniques and technologies [5–7].

Fig. 1. Macro-environmental factors RES; P – political, E – economic, S – social, T – technological (PEST analysis).

B. Igliński et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 737–750

be moving in to thrive in the marketplace. All large businesses should undertake this kind of analysis in order to understand the needs and expectations of their customers. For example, Shahid et al. [11] provided a PEST analysis for a company producing fertilisers. Kolios and Read [12] presented a comprehensive analysis of renewable and especially tidal energy through a political, economic, social, technology, legal and environmental analysis approach and by reviewing the most up to date relevant literature. The study focused on the United Kingdom, which has the favourable environmental resources for such technologies, the number of different design concepts that are currently under development as well as the research funding that has been invested over the last few years. Nunes et al. [13] used a PEST analysis to prove that the Portuguese textile dyeing industry could replace fossil fuels with biomass. The main advantages are the reduction of external dependence on imported fuel due to the use of an endogenous renewable resource, the creation and preservation of jobs, the increased competitiveness of the sector due to reduced energy costs, the use of national technology and the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions. Azzaoui [14] conducted a PEST analysis for the photovoltaic sector in Brazil. Despite the (not yet) favourable conditions, skills and electricity prices, this thesis finds that, in some areas, private investment in photovoltaics is profitable today. Given this fact, the study concludes that lucrative investment opportunities will be exploited sooner or later. Chi [15] used a PEST analysis to show Vietnam as a prospective consumer of biogas technology provided by Finnish companies. Catanyag and Abundo [16] used a PEST analysis to show that the Philippines have good conditions for the development of ocean renewable energy (ORE). Zalengera et al. [17] described the current state of RES in Malawi and conducted a PESTLE analysis (including legal and environmental factors). The analysis suggests a paradigm shift that has potential to provide long-term supporting mechanisms for Malawi's renewable energy development. It is evident from the paper that holistic approaches are crucial for strengthening Malawi's energy sector, and it requires radical political and governance decisions. Oszytko and Richter [5] conducted PEST and SWOT analyses for the wind power sector in Poland. The analysis of macroeconomic factors shows that the largest range of influence is seen in the political and legal areas. This is mainly linked to abandoning legislative support for the development of renewable energy sources; there is very little likelihood that such support will be provided in the future. Moreover, there is a significant economic impact: an increase in foreign currency exchange rates (essential when planning to purchase turbines from a foreign supplier) or an increase in credit interest rates could exert a significant negative impact on the investment's profit. Patlitzians and Karagounis [6] in their research presented the distribution of the RES in the new EU using a PEST analysis. This paper also takes into consideration Poland; however, due to a high number of analysed countries (12 countries), the PEST analysis is not too detailed. In our opinion, a rigorous PEST analysis for the RES sector in Poland needed to be undertaken, which was carried out in this paper.

3. The description of the Łódzkie Voivodeship The Łódzkie Voivodeship is located in the central part of Poland, covering an area of 18,219 km2 and inhabited by 3.35 million people. Łódź [18] is the capital of the Łódzkie Voivodeship (Fig. 2). The northern part of the voivodeship is dominated by vast and flat plains whilst the southern part tends to have more hills. The major rivers of the voivodeship are: Warta, Pilica, Bzura and

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Fig. 2. The location of the Łódzkie Voivodeship in Poland (black colour).

Ner. The hydrographic network of the Łódzkie Voivodeship is characterised by the prevalence of small rivers and water courses, which partly or totally dry up during the summer season. Within the voivodeship area, especially in the northern and northwestern parts, there are insufficient surface water resources [18]. The area of the Łódzkie Voivodeship lies within the transitional climate, which is typical of the central Poland region. The prevailingly flat layout of the land enables the movement of different air masses, which is manifest in high variability of weather conditions, both throughout a 24-h period and throughout a year. The growing season is quite long and lasts about 210 days. The total precipitation is 500–650 mm per year [18]. The Łódzkie Voivodeship is agricultural in character; arable land takes up 70% of the area. The best soils occur in the northern part of the voivodeship. Forests and forest lands cover 21.8% of the whole area of the Łódzkie Voivodeship, which is the smallest forestation rate among all the voivodeship regions in Poland [18].

4. Aeroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship The majority of the area of Poland has good and quite good wind conditions. Complex research indicates that the windiest season in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is winter whilst summer is the least windy one. The 24-h analysis of wind speed is characterised by a clear monomodal distribution with the maximum speed around midday hours [3,19]. A proportion of wind power in the total renewable energy generation in Poland has been regularly rising since 2005 – at present it reaches nearly 60%. In the Łódzkie Voivodeship wind power installations (single wind turbines or small farms) are located in 195 places (Fig. 3). The total power of all the wind turbines in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is 404 MW [20]. The wind power station Kamieńsk (Fig. 3) is one of the best known wind farms in Poland; it is located on Góra Kamieńska in Kamieńsk. It is situated on the plateau of the reclaimed external dumping ground of the Brown Coal Mine Bełchatów, in the mining area “Pole Bełchatów” [20].

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Fig. 3. The power of installed wind turbines and the number of installations in the Łódzkie Voivodeship (own data based on [20]).

Fig. 4. The power and number of hydropower stations in the Łódzkie Voivodeship (own data based on [20]).

4.1. The potential and prospects 5.1. The potential and prospects According to the data of the Institute for Renewable Energy [21], about 4% of arable land is suitable to be technically used to meet the needs of the wind power generation sector. The economic potential of the wind power sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is below 1 GW. In 2015 in the vicinity of Łódź the construction of two wind farms, consisting of 5 and 6 wind turbines, was commenced. The power of each wind farm will be 3 MW and the blades will be situated on enormous, 138 m high, towers. Wind power stations will be located within 500–1000 m from dwelling buildings. The investor estimates that energy generated by wind power stations will be sufficient to meet the electricity demand of about 37,000 households. In the Łódzkie Voivodeship permits have been granted or the conditions have been agreed for the construction of 245 turbines of total power of 466 MW [22].

5. Hydroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship The Łódzkie Voivodeship is located on the watershed of the Vistula and Odra catchment areas. The hydrographic network is characterised by a substantial number of small water courses of low flow (they are partly harnessed by the small hydropower sector) and the lack of natural water reservoirs. The retention of water takes place in a few natural and man-made water reservoirs as well as in the marshlands [23,24]. Currently, in the Łódzkie Voivodeship there are 40 hydropower stations, usually of power below 1 MW (Fig. 4). The total power of hydropower stations in the voivodeship is 6.6 MW [23,24]. The largest dammed retention reservoir in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is Jeziorsko (to the west of Łódź). A hydropower plant of power of 4.89 MW has been operating there since 1994. It is equipped with two Kaplan turbines with a vertical shaft. The mean annual power generation equals 20 million kW h [23,24].

In total, all the rivers in the the Łódzkie Voivodeship have the theoretical potential at the level of 600 GW h/year, which is 2.6% of the whole potential of Poland. The following rivers have the highest potential: Warta (206 GW h/year), Pilica (126 GW h/year) and Bzura (35 GW h/year).

6. Biomass in the Łódzkie Voivodeship The biomass market, in the Łódzkie Voivodeship as well as in the rest of Poland, is still in its developmental stage [25]. Biomass, mainly consisting of waste wood, straw, pellets and briquettes, is used on a larger scale in household boiler rooms and co-fired in big power stations. Biomass is co-fired in the amount of about 10% in Łódź and Zgierz (Fig. 5). It is worth mentioning that agricultural (mainly straw) and forest biomass is combusted in 26 boiler rooms to generate heat for the heat network. Synthetic diesel oil is produced from biomass (BTL – biomass to liquid) in the locality of Leśmierz in the Łódzkie Voivodeship (Fig. 5). The waste biomass that is used as a substrate comes from agricultural waste, forest waste, pulp and paper industry waste, etc. A catalytic liquefaction process occurs in a closed system at a temperature of 270–350 °C. Synthetic diesel oil that is obtained can be directly used in diesel engines. The installation that is described here produces second generation biofuels and is one of the first ones of this type in Poland [26]. Biogas is also obtained for energy purposes in the Łódzkie Voivodeship. Six biogas plants utilise biogas generated on municipal landfill sites [27]. There are currently seven sewage biogas power plants. Electric power and heat obtained from generated biogas are utilised on site, thus increasing the company's profitability, or sold. Currently, two agricultural biogas power plants operate in Łódzkie Voivodeship. In an agricultural biogas power plant in the locality of Konopnica maize silage and grass silage are used as substrates. As dry fermentation takes place in the biogas power

B. Igliński et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58 (2016) 737–750

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Fig. 6. Solar radiation density in the Łódzkie Voivodeship in comparison to the rest of Poland (own data based on [23,32]).

Fig. 5. Bioenergy generation in the Łódzkie Voivodeship (own data based on [20,25,26]).

plant, there are no noxious odours. Produced electric energy is partly used to meet the plant's own demand and is also partly sold to the power grid. A small amount of generated heat is used to meet the plant's own needs; the majority is sent via the district heating network to Rawa Mazowiecka and nearby industrial plants [26]. The main substrate in the agricultural biogas power plant in Opoczno, which is slaughter waste, is provided by a nearby meat processing plant. Moreover, a part of heat and electric power will be actually utilised by the meat processing plant [28]. 6.1. The potential and prospects The forestation rate in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is 21.9%, which is the lowest in Poland [29]. Assuming that 15% of wood obtained directly in the forest could be used for energy purposes (parts of bark, slash, more chunky waste wood generated during logging), then 164,000 m3 of waste wood could be obtained annually. In 2012 the Łódzkie Voivodeship produced about 280,000 Mg of wheat straw, 430,000 Mg of rye straw, 150,000 Mg of barley straw, 140,000 Mg of oats straw and 360,000 Mg of triticale straw [30]. Around 30% of straw could be used to generate energy. Currently, this potential is realised only to a small degree. The amount of agricultural biogas which could be obtained in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is 151 million m3 and 4.0 million m3 of biogas from municipal waste [31].

7. Helioenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship Compared to the rest of the country, the Łódzkie Voivodeship has favourable conditions to harness solar power [23,32]. The annual density of solar radiation on a horizontal plane in Poland varies between 950–1250 kW h/m2; in the Łódzkie Voivodeship it reaches 1100–1250 kW h/m2 (Fig. 6). About 80% of the total annual insolation takes place during the six months of the spring–summer season, from the beginning of April till the end of September;

the duration of solar operation increases to 16 h per day in summer whilst in winter it falls to 8 h per day [23,32]. Annual number of insolation hours in the Łódzkie Voivodeship oscillates between 1250 h in years with the highest amount of overcast weather and 2000 of hours in the sunny years. The mean number of insolation hours throughout the year is about 1600 h, which is similar to the average for Poland [23,32]. In terms of practical utilisation of solar power in the Łódzkie Voivodeship, it is worth paying particular attention to the uneven distribution of solar radiation and insolation throughout the year. Due to the climate zone and meteorological conditions, as much as 80% of solar operation occurs in the April–September period. During the winter season the time available to harness solar power is only 8 h in a 24-h period, whilst in summer it is about 16 h in a 24-h period. Currently, in the Łódzkie Voivodeship there are 5 small photovoltaic power plants of power of 0.5 MW [20]. According to the research by the Institute for Renewable Energy [21] in 2008–2010 solar collectors of the total area of 25 million m2 was sold in the Łódzkie Voivodeship. 7.1. The potential and prospects In the near future the tendency to use solar power to provide hot domestic water in individual households and in the public sector (swimming-pools, schools etc.) will continue. Photovoltaic cells will be used to a much smaller degree: to power traffic lights, road signs, parking metres. According to the Institute of Renewable Energy [21] the market potential of solar power in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is 1 PJ until 2020, which is linked to the installation of 0.8 million m2 of collectors.

8. Geothermal energy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship The terrestrial heat stream density in Poland shows great differentiation, depending on the geological composition, and varies from 50 mW/m2 to 100 mW/m2. In the Łódzkie Voivodeship the heat stream density reaches from 70 to 90 mW/m2 (Fig. 7). The best

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Fig. 7. The map of the terrestrial heat stream density for the Łódzkie Voivodeship in comparison to the whole of Poland (own data based on [33,34]).

geothermal conditions are found in the western part of the voivodeship [33,34]. Geothermal plant “Geotermia Uniejów” and Uniejów Thermal Pools were described in Appendix B [35]. Currently, about 100 heat pumps are installed every year; it is estimated that their numbers reached 1000 in 2014. Among the systems that are installed, most belong to the following types: ground–water, air–water and water–water (the first part of the name indicates the lower source of heat). 8.1. Prospects The area of the Łódzkie Voivodeship, especially its western part, is a prospective region for the exploitation of thermal waters. Thermal waters within the Łódzkie Voivodeship can be successfully used for heating as well as balneological and recreational purposes. In the near future the first hybrid geothermal heat power plant in Poland will be constructed in Uniejów. Estimates indicate that even in winter hot geothermal water is not fully utilised. In order to generate electricity, thermal water will be heated with heat from biomass combustion [34]. Every year we will increase in the Łódzkie Voivodeship the number of installed heat pumps.

9. PEST analysis – political macro-environmental factors The political macro-environmental factors of the renewable energy sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland mainly result from the political system and regime in which it operates. According to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland [36], Poland is a parliamentary republic and implements the principles of the nation's sovereignty, the state's independence and sovereignty, a democratic state of law, civil

society, the separation of three powers, pluralism, rule of law, social market economy and the natural dignity of a human being. On the other hand, the decision making body of the local authorities is the Sejmik (local parliament) of the Łódzkie Voivodeship, consisting of 36 councillors. The Sejmik elects the executive body of the local authorities, which consists of 5 members led by the Marshall of the Voivodeship. The political regime in Poland has been stable for many years. The development of science and research, including renewable energy sources, is positively influenced by the stability of a democratic political system, autonomy of significant state institutions (the central bank, jurisdiction) and a relatively friendly administration system. The public administration is an integral part of the state, the carrier of the memory of the state's tradition and has a right of legislative initiative. The Preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland stipulates an essential aim of improving the way the public sector operates in Poland. Despite attempts to improve it, the public administration in Poland (and the Łódzkie Voivodeship) does not operate efficiently, which does not support the development of renewable energy sources. According to the Energy Policy of Poland until 2030 [37], the main aims of the Polish energy policy are:

    

improving energy effficiency, increasing security of fuel and energy supplies, diversification of energy generating structure, growth in the use of renewable energy sources, including biofuels, development of competitive fuel and energy markets.

The Energy Policy of Poland until 2030 [37] indicates that hard and brown coal will continue to be the main energy source in Poland. Due to the gradual depletion of hard and brown coal

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resources in the currently exploited deposits, the preparation and exploitation of new deposits is planned until 2030. According to the document [37], there will be support for the balanced use of different types of energy from renewable energy sources. In terms of using biomass, the most energy-efficient solutions will be given particular preference, among others, using various technologies of its gasification and processing into liquid fuels, especially second generation biofuels. The development of wind power sector is planned both at sea and on land. The development of other types of renewable energy is also predicted. It should lead to:

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sources is fostered by removing of the borders in political relations due to globalisation, including the European Union membership. At the time of its accession to the European Union, Poland was obliged to take on the European community acquis of science and research. In terms of research and science in Poland, it has created unprecedented possibilities of participating in the European Research Area. This facilitates the free flow of research staff, joint projects and establishing joint research and development centres. Table 1 represents the macro-environmental factors of renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their potential for development.

 at least a 15% increase in renewable energy percentage in the 

final energy usage in 2020 and a further growth of this percentage in the following years, biofuels reaching a 10% mark in the transport biofuels market in 2020.

An important component of the Law on Renewable Energy Sources is promoting prosumer (a prosumer is a producer and a consumer at the same time) renewable energy generation in micro- and small installations. The new term – a micro installation – describes an installation of small power, producing power mainly to meet the producer's own demand. There is no need to have a licence or to be self-employed. People producing power in this way will be able to sell surplus energy to a power distribution company. Moreover, there is still an obligation to purchase energy from renewable energy sources. In Poland, the legal regulations on use of the environment, including GHG, are stipulated in the Environmental Protection Law [38]. According to the act, the principles of the balanced development are key to preparing and updating the area development plan for Poland, strategy for the development of voivodeship regions and area development plans for voivodeships. The development of the Łódzkie Voivodeship up to now has resulted in the technical infrastructure failing to meet the modern environmental protection standards. The Development Strategy for the Łódzkie Voivodeship in 2007–2020 stipulates reduction in emission from fossil fuels, use of renewable energy sources and improvement in water retention by constructing small-scale retention reservoirs (on which small hydro power plants could be built) [39]. The strong conventional energy (mainly coal) lobby is an obstacle to the development of renewable energy sources in Poland. Present in mines, coal power plants and trade unions, it explicitly opposes the development of renewable energy sources in Poland. The institutional “maturity” in Poland is ensured by the European Union membership as well as the membership in other international institutions such as international tribunals and judicial institutions. The development of renewable energy

10. PEST analysis – economic macro-environmental factors When evaluating economic macro-environmental factors of renewable energy sources, it should be stressed that despite the economic crisis in 2008, Poland is one of the few European countries with an economic growth. Fig. 8 shows the gross domestic product for Poland in 2008–2014. The contribution of the Łódzkie Voivodeship in generating the gross domestic product is 6.1% [40]. The global economy has virtually recovered from the crisis that started in 2008. At the beginning of 2015 the crude oil price was at its lowest since 2010 – slightly over $50 per barrel. Similarly, the coal price fell to less than $55 per tonne [41]. An important part of the economic macro-environmental factor of renewable energy sources in Poland is the job market: the unemployment rate, the employment structure and dynamics, migration. According to the Central Statistical Office, the unemployment rate in Poland in the second quarter of 2015 was 10.3% [42]. Unemployment in the Łódzkie Voivodeship, which is 11.2%, is higher than the average for Poland. It is worth stressing that areas with the highest unemployment rate have very good conditions for the development of renewable energy sources. High unemployment is linked with migration. It is estimated that over 2.2 million of Polish citizens currently live abroad, of which 1.8 million in the European Union countries (mainly in Great Britain). Inflation in Poland is falling. In 2012 it was 3.7%, in 2013: 0.9% and in September 2015:  0.3% (deflation). In 2011 the wind power sector in Poland employed 1600 people, whilst in 2012 – 2,815; in the photovoltaic sector there were 400 and 420 people employed in respective years; the solar thermal technology employed 2000 and 2540 people respectively; 950 people worked in the hydropower sector (2011 and 2012); there were 150 and 200 people employed in the geothermal energy sector; 500 and 560 people worked in the heat pump technology; 250 and 320 people were employed in biogas power plants; the sector producing liquid biofuels employed 4750 and 5480 people respectively; 50 people worked in municipal waste

Table 1 Political macro-environmental factors of renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their potential for development. Factors

Attitude towards renewable energy sources

1. The political system and its stability 2. The public administration system and how efficiently it functions 3. Policy on renewable energy sources at a state level 4. Policy on renewable energy sources at the level of the Łódzkie Voivodeship 5. Obligation to purchase renewable energy 6. Legal regulations on the use of the environment, GHG emission, energy saving 7. Strong lobby for the conventional energy sector 8. Membership in the European Union (Poland is obliged to reach a specified percentage of renewable energy) General assessment

4.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 1.00 5.00 3.13

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Fig. 8. The gross domestic product for Poland in 2008–2014 (own data based on [40]).

incinerators (in 2011 and 2012); there were 19,050 and 20,500 workers in the production of solid biomass in respective years. In 2012 the total number of people employed in the renewable energy sector in Poland reached 33,835 people, which is an increase of 14% in comparison to 2011 [43]. The renewable energy sector is one of the few industry sectors with an annual growth in employment. According to the forecasts [37,44] there will be between 70 thousand [37] to even 230 thousand [44] people working in the renewable energy sector in Poland in 2030. It is worth stressing that the work in the renewable energy sector is far safer than that of a miner 2 km below the ground. At the beginning of October 2014 the interest rates in Poland decreased and are currently at their record lowest. The reference rate is 2.00%, the Lombard rate is 3.00%, the deposit rate is 1.00% and the bill rediscount rate is 2.25% [45]. Investors in renewable energy sources in Poland can apply for subsidies/loans from the European Union's funds and Poland's own. Significant loans/credits are offered by the Bank for Environmental Protection. The main capital directed towards funding renewable energy sources comes from the bank's own means and the market conditions apply to the products. For example, “The Good Energy Credit” was specially created for financing large renewable energy enterprises. The credit is available to entrepreneurs (including small and medium), communal partnerships and local authorities. The wind power sector has been constantly the most popular among renewable energy investors for the last few years. This market is experiencing the fastest development, at least as far as the Bank for Environmental Protection is concerned. However, there are other customers taking advantage of credit to construct biogas power plants, including agricultural biogas power plants. There are also projects related to biomass utilisation, mainly pellet production [46]. Since 2010 the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management has been cooperating with banks all over Poland and offers physical persons and housing associations 45% subsidies to credits available for purchase and installation of solar collectors. The following subsidies are available as part of the BOCIAN (stork) project [47]:

     

wind power plants – up to 30%, photovoltaic systems – up to 75%, harnessing energy from geothermal water – up to 50%, small hydropower plants – up to 50%, biomass-fed heat sources – up to 30%, biogas power plants – up to 75%.

According to the European Union budget for 2014–2020, 20% of all budget expenses should be spent on the climate protection, including research and enterprise that will lead to the reduction of GHG, which of course includes renewable energy technologies. In the Regional Operational Programme for the Łódzkie Voivodeship [48] it was stressed that the beneficiaries of funding to support the development of renewable energy sources will be local authorities' units, associations and entrepreneurs, including energy companies. Actions aimed at improving the natural environment and developing renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship are implemented according to the principle of subsidiarity, using the local authorities' own means and external funding, including means from Poland's budget and the European Union means. The main source of co-funding comes from structural funds – the European Regional Development Fund, the European Social Fund, the Cohesion Fund, the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development, which complement domestic public funds [39]. The RES producers in Poland receive financial support in the form of green certificates. According to the new Act on Renewable Energy Sources in Poland [49], an auction system will operate starting from 2016.The minister responsible for economic matters defines by means of an ordinance, no later than 60 days prior to the first auction to be carried out in a given calendar year, the maximum price in PLN for 1 MW h, at which renewable electric energy can be sold by its producers, by means of an auction in a given calendar year. This maximum price is later called “the reference price” and refers to:

 the total installed electric power no bigger than 1 MW,  the total installed electric power bigger than 1 MW. At least once a year auctions are announced, organised and conducted by the President of the Energy Regulatory Office. The Act on Renewable Energy Sources will foster the development of a prosumer society. A seller is obliged to purchase electric power from newly built renewable energy installations, including an energy producer from micro installations of power of up to 3 kW, at a set unit price, which in case of on-shore wind power is 0.75 PLN per 1 kW h. The price of purchasing electric energy from renewable energy installations of power of up to 3 kW, which have been described above, are valid until the total power of new sources starting their operation exceeds 300 MW or until this value is changed by an ordinance of minister responsible for economic matters, which is discussed below. A seller is obliged to purchase electric energy from newly built renewable energy installations, including an energy producer from micro installations of power from above 3 kW to 10 kW, at a set unit price, which in case of on-shore wind power is 0.65 PLN per 1 kW h. The price of purchasing electric energy from renewable energy installations of power above 3 kW and up to 10 kW, which have been described above, are valid until the total power of new sources starting their operation exceeds 500 MW or until this value is changed by an ordinance of minister responsible for economic matters, which is discussed below. Despite extensive bureaucracy, Polish investors show great entrepreneurship and activity when building renewable energy installations. They often implement their own ideas and improve the existing technology. An increasing number of investors develop two or more types of renewable energy sources, e.g. biogas power plants and photovoltaic panels. Opening of the borders after Poland joined the European Union facilitated free flow of products, technologies and services. The newest technological achievements of the European Union are now more frequently implemented also in Poland.

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Table 2 The economic macro-environmental factors of renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their potential for development.

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Table 3 The social macro-environmental factors for renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their potential for development.

Factors

Attitude towards renewable energy sources

Factors

Attitude towards renewable energy sources

1.

3.00

1. Demographic situation 2. Level of education 3. Knowledge about renewable energy sources 4. Public attitude towards renewable energy sources 5. Public attitude towards building the low emission economy 6. The human resources structure and availability of workforce 7. The renewable energy sources' influence on the job market 8. Membership in the European Union General assessment

3.00 3.50 3.00

Economic growth and socio-economic development 2. The economic outlook in the world, global energy and fuel prices, global fuel resources 3. Job market, the unemployment rate 4. Ability to fund renewable energy sources with own means 5. Interest rates, availability of loans and subsidies 6. Green certificates/auction system 7. Innovation, entrepreneurship and participation 8. Globalisation – free flow of products, capital, services (membership in the European Union) General assessment

3.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 3.63

Table 2 represents the economic macro-environmental factors of renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their potential for development.

11. PEST analysis – social macro-environmental factors For over a decade the population of Poland has been at the same level (38.5 million) and within the last 10 years the rate of natural increase has only reached 0.7%. The population of Poland is growing old and will decrease in the near future – in 2012 the total fertility rate was 1.3. The population of the Łódzkie Voivodeship is 3.35 million [18]. Unfavourable demographic situation in the Łódzkie Voivodeship has a significant impact on the regional job market. The working age population (prospective staff) in the Łódzkie Voivodeship on average tends to be older than in the rest of Poland. This results in such issues as reduced employment mobility and decreased flexibility in adapting to changes in economy and the job market. People with higher education form a significant group among the unemployed. The development of the renewable energy sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship offers an employment opportunity for both the old and the young. The voivodeship authorities support entrepreneurship by creating favourable employment conditions in small companies and micro-companies which, among others, generate renewable energy [39]. The alumni of secondary schools (both general and vocational) dominate the population structure in terms of education level – in 2014 their percentage reached 32.7% (in 2002 – 28.3%). Between 1995 and 2014 the percentage of people with higher education in the age group 24–64 years rose from 9.7% to 23.2% [50]. Access to the Internet, promotion of renewable energy sources (seminars, conferences, demonstrations) and Polish people travelling abroad result in a gradual increase of their knowledge of and support for renewable energy sources. As shown by the findings of the public opinion survey carried out by the Public Opinion Research Centre at the end of 2013 [51] as many as 89% of Poles wanted more renewable energy and 73% wanted Poland to become more involved in combating harmful effects of the climate change. According to the public opinion poll carried by IPSOS in June 2014 [52], 70% of Poles thought that the best direction for Poland's energy policy was to support renewable energy generation. At the same time 80% of respondents considered increased renewable energy generation to be the best way to ensure Poland's energy security and independence.

4.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.50 3.50

On the whole, the Polish society approves of building a low emission economy despite concerns that this will significantly raise the cost of energy and consumer goods. The Regional Operational Programme for the Łódzkie Voivodeship [39] stipulates that a low emission economy, including renewable energy sources, will be developed. It has been stressed that an increased proportion of renewable energy sources in the fuel and energy balance of the Łódzkie Voivodeship will contribute to improved efficiency of utilising and saving energy resources as well as improved condition of the environment by among others reducing atmosphere, soil and water pollution as well as decreasing the amount of generated waste. Until recently higher education institutions did not offer studies related to renewable energy sources. In recent years 30 higher education institutions extended their offer by introducing courses linked to renewable energy sources. These are aimed at engineers (technologists or designers) responsible for the technical aspect of the enterprise as well as economics and law specialists who will deal with investment planning and an analysis of the investment financial feasibility. Currently in Poland there are many possibilities to gain knowledge about the renewable energy sector. Study programmes and majors are mainly offered by technical higher education institutions; however, environmental and economic higher education institutions also offer a wide choice. The Faculty of Process and Environmental Engineering of Łódź University of Technology offers a major programme “Fuels and renewable energy sources”. As before, a quickly growing renewable energy market requires workers, most often in the areas of high unemployment. The development of agricultural biogas power plants could reduce unemployment in the rural areas of north-eastern Poland. In addition, the membership in the European Union ensures a free transfer of new technologies, which is followed by new work places in the renewable energy sector. Table 3 shows the social macro-environmental factors for renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship in terms of their potential for development.

12. PEST analysis – technological macro-environmental factors The renewable energy sector is one of the fastest developing industry branches in Poland and in the world. Extensive research in research centres results in increased efficiency of harnessing energy from renewable sources and a drop in the prices of

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renewable energy installations. The growth of renewable energy sources spurs the further research and development of new technologies. It is expected that the development and increase of production will be followed by a decrease in investment costs. At the moment the investment costs are a considerable barrier to implementation and development of new technologies. The Development Strategy for the Łódzkie Voivodeship in 2007– 2020 [39] stipulates an increase of research and development potential of the voivodeship as well as raising the efficiency of technology transfer from the research and development sector to companies. Polish power units are out of date. Due to their poor technical conditions power units are expected to be taken out of use in the near future. Consequently, it is worth replacing old coal power units with renewable energy installations. The distribution power grid network is poorly developed, especially in the north of Poland. It is worth stressing that the northern part of Poland has excellent conditions for the development of renewable energy sources. Thus, small local renewable energy installations should be developed to distribute energy virtually with no transfer losses. The co-operation between science and industry in Poland is limited. This is also true for the renewable energy sector. This collaboration is necessary in order to develop modern and affordable renewable energy technologies. The voivodeship authorities promote the research and development sector in the region by financial support and promoting innovative and modern solutions. An opportunity for the development of the Łódzkie Voivodeship lies in creating many new cluster initiatives, based on endogenic potential of the region, including huge biomass resources (agriculture) and geothermal water. Taking into consideration huge investments that are implemented and new cluster initiatives, the prospective energy clusters could be “Ecoenergy” and “Bioenergy” [39]. The efficiency of renewable energy installations matches and sometimes exceeds the efficiency of conventional power generation. For example, hydropower plants harness energy with the efficiency reaching 90% whilst agricultural biogas plants cogenerate heat and electricity reaching efficiency of up to 85%. It is worth stressing that the efficiency of Polish coal power plants is about 36%. In Poland (and the Łódzkie Voivodeship) the domestic market of producers of renewable energy installations and equipment is still weak. This makes it necessary to import subassemblies and whole equipment, as a result of which older technologies and installations previously used abroad (e.g. wind turbines) are imported.

Table 4 Technological macro-environmental factors for the renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their development potential. Factors

Attitude towards renewable energy sources

1.

3.00

Innovation of the economy and renewable energy sector 2. The degree of wear of energy infrastructure 3. The condition of power grid network in Poland 4. Collaboration between science and economy 5. Efficiency of renewable energy generation 6. Domestic producers of renewable energy installations 7. Transfer of techniques and technologies (European Union membership) General assessment

4.00 2.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 3.00

An opportunity for the development of renewable energy potential is the membership in the European Union (collaboration and knowledge transfer as part of the European research zone), development of information society as well as development of information and telecommunication technologies. Table 4 represents technological macro-environmental factors for the renewable energy sources in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland in terms of their development potential.

13. Conclusions The political macro-environmental factor of the science and research section of renewable energy sources can be categorised as relatively neutral (3.13 points) in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and in Poland. An opportunity for the development of renewable energy sources is most of all Poland's membership in the European Union structures, active participation in the European research zone as well as stability of the democratic political system in Poland and the institutional order in the country. The main threats to the science and research sector in Poland include overly extended and convoluted legislation and low efficiency in terms of implementing principles of innovative policy. Economic macro-environmental factors can be considered to be quite favourable towards the development of renewable energy sources (3.65 points). A development opportunity is most of all the membership in the European Union, which enables funding of the renewable energy research and installations. In addition, relative economic stability of Poland as well as innovative and active investors can be seen as an opportunity. Social macro-environmental factors can be classed as quite favourable towards the renewable energy sector (3.50 points). Opportunities include most of all the membership in the European Union and taking advantage of integration processes to produce a society that is creative, innovative and open to changes. International partnership and investment in human resources capital are developed. Main threats include low status of science in the public opinion, ageing of the society and a demographic low. Technological macro-environmental factors can be considered to be neutral (3.00 points), despite many unfavourable factors. A development opportunity lies most of all in mainly high efficiency of renewable energy installations as well as the transfer of techniques and technologies. Main threats include the poor condition of the power grid in Poland, still limited collaboration between science and economy and too small number of domestic producers of renewable energy installations. To recapitulate, the PEST analysis indicates that renewable energy sources stand a chance of further development both in the Łódzkie Voivodeship and Poland. Favourable legal regulations, higher subsidies, education of the public and development of domestic producers of renewable energy installations could result in a significant reduction of GHG emissions as well as increased energy independence of both the voivodeship and Poland. A further growth of the renewable energy sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship will create new work places, mainly in the rural areas where unemployment is at its highest. Renewable energy sources mean a smaller amount of fossil fuels is used, which contributes to a reduced emission of harmful compounds into the atmosphere [53]. In terms of tourism, the value of the Łódzkie Voivodeship will be greatly enhanced by building thermal pools.

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Appendix A Aeroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys Individual investors responded to the survey “Aeroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship”. The wind turbines were constructed between 2004 and 2014. The investors indicated they had 1–5 wind turbines. The completion of wind investment project took between 10 and 30 months (90% of survey participants). The investment costs per one turbine were as follows:  up to 1 million PLN: 10% of survey participants,  1–2 million PLN: 15% of survey participants,  2–3 million PLN: 40% of survey participants,  over 3 million PLN: 35% of survey participants. The respondents estimated the waiting time for an investment return to be between 8 and 15 years. The power of wind turbines varied between 0.5 and 2 MW (Survey 2014a). The main problems of investment realisation are:  unclear law regulations  too long waiting time for the construction permit,  high cost of turbine,  difficulties getting connected to the power grid,  opposition from environmental groups The survey research showed that 70% of participants are planning to extend their power plants in the near future. Among them 50% are planning to install 1 power plant, 35% 2 power plants and 15% 3 or more power plants. Hydroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys The owners of river-based hydropower plants responded to the survey “Hydroenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship”. The power plants were created between 1975 and 2002. The completion of the investment project took most often between 2 and 36 months. The cost of investment was mainly contained in 100 000 PLN. Generated energy is partly used to meet own needs (up to 5% of produced energy) and partly sold. The respondents estimated the waiting time for an investment return to be between 10 and 18 years. The main problems of investment realisation are:  unclear law regulations,  too long waiting time for the construction permit,  high investment cost,  difficulties getting connected to the power grid. The survey research showed that only 20% of participants are planning to extend their power plants in the near future.

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waiting time for investment return to be 6-15 years. The main problems of investment realisation are:  unclear law regulations,  bad heterogeneity of biomass,  excessive dampness of feedstock,  high price of “commercial” biomass,  problems with biomass supply. Despite the problems mentioned above, respondents still wanted to use biomass for energy purposes. A third of the survey participants were planning to increase the amount of combusted biomass in the near future. A few respondents are planning to obtain renewable energy from other sources (solar collectors for heating warm utility water, photovoltaic panels, agricultural biogas power stations). Helioenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys The people who responded to the survey “Helioenergy in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – users of solar installations” were mainly the owners of solar collectors; two participants had both solar collectors and photovoltaic panels. These products were installed in the period 2005–2014, with the highest number noted in 2013 (20%). In most cases the solar installation co-operated with the central heating boiler. The main reasons for the installation of a solar construction include:  savings generated due to the use of the installation,  funding provided by different institutions, and  environmental protection.

    

The main problems of investment realisation are: the roof was too old, unsuitable for installation of collectors, it was necessary to make the roof waterproof, hot domestic water installation was inappropriately chosen, poorly vented installation, liquid leaking from clamp fittings.

In Łódzkie Voivodeship most of solar installations are small constructions in the price range of 20–80 thousand PLN. The people who participated in our survey owned larger installations (schools, hospital, office buildings). Nearly a half of the installed solar constructions reached the price range of 200–500 thousand PLN and two installations exceeded the cost of 1 million PLN. Respondents estimated that the cost of purchase and installation would be returned after 2.5–15 years of the installation's operation. It is worth stressing that all the users were happy with the solar installations they owned and some were planning to invest further in renewable energy sources. Heat pumps in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys

Biomass in the Łódzkie Voivodeship – surveys Using wood for heating purposes has been a long tradition in the Łódzkie Voivodeship, especially in case of burning wood in individual heat-generating boilers of low power. The answers to the survey “The biomass in the Łódzkie Voivodeship” were provided by respondents who own installations for biomass combustion. They used a wide variety of energy resources mainly for heating purposes: sawdust, chips, straw, waste wood from forest logging and sawmills, shavings from wood processing companies, pellets and briquettes from biomass. It is worth noting that certain boiler plants burnt a few different types of biomass. The amount of combusted biomass varied between a few Mg to a few tens of Mg per year. The investment costs reached most often between 50 000 PLN (individual boiler plants) and a few hundred thousand PLN. The respondents estimated the

Only 5% of respondents had heat pumps installed before 2000, 10% between 2000 and 2005, 20% between 2005 and 2010 and the rest (65%) between 2010 and 2014. These are the pumps produced by well-known companies, most often a compression type: brine– water, water–water, water–air. The respondents had the installation costs that varied between 30,000 and 200,000 PLN (on average 50,000 to 70,000 PLN). The costs varied depending on the number and type of pumps installed as well as the modernisation of the heating system. The respondents used the following types of lower heat sources: the ground (most often), lakes, water from the pipe-network, air. The upper heat sources included: radiators, floor heating systems, communal warm water from the network, pools and fan coil units. Half of the respondents stated that their pumps worked on their own whilst in the remaining group, heat pumps worked

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together with a solar panel (most often) or a wood-fuelled furnace or gas boiler. The main problems of investment realisation are:  high investment cost,  land slides in excavation,  problems with installing a heat pump, Almost all respondents were satisfied with their heat pumps. About 30% of respondents were planning to install heat pumps in the future. The majority, however, thought it would not be necessary as the currently working heat pump fully met the heat demand. The respondents consistently emphasised the faultless operation of heat pumps and low maintenance needs.

Appendix B Geothermal plant “Geotermia Uniejów” In 1978 a company looking for oil and natural gas came across hot springs in Uniejów. At this time, the Polish Geological Institute created a hydro-geological bore-hole, IGH-1. In 1990–1991 two new geothermal bore-holes PIG/AGH-1 and PIG/AGH-2 (Fig. B.1) were created. In 1999 the Voivodeship Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Łódź as well as Uniejów Municipality set up a limited company “Geotermia Uniejów”. One of the most important uses of the geothermal water, which is exploited by “Geotermia Uniejów” company, is to provide heating for the town. The new geothermal system has replaced 10

local coal-fired boilers as well as 160 boilers in houses. The boiler system consists of two parts. The first is a geothermal block and the second is a “biomass” block which consists of two boilers fed with wood chippings (an “oil” block was previously used). This block is used for heating the network water up to the right temperature during peak heating power demand (Fig. B.2). The source from which hot water is exploited in Uniejów has artesian conditions and the artesian flow pressure reaches 0.26 MPa. The exploitation of thermal water and heat recovery takes place in a closed circuit. After passing through a filtering system, underground water passes to a set of five pumps of total capacity of 120 m3/h. Next, it is pumped to the central heating and municipal network warm water exchangers. After giving up its heat in the exchangers, the exploited water is cooled to temperatures of 40–45 ºC and directed through absorbing bore-holes PIG/AGH-1 and IGH-1 to the same aquifer (Fig. B.3). The heat distribution system consists of a network of pipelines made from pre-insulated steel pipes with a total length of 10 km. It is equipped with individual measuring devices and valves. The geothermal heat production plant and associated heating network are controlled and monitored by an integrated computer system, which optimises effectiveness of work and reduces any energy loss. 2/3 of Uniejów inhabitants benefit from geothermal heating. Apart from the individual customers, geothermics is also used by collective customers such as Termy Uniejów (Uniejów Thermal Pools), schools, kindergartens, office buildings and a sports hall.

Uniejów Thermal Pools The Uniejów Thermal Pools using medical hot brine were opened in 2008. Currently, the town of Uniejów is in the process of applying for a spa status. At the moment, the tourists have three pool basins at their disposal (the centre will be extended):  a swimming pool basin with a temperature of 25–27 °C during summer period and 28–30 °C during winter,  a brine basin with a temperature of 33 °C during the summer period and 36 °C during winter,  a children's basin with a temperature of 30 °C during summer (Fig. B.4).

Fig. B.1. The bore-hole PIG/AGH-2 in Uniejów (photography B. Igliński).

Fig. B.2. Heat exchangers in geothermal plant (photography B. Igliński).

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Fig. B.3. A diagram of the geothermal system in Uniejów.

Fig. B.4. Swimming pool for children in Uniejów (photography B. Igliński).

Fig. B.6. Geothermal fountain (photography B. Igliński).

References

Fig. B.5. “Geothermal canons in Uniejów” (photography B. Igliński).

In the immediate vicinity of the Uniejów Thermal Pool complex there is a full-size football pitch where the turf is heated with thermal water. Uniejów also has three operating geothermal fountains producing hot water, which serves as an additional tourist attraction (Fig. B.5 and Fig. B.6).

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