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Renewable energy to improve energy situation in African island states
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 176–183
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Renewable energy to improve energy situation in African island states ⁎
T
Dinesh Surroop , Pravesh Raghoo University of Mauritius, Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Africa Islands Energy situation Power generation Renewable energy
The energy situation of the African island states which include Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles are overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels with paradoxically high potential of renewable energy which are sparsely developed. This paper lay emphasis on the present electricity situation in these countries and highlights the potential of renewable energy resources on their territories. Among Africa islands, demographic and economic features are dissimilar and their power sector is complex by unique challenges. It is seen that there is a critical lack of electricity in Guinea-Bissau and Madagascar, which are 21% and 13% respectively, due to political instability and high spending on diesel. Moreover, the electricity consumption per capita is alarming in Guinea-Bissau, Comoros and Madagascar where it is below the average consumption for low income countries. Sustainable energy supply can be achieved by renewable energy sources, however, not all renewable resources are technically and economically feasible for development in these countries, for example wind in Comoros and hydro in Mauritius have little potential – which this paper elaborated further. Based on these analysis, a roadmap was developed, on to how to address some of the energy issues in these countries and accelerate the uptake of renewable energy. Through energy governance reform, political decision makers can drive change within their government, especially when a reform entails opening market opportunities and stimulating private participation and exerting pressure on existing government agencies to work efficiently.
1. Introduction Rising carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere and associated environmental problems have compelled responsible policymakers to implement policies and to look for innovative strategies to shift towards cleaner energy sources. While the annual increase in renewable energy consumption (biomass and waste, geothermal, ocean, solar, wind and hydro) is expected to be almost five times higher than for fossil fuels by 2030, the latter will still be the dominant primary energy source to satisfy global energy demand by the target year [1]. This is not unfavourable but simply means that mankind has to increase effort to speed up the integration of more renewable energy in the global energy system. In this context, it is essential to firstly analyse the existing energy system of a country before further planning is made to develop their energy sector in a more sustainable way. This paper provides a picture of the energy situation in the African island states and lays emphasis on the prospects for renewable energy development on their territories. The paper attempts to bridge the gap in literature on energy sector development in African islands which has been vaguely studied in the scientific discourse [2]. The structure of the article is as follows: after the introduction and
⁎
methodology for data collection and analysis (Section 2), Section 3 highlights their present electricity industry – their electrification status, energy profile, installed capacity and contribution of renewable energy for electricity generation. Section 4 discusses the various types of renewable energy resources – their availability and exploitable capacity in the selected countries. Lastly, Section 5 presents the conclusion of this study. 2. Data collection and analysis The countries selected in this study are progressive island countries located in the African region; namely Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles. With the exception of Madagascar, all countries constitute of a number of small island archipelagos, spread over the Indian and Atlantic Ocean. Madagascar originates from a huge land mass detached from the supercontinent Gondwanaland million of years ago to be relocated in the Southern Indian Ocean [3]. 69% of Guinea-Bissau is composed of continental area and the remaining area forms part of the archipelagos of Bissagos [4]. All countries are tropical countries and are highly susceptible to recurrent cyclones [5]. Climate conditions are hot
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Surroop).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.024 Received 11 February 2017; Received in revised form 2 July 2017; Accepted 23 February 2018 1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 88 (2018) 176–183
D. Surroop, P. Raghoo
List of acronyms CEB EAGB EDA EMAE GDP HDI IIAG IPP
JIRAME Jiro sy rano Malagasy MAMWE Gestion de l′Eau et de l′Electricité aux Comores PUC Public Utilities Corporation
Central Electricity Board Empresa De Electricidade E Água da Guiné -Bissau Electricité d′Anjouan Empresa de Água e Electricidade Gross Domestic Product Human Development Index Ibrahim Index of African Governance Independent Power Producer
Measurement units GWh MT MW
gigawatt hour million tonnes megawatts
4th, São Tomé and Príncipe 11th, Comoros 26th, Madagascar 33rd and Guinea-Bissau 43rd [8]. These indicators revealed that Mauritius and Seychelles have greater political stability, sustainable economic opportunities and higher Human Development Indices (HDI) that their counterparts (Table 1) which is 0.777 and 0.772 respectively. Little economic and political stability lead to low HDI as evident by GuineaBissau and Madagascar. However, political stability seems dwindling as evident by drop in IIAG score by 7.6 points for the period 2006–2015. Economic activities in most of these countries are agriculture-based, with the exception of Mauritius which has transited from an agriculture-led economy to a diversified economy comprising of financial services, tourism, textiles and sugar. Efforts are currently ongoing to transform the tourism industry (services sector) in Seychelles where reliable energy provision is a must.
and humid with little variation over the years [5]. Materials and methods in this work were derived from a desktop literature search with statistical data compiled from a wide range of sources including country-level publications, online databases, and working papers from international and intergovernmental agencies, peer-reviewed scholarly works and other think-tank reports. Reliability and accuracy of data collected has been maintained by cross-checking same information with different sources. Based on a literature search, data collected was analysed through simple analytical instruments like graphs and percentages. Simple mathematics was used to derived percentages and figures from raw data collected from the sources mentioned hitherto. Analysis of countries’ electricity industry was conducted by dividing data gathered into two sub-sections which are (1) the electricity access situation and (2) electricity production and supply outlook. One limitation of this article is that it focuses mostly on supply side electricity production, rather that demand side energy consumption, for the reason that government energy entities do not always record data pertaining to the energy sector [6] and data on energy consumption patterns are lacking in many of the selected islands. For comparison and contextualisation, demographic and economic indicators of these countries were provided to represent their market conditions.
3.2. Electricity access There is a wide range of literature on the causes, existing challenges and possible solutions to expand electricity access in African countries and islands [11–21]. The focus here is, however laid on electrification trend in these regions. Besides Mauritius, Seychelles and Cape Verde which became almost fully electrified countries by 2012, electricity access stands as one of the most alarming energy issue in Madagascar and Guinea-Bissau where electrification levels are critically low with little progress to expand electricity access made over the last years (see Table 2). No great improvement is observed for São Tomé and Príncipe for the period 2012–2014, because of under-investment in the energy sector which left generating assets in a poor condition and because of their high reliance on imported energy [22]. Comoros showed commendable improvement with an increase of 24% in electrification rate for the period 2012–2014. For the same period, Guinea-Bissau achieved only 1% increase in electricity access, while Madagascar showed a gradual decrease in electrification rate since 2010. Reason for poor energy performance in these two countries can be attributed to a dysfunctional political system as evident by the relatively low IIAG ranking attributed to these countries (Table 1). Since independence in 1974, it was reported that Guinea-Bissau has been plunged into high level corruption, unstable politics, numerous coups d′état which have eroded the country's infrastructural base and provoked social instability to a large extent [23]. Similarly, in March 2009, Madagascar was faced to a coup d′état which installed significant tension within the civil society
3. Energy profile of African island states 3.1. Macroeconomic indicators Table 1 provides demographic and economic features of selected countries which are highly distinct. Seychelles is the smallest among the selected countries with the highest per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) followed by Mauritius. Even though Mauritius is over two hundred times smaller than Madagascar with incomparable population size, the GDP per capita of Madagascar is much lower due to its larger population. In terms of economic competitiveness, the Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016 ranked Mauritius first in sub-Saharan Africa and 46th globally while Seychelles was ranked 8th (97th globally), Cape Verde 12th (112th globally) and Madagascar 25th (130th worldwide) in the African region [7]. In 2015, Mauritius was also designated first among 54 African countries in political stability and good governance through the Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) [8]. In the same IIAG ranking, Cape Verde was ranked 3rd, Seychelles Table 1 Macroeconomic indicators of selected African states (Compiled from [8–10]).
Cape Verde São T & P Comoros Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
Population (thousand)
GDP per capita (US $/cap)
Area (km2)
HDI, rank
IIAG scores
514 186 770 1800 23,600 1300 91
3450 1670 790 550 440 9630 14,120
4000 960 1900 36,000 587,000 2040 455
0.646, 0.555, 0.503, 0.420, 0.510, 0.777, 0.772,
73.0 (+1.9) 69.5 (+2.9) 50.3 (+3.7) 41.3, (+4.0) 48.5, (−7.6) 79.9 (+2.3) 72.6 (+4.0)
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122th 143th 159th 178th 154th 63th 64th
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losses originate from external sources such as electricity theft, vandalism, inaccurate meters among others [38]. High dependence on petroleum products, mostly oil make these countries susceptible to supply disruptions and fluctuating oil prices on the international market. In 2008, oil imports were over 10% of total imports imparting huge financial implications to the utility company of almost all countries as indicated in Table 3. Despite weak infrastructures and intrinsic technical deficiencies, limiting reliance of fossil fuels remains one of their main motivation to shift to renewable energy. There is a certain level of renewable energy penetration within the power sector of these countries, even though renewable energy accounts only for a tiny share. For example, Mauritius has exploited five renewable sources even though as at 2014, 74.8% of their electricity sector were fossil fuel-based. Countries like Madagascar and Seychelles, being overwhelmingly dependent on diesel, have developed only one renewable energy source, as illustrated in Fig. 1. On a country-level basis:
Table 2 Access to electricity for the period 2009–2014 (Compiled from [26–28]). Electrification rate (%)
Cape Verde São T & P Comoros Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
2010
2012
2014
National
National
National
Urban
Rural
94 59 45 20 15 100 97
96 59 69 21 13 100 98
100 70 89 37 22 100 98
89 40 62 6 8 100 98
17 99
and disintegrated state institutions to some extent [24]. Under these circumstances, it is unlikely for relevant authorities to soundly coordinate electrification programmes as robust institutional and administrative capacities which can positively influence energy performance in these countries [25] were lacking.
• Cape Verde
3.3. Power generation In electrified regions of these countries, electricity production is dependent on imported fossil fuels and locally available renewable energy resources. São Tomé and Príncipe is the only African island which has some fossil fuel reserves but exploration of these reserves has not yet started. Based on the work of Sovacool [29], it can be deduced that necessary instruments and oil development policies are in place to exploit these reserves in the most transparent way. Electricity generation is shared between state-owned power producers and Independent Power Producers (IPPs) but transmission and distribution rights are exclusively attributed to the national utility company. The performance of utility companies in these countries is also an issue, characterised by significant technical and non-technical losses. Technical losses are given in Table 3 and include electricity that is wasted at sub-stations, transformers and on transmission lines [38]. Mauritius recorded an average technical loss of 6.86% in 2014 which have been further reduced to 6.59% in 2015 [37]. Guinea-Bissau and Comoros have technical losses which are exorbitantly high – above 45% while Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe recorded losses in the order of 27%. These losses is a huge hurdle for electrification programmes as it reduces electricity available for consumption at consumers’ end and decrease revenue of utility companies [39]. Despite huge transmission losses, Comoros’ electrification programmes have been quite fruitful because of government intervention to inject funds into the national utility company and to keep the company running. Non-technical losses cannot be accurately computed because these
•
•
For the period 2010–2014, total electricity supply in Cape Verde has increased by 22% (averagely 6% per year) [40]. As at 2013, 300 GWh which represented 71% of total electricity produced was provided by 18 diesel power stations, 26% of the total by wind energy and 3% by solar photovoltaic systems [32,40]. Rising electricity demand in Cape Verde was met mostly by renewable energy sources, mostly wind where capacity addition, was in the order of 24 MW and 2 MW was from solar [32]. For the period 2006–2013, there was large development in wind energy in the country where electricity generated from wind increased by 91% [32]. São Tomé and Príncipe As at 2014, 90% of electricity production was derived from fossil fuels. For the last 10 years, electricity consumption in São Tomé and Príncipe has increased by nearly twofold whereby this increase in demand has been systematically complemented by electricity supplied from imported diesel [22]. Hydro is the single renewable energy source developed in the country which representes 10% of the electricity production. However with the gradual increase in electricity consumption over the years and no investment in hydropower, the share that hydropower occupies within the electricity mix has decreased by nearly 67% in the last decade [32]. Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissau for its part is entirely dependent on thermal-based (diesel) power generation [4]. Since 2000, following political turmoil in the country, the power sector has virtually collapsed with no development in the power sector [4]. Institutions falling under the energy sector has been ineffective in data collection and conducting feasibility studies to comprehensively assess community impacts of having access to electricity, economic costs and to analyse alternative energy roadmaps [6].
Table 3 Power plant capacity on African island states (Compiled from [30–37]). Cape Verde
São T & P
Utility Company Electra EMAE Year 2013 2013 Installed Capacity (MW) Total 142 28 Thermal 109 26 Renewable 33 2 Peak demand n.a. n.a. Total electricity consumption (GWh) and Transmission losses (%) Consumption 390 71 Losses 29 26 Net energy imports, 2009 Share of total imports (%) 11.8 16.1 Cost (US $ million) 87 18
Comoros
Guinea-Bissau
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
MAMWE, EDA 2013
EAGB 2014
JIRAME 2014
CEB 2014
PUC 2014
26 24 1 11
26 26 – n.a.
500 330 170 320
766 690 76 446
86 79 7 n.a.
43 48
32 47
1487 33
2642 6.86
300 n.a.
n.a. n.a.
n.a. n.a.
10.2 327
19.2 848
25.3 164
n.a. means data not available for corresponding year.
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Fig. 1. Electricity production in case study countries, by source (Data sources [31–33]).
• Comoros
•
•
Similar, in Comoros the electricity sector is highly petroleum intensive with nearly 85% of electricity produced from diesel in 2014. With rapid expansion in electrification in the country, electricity demand is expected to rise by 8% in Grand Comore and Moheli (two islands of Comoros) and by 15% in Anjouan [41], the second largest island of the Comoros. Hydro accounts for 15% of electricity production but little improvement in hydropower is seen over the last decade with power produced from hydro almost constant, and capacity additions mostly by diesel [32]. Madagascar Interestingly, the thermal installed capacity in Madagascar is 330 MW and hydro capacity is 170 MW, however most electricity is produced from hydropower which is around 56% of the total production [33]. Electricity demand has increased by 5% every year for the last 20 years and this demand was met mostly by electricity derived from hydro[36]. For the period 2006–2014, Malagasy authorities has added over 50 MW of hydropower on the national grid which represented an increase of 26% for this period [33]. Being an economically fragile state, Madagascar faces huge challenges to purchase oil from the market and hence, the country do not run diesel power plants to the optimum level to cut down energy costs. As a result, the population is penalised from electricity deprivation. Mauritius Electricity demand in Mauritius is on a constant rise of 3.3% per year and the country has, by now, gathered experience in five renewable sources where 22% of the total production was from renewable energy sources in 2014 [31,42]. Bagasse, a sugarcane byproduct, is the most exploitable renewable energy source. During
•
crop season, when sugarcane is available, the bagasse is used to generate 15% of total electricity (456 GWh). During off-season, the power plant uses coal as a substitute for bagasse. Coal input for power generation increased from 34.7% share of total fuel input in 2005 to 53.8% in 2014 while for the same period, oil input decreased from 34.2% to 25.2% [31]. In 2014, hydro accounted for 4% of total electricity produced but due to exhaustion of technically possible exploitable sites for large-scale hydropower plants, no major investment was seen over the last years and power generated from hydro stood almost stagnant over the last 10 years. Solar and wind were developed with a 15 MW solar farm, commissioned in 2014 [43] and a 9.35 MW wind farm in 2015 [44]. In 2014, solar photovoltaics accounted for a modest share of 0.8% within the Mauritian power sector. Landfill gas (methane) produced from organic waste decomposition is injected in engines to generate 20.4 GWh per year which accounted for 0.7% of total electricity production as at 2014 [31]. Seychelles Seychelles is heavily dependent on diesel and wind energy. In 2014, 98% of total electricity production came from diesel power plants and 7 GWh from wind farms which represented only 2%. Consumers can be divided into households, industries and services sector. Households take 27% (81.7 GWh) of electricity supplied by the PUC (Public Utilities Corporation) and industries consumed 28% (82.8 GWh). The remaining is used by the services sector. Considerately, growth in the emerging tourism sector leads to higher electricity demand in Seychelles which is complemented by ‘auto-producers’. The latter supplied 75 GWh to the services sector through off-grid systems [35].
Fig. 2. Per capita electricity consumption in case study countries, 2014 (Compiled from [10,45]; authors’ calculations).
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unpredictable nature of solar has often been raised as an issue for solar development [50], but with regards to the increasing use of solar photovoltaic systems worldwide and in Africa, it is evident that ways to address these challenges are not unsurmountable.
From the above analysis, two pertinent energy issues can be identified. Firstly, low level of electricity access in some countries mainly caused by political instability and secondly there is low exploitation of renewable energy sources. To increase development, there is a need to raise electricity consumption level at end–users in most of these countries. Taking a closer look at Fig. 2 and Table 1, higher per capita electricity consumption is synonymous to greater development. Mauritius has surpassed the average per capita electricity consumption threshold for middle-income countries while Seychelles has exceeded world average threshold accelerating economic development at an unprecedented rate. Other countries still have a long way to achieve the same level of development and electricity consumption for which the adoption of renewable energy is highly sought. Per capita electricity consumption in Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe are slightly above low-income threshold whereas the situation is very alarming in Guinea-Bissau, Comoros and Madagascar.
4.2. Wind energy Wind energy is a promising renewable energy resource that can meet rising electricity demand [51]. At adequately high velocity, the kinetic energy of the fast blowing gusts can be harness to rotate a turbine and produce electricity. The northern and southern parts of Madagascar have a wind speed of around 7 m/s (50 m high) which is favourable for electricity generation [52]. In Mauritius, wind regime can reach a magnitude of 8 m/s at 30 m height [53] and in GuineaBissau, wind velocity is between 2.5 and 7 m/s at a 50 m height [4]. Since wind energy depends on climatic conditions, wind velocity varies from location to location and as such can deliver different power outputs. In Comoros for instance, while in the past there has been some wind installations to drive pumps to access groundwater, electricity however cannot be generated as wind regime is inadequate, in the order of 3 m/s [41]. This situation repeats itself in Seychelles where some wind farm installations exist but faced with unreliable wind assessment exercises the exact potential of wind energy in other locations is understudied. Wind measurements in São Tomé and Príncipe show little potential, however an exact assessment of wind energy potential is absent which decelerate possible development in wind energy in the country [54]. Having a favourable wind velocity of 5–7 m/s at 50 m height [55], the government of Cape Verde has formed a parastatal body with the consorted effort from a number of shareholders to form Cabeólica, which is responsible for wind energy development in the country. One of Cabeólica achievement is quite impressive as in a oneyear time span, the company supplied Electra enough electricity to supply 21% of the electricity demand [40].
4. Renewable energy potential Renewable energy sources have all the important elements to ensure a sustainable energy supply and it is no surprise why global interest is concentrated on the reduction of carbon emissions through the integration of more renewable energy within the power sector [46]. Promoting renewable energy can address the electricity demand-supply gap in a country hence increasing energy access to households [47] and can decarbonise the grid and mitigate the climate change effect. There is already a positive improvement in electricity produced from renewable energy which has been rising gradually since 2006 in some of the countries (see Table 4). 4.1. Solar energy For the period 2000–2015, cumulative installed capacity of solar photovoltaic systems in the world has risen by nearly 27,000 times from 0.88 GW to 222 GW. In the African continent, solar development has gained much momentum increasing from 500 MW in 2013 to 2100 MW in 2015, with the largest installed capacity in South Africa followed by Algeria. With recent solar development worldwide, there is no doubt that solar photovoltaic systems can compete with fossil fuel technologies [48]. In the selected countries, daily solar radiation ranges from 5000 to 6500 W/h/m2 which can be considered as technically feasible for solar energy development [47]. Mauritius has a daily solar radiation of 6000 W/h/m2 [49], Guinea-Bissau and Comoros some 5000 W/h/m2 [4,41]. Capturing solar energy is a cost-effective and feasible option to electrify remote settlements as the technology can readily be used to supply households that cannot be connected to the grid. A hypothetical un-electrified household spends between US $84 to US $270 per year to satisfy energy needs (kerosene lamps, candles, batteries) whereby a solar home system of 20 W costs around US $225 and of 1 kW costs between US $725 to US $1270 per year [48]. Considering the improvement in energy service quality (bulbs are brighter than kerosene lamps) and health benefits (see Ref. [19]), solar system is regarded as an economically viable option. Concerns about the variability and
4.3. Hydropower potential Compared to wind and solar, hydro offers two key benefits which are: (1) high efficiency energy conversion (about 80%) and (2) the ability to recycle already used water and decrease the effects of seasonal fluctuations [47]. However, hydro is site specific and it cannot be generally stated that the potential is high in all countries. While in Mauritius, large scale electricity production from flowing water has nearly reached saturation point by the exhaustion of all available sites, there is still a possibility to develop mini and micro-hydro power plants and to increase hydro-electricity production through dam improvements. However, a decrease in the share of electricity supplied by hydropower is expected by 2025 in Mauritius as the inability to develop hydro sites cannot outweigh rising electricity demand [56]. A similar situation in Seychelles and Cape Verde where possible sites cannot be technically and economically exploited for hydropower [57]. In Madagascar, the hydropower potential is in the order of 7800 MW where only 2% is currently utilised [36]. It is estimated the 184 MW hydroelectricity can be developed along the rivers of Corubal and Geba in Guinea-Bissau [4]. In São Tomé and Príncipe, sixteen potential sites were identified which has a total exploitable capacity of 96 MW [22]. Three difficulties that these countries face to develop these sites are: (1) inability to secure funding or to provide an ‘enticing’ investment climate for the private sector, (2) lack of in-depth and accurate hydro resource assessment to determine optimum exploitable capacity and (3) weak institutional capacities (for e.g., no hydrographic and bathymetric services). Addressing these challenges with a high level of commitment from policymakers will tremendously move hydroelectricity forward.
Table 4 Electricity production from renewable energy (GWh), 2006–2014 (Source: Ref. [34]).
Cape Verde STP Comoros GB Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
7 8 5
7 10 5
6 8 5
5 7 5
14 5 5
28 6 5
74 7 5
90 7 5
114 7 5
638 523
720 552
701 595
742 609
713 577
693 549
759 567
813 594 7
847 596 7
4.4. Bioenergy Bioenergy is the energy that is produced from the processing of
STP=São Tomé and Príncipe, GB=Guinea–Bissau.
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Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles is estimated to have a power potential of averagely 15–25 kW/m [64] and at least 7 kW/m is expected in Cape Verde [65]. While the potential exists, little has been done to assess economic, social and environmental feasibility of marine energy development. Policy mechanisms of enhance marine energy uptake is also not existent at this point.
Table 5 Power generation potential from agricultural residues (Source: Ref. [59]). Country
Cereal production (MT)
Agro-residues (MT)
Power potential at 30% availability (MW)
Madagascar Guinea-Bissau Comoros
3.391 0.171 0.021
3.391 0.171 0.021
127 6 1
5. Roadmap to increase renewable energy in selected countries biomass which is organic matter mainly from animal manure, forestry, municipal solid waste and agro-residues. Bioelectricity generation in the world has increased from 170 TWh in 2000 to 462 TWh in 2013 [58] and is expected to be the dominant renewable energy source to satisfy world energy demand by 2030 [1]. Biomass is highly praised to supply grid quality electricity [59] that is why it has gained much interest among policymakers. In most of the countries bioelectricity potential has been understudied and little is known on its technical potential. Mauritius has exploited bagasse but with growing population and a transition of the economy to non-agricultural sectors, vast portions of land is used for buildings, limiting bagasse availability to further develop bioelectricity. In this context, it was suggested to use cane tops and leaves (CTL) for power generation. Feasibility testing has already been concluded and policy mechanisms set in the 2016–2017 National Budget to encourage exploitation of CTL for power generation by power plants [60]. The production of cereal in selected African countries produces large amount of residual organic matter which represents significant potential for power generation. If only 30% of agroresidues is used to produce electricity, this represents 127 MW capacity addition in Madagascar, 6 MW in Guinea-Bissau and 1 MW in Comoros. The role that biomass has to play in the Malagasy energy sector is commendable. Table 5 shows power generation potential from some agro-residues and as observed its contribution to improve the Malagasy energy sector is commendable.
It is also observed that whether it is an attempt to expand electrification or to decarbonise the grid by integrating more renewable energy, a common hindrance that affect these countries is poor political will. Political decisions have a great influence on renewable energy planning and in the implementation of conducive programmes to expand electrification [46]. Besides technical, economic, financial and market barriers (See Ref. [68]), there is also a need of strong political commitment to drive and coordinate the activities of the so-called ‘policy enablers’ (see Ref. [6]) that could have significant impact on renewable energy and electrification programmes. In an atmosphere of good political stability, forward-looking governmental entities can create policy mechanisms to open market opportunities and stimulate private sector participation [69]. As a consequence, this creates considerable pressure on governmental agencies to work effectively and ‘deliver the goods’ as it should be. Hence, there will be a high probability that the existing issues with regards to weak electricity infrastructure in Cape Verde [40], capacity shortages of São Tomé and Príncipe [22], poor collection efficiency in Comoros [41], and disordered production and electricity transmission infrastructure in Guinea-Bissau [4] to be overcome to set a proper investment climate for the private sector. High political will also entails the setting up of institutional capacities to safeguard consumers’ rights through adequate tariff structure and monitoring schemes [46]. Existent data gaps can be eliminated as relevant data with respect to electricity production and consumption patterns, greenhouse gas emissions, resource assessment studies and policy frameworks are readily available to investors and other actors along the energy development chain [6]. Institutional frameworks are extremely important to build stronger power purchase agreements with the private sector and to boost market activity by providing a transparent policy environment and incentives like tax rebates and subsidies [14]. Following efforts from development and financial agencies like the Global Environment Facility (GEF), World Bank, European Investment Bank (EIB), EuropAid and the African Development Bank (AfDB) among others to increase renewable energy penetration within the grid, it is less likely to claim that financial instruments are difficult to secure in the African region as they can benefit from many of these facilities [14]. Hence, under firm energy governance and with suitable roadmaps in the African island states, renewable energy can be accelerated. Barriers can be addressed and attempts to integrate renewable energy and expand electrification programmes will hopefully, be fruitful. Technical barriers such as with regards to the intermittent nature of renewable energy and design, installation and performance of renewable energy technologies – which is a reason why Comoros do not want to invest in solar photovoltaic systems [41] – can be subdued through training and capacity building of local people. Training and capacity building through conferences, seminars and workshops will provide the necessary expertise and knowledge to practitioners regarding supply distribution technologies, demand forecasts, supply and demand-side management and pricing mechanism among other which is essential to foster a substantial development of the renewable energy sector [47]. Hence, despite some technical deficiencies in power production and supply in African island states, the potential to integrate renewable energy in the power sector exists, but the will power to develop these sustainable resources is required.
4.5. Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the Earth's crust in the form of heat [60]. Contrary to wind and solar, geothermal energy is not an intermittent energy supply and can supply electricity continuously [61]. Since most of the islands are of volcanic origins, it is believed that the geothermal potential in these regions is high. Mauritius has fixed a target to achieve 2% electricity generation by geothermal sources by 2025 [62], but so far there is no resource assessment study conducted. In Comoros, while detailed studies are still ongoing to identify the exploitable capacity of geothermal energy, two regions have been selected based on a preliminary investigation in 2008 – Karthala and La Grille. Detailed studies is expected to locate suitable drilling sites and the output of some geophysical and geochemical studies which will confirm its technical feasibility [63]. Exploration of geothermal energy in other countries has not been investigated, most probably because of political factors and less conducive energy policies to exploit renewable energy sources. 4.6. Marine-based energy Marine-based energy is an emerging and alternative energy resource where electricity is produced from the movement of waves and tides. Development of marine-based renewable energy is still at an early stage in most countries, but some studies like Hammar et al. [64] and Bernardino et al. [65] assessed the technical feasibility of wave energy development in some Western Indian Ocean islands (Mauritius, Madagascar, Comoros) and in Cape Verde, respectively. Marine energy is particular encouraging in islands than continental areas as islands have the available water depth and shoreline distance to implement marinebased renewable energy technologies [66,67]. The south-eastern part of 181
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6. Conclusion
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In this paper, firstly the current energy sector in African island states is highlighted and major emphasis is laid on the potential for renewable energy in the region. It has been seen that barriers for energy access in these countries are various – while a lack of political commitment is hindering electricity access in Madagascar and Guinea-Bissau, other countries have been faced with limited investment in the energy sector or technical hindrances that have influenced electrification rate in these selected countries. Renewable energy can more likely be the solution to improve electrification rate, decarbonise electricity grid, improve sustainable development, mitigate climate change and most importantly, to enhance livelihood and improve standard of living but renewable energy development in most of these countries is average, if not low. The study showed that these African island states have the necessary technical potential of different renewable energy sources that can be exploitable but efficient enabling market and policy mechanisms are required to accelerate renewable energy uptake in all of these countries. The paper thus argues the need of high level of political will and adequate energy governance to bring institutional reforms in the energy sector of these countries. Identified barriers to renewable energy can be overcome and solutions can be well–established by taking into consideration territorial data of these countries (macroeconomics, technical potential of the renewable energy source, demography, geography). Acknowledgements The authors of this paper would like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments which significant improved the overall quality of the paper. References [1] IEA. World energy outlook. France: International Energy Agency Paris; 2009. [2] Shirley R, Kammen D. Renewable energy sector development in the Caribbean: current trends and lessons from history. Energy Policy 2013;57:244–52. [3] Salman D, Abdul I. Development of the mozambique and rovuma basins, offshore Mozambique. Sediment Geol 1995;96:7–41. [4] Seck L. Renewable energies in West Africa. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeir (GTZ) GmbH; 2009. [5] Chen D, Chen HW. Using the Köppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: an example for 1901–2010. Environ Dev 2013;6:69–79. [6] Timilsina GR, Shah KU. Filling the gaps: policy supports and interventions for scaling up renewable energy development in Small Island Developing States. Energy Policy 2016;98(65):62. [7] WEF. The global competitiveness report 2015–2016. Geneva: World Economic Forum; 2015. [8] IIAG. 2016 Ibrahim index of African governance – a decade of African Governance 2006–2015. Mo Ibrahim Found 2016. [9] UNDP. Human development report 2015. USA: United Nations Development Programme; 2015. [10] World Bank. The little green data book 2016. Washington DC: World Bank Group; 2016. [11] Brew–Hammond A. Energy access in Africa: challenges ahead. Energy Policy 2010;38:2291–301. [12] Dornan M. Access to electricity in small Island developing states of the Pacific: issues and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;31:726–35. [13] Eberhard A, Rosnes O, Shkartan M, Vennemo H. Africa's power infrastructure – investment integration, efficiency. Washington DC: World Bank; 2011. [14] Gujba H, Thorne S, Mulugetta Y, Rai K, Sokona Y. Financing low carbon energy access in Africa. Energy Policy 2012;47:71–8. [15] Mensah GS, Kemausuor F, Brew-Hammond A. Energy access indicators and trends in Ghana. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;30:317–23. [16] Mulder P, Tembe J. Rural electrification in an imperfect world: a case study from Mozambique 2008;36:2785–94. [17] Oseni MO. Improving households’access to electricity and energy consumption pattern in Nigeria: renewable energy alternative. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:3967–74. [18] Prasad G. Energy sector reform, energy transitions and the poor in Africa. Energy Policy 2008;36:2806–11. [19] Prasad G. Improving access to energy in sub–Saharan Africa. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2011;3:248–53. [20] Uddin N, Taplin R. Regional cooperation in widening energy access and also mitigating climate change: current programs and future potential. Glob Environ
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com/sites/default/files/pdf/budgetspeech2016-17.pdf〉 [Accessed 24 September 2016]. Banos R, Manzano–Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Gil C, Alcayde A, Gomez J. Optimization methods applied to renewable and sustainable energy: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1753–66. MEPU. Long term energy strategy 2009–2025. Ministry of Energy and Public Utilities; 2009. Chaheire M, Chamassi M. Geothermal development in the Comoros. In: Proceedings of the 4th African Rift Geothermal Conference 2012, Nairobi, Kenya, 21–23 November. Hammar L, Ehnberg J, Mavume A, Cuamba BC, Molander S. Renewable ocean energy in the Western Indian Ocean. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:4938–50.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Renewable energy to improve energy situation in African island states ⁎
T
Dinesh Surroop , Pravesh Raghoo University of Mauritius, Department of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Africa Islands Energy situation Power generation Renewable energy
The energy situation of the African island states which include Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles are overwhelmingly dependent on fossil fuels with paradoxically high potential of renewable energy which are sparsely developed. This paper lay emphasis on the present electricity situation in these countries and highlights the potential of renewable energy resources on their territories. Among Africa islands, demographic and economic features are dissimilar and their power sector is complex by unique challenges. It is seen that there is a critical lack of electricity in Guinea-Bissau and Madagascar, which are 21% and 13% respectively, due to political instability and high spending on diesel. Moreover, the electricity consumption per capita is alarming in Guinea-Bissau, Comoros and Madagascar where it is below the average consumption for low income countries. Sustainable energy supply can be achieved by renewable energy sources, however, not all renewable resources are technically and economically feasible for development in these countries, for example wind in Comoros and hydro in Mauritius have little potential – which this paper elaborated further. Based on these analysis, a roadmap was developed, on to how to address some of the energy issues in these countries and accelerate the uptake of renewable energy. Through energy governance reform, political decision makers can drive change within their government, especially when a reform entails opening market opportunities and stimulating private participation and exerting pressure on existing government agencies to work efficiently.
1. Introduction Rising carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere and associated environmental problems have compelled responsible policymakers to implement policies and to look for innovative strategies to shift towards cleaner energy sources. While the annual increase in renewable energy consumption (biomass and waste, geothermal, ocean, solar, wind and hydro) is expected to be almost five times higher than for fossil fuels by 2030, the latter will still be the dominant primary energy source to satisfy global energy demand by the target year [1]. This is not unfavourable but simply means that mankind has to increase effort to speed up the integration of more renewable energy in the global energy system. In this context, it is essential to firstly analyse the existing energy system of a country before further planning is made to develop their energy sector in a more sustainable way. This paper provides a picture of the energy situation in the African island states and lays emphasis on the prospects for renewable energy development on their territories. The paper attempts to bridge the gap in literature on energy sector development in African islands which has been vaguely studied in the scientific discourse [2]. The structure of the article is as follows: after the introduction and
⁎
methodology for data collection and analysis (Section 2), Section 3 highlights their present electricity industry – their electrification status, energy profile, installed capacity and contribution of renewable energy for electricity generation. Section 4 discusses the various types of renewable energy resources – their availability and exploitable capacity in the selected countries. Lastly, Section 5 presents the conclusion of this study. 2. Data collection and analysis The countries selected in this study are progressive island countries located in the African region; namely Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles. With the exception of Madagascar, all countries constitute of a number of small island archipelagos, spread over the Indian and Atlantic Ocean. Madagascar originates from a huge land mass detached from the supercontinent Gondwanaland million of years ago to be relocated in the Southern Indian Ocean [3]. 69% of Guinea-Bissau is composed of continental area and the remaining area forms part of the archipelagos of Bissagos [4]. All countries are tropical countries and are highly susceptible to recurrent cyclones [5]. Climate conditions are hot
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Surroop).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.02.024 Received 11 February 2017; Received in revised form 2 July 2017; Accepted 23 February 2018 1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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List of acronyms CEB EAGB EDA EMAE GDP HDI IIAG IPP
JIRAME Jiro sy rano Malagasy MAMWE Gestion de l′Eau et de l′Electricité aux Comores PUC Public Utilities Corporation
Central Electricity Board Empresa De Electricidade E Água da Guiné -Bissau Electricité d′Anjouan Empresa de Água e Electricidade Gross Domestic Product Human Development Index Ibrahim Index of African Governance Independent Power Producer
Measurement units GWh MT MW
gigawatt hour million tonnes megawatts
4th, São Tomé and Príncipe 11th, Comoros 26th, Madagascar 33rd and Guinea-Bissau 43rd [8]. These indicators revealed that Mauritius and Seychelles have greater political stability, sustainable economic opportunities and higher Human Development Indices (HDI) that their counterparts (Table 1) which is 0.777 and 0.772 respectively. Little economic and political stability lead to low HDI as evident by GuineaBissau and Madagascar. However, political stability seems dwindling as evident by drop in IIAG score by 7.6 points for the period 2006–2015. Economic activities in most of these countries are agriculture-based, with the exception of Mauritius which has transited from an agriculture-led economy to a diversified economy comprising of financial services, tourism, textiles and sugar. Efforts are currently ongoing to transform the tourism industry (services sector) in Seychelles where reliable energy provision is a must.
and humid with little variation over the years [5]. Materials and methods in this work were derived from a desktop literature search with statistical data compiled from a wide range of sources including country-level publications, online databases, and working papers from international and intergovernmental agencies, peer-reviewed scholarly works and other think-tank reports. Reliability and accuracy of data collected has been maintained by cross-checking same information with different sources. Based on a literature search, data collected was analysed through simple analytical instruments like graphs and percentages. Simple mathematics was used to derived percentages and figures from raw data collected from the sources mentioned hitherto. Analysis of countries’ electricity industry was conducted by dividing data gathered into two sub-sections which are (1) the electricity access situation and (2) electricity production and supply outlook. One limitation of this article is that it focuses mostly on supply side electricity production, rather that demand side energy consumption, for the reason that government energy entities do not always record data pertaining to the energy sector [6] and data on energy consumption patterns are lacking in many of the selected islands. For comparison and contextualisation, demographic and economic indicators of these countries were provided to represent their market conditions.
3.2. Electricity access There is a wide range of literature on the causes, existing challenges and possible solutions to expand electricity access in African countries and islands [11–21]. The focus here is, however laid on electrification trend in these regions. Besides Mauritius, Seychelles and Cape Verde which became almost fully electrified countries by 2012, electricity access stands as one of the most alarming energy issue in Madagascar and Guinea-Bissau where electrification levels are critically low with little progress to expand electricity access made over the last years (see Table 2). No great improvement is observed for São Tomé and Príncipe for the period 2012–2014, because of under-investment in the energy sector which left generating assets in a poor condition and because of their high reliance on imported energy [22]. Comoros showed commendable improvement with an increase of 24% in electrification rate for the period 2012–2014. For the same period, Guinea-Bissau achieved only 1% increase in electricity access, while Madagascar showed a gradual decrease in electrification rate since 2010. Reason for poor energy performance in these two countries can be attributed to a dysfunctional political system as evident by the relatively low IIAG ranking attributed to these countries (Table 1). Since independence in 1974, it was reported that Guinea-Bissau has been plunged into high level corruption, unstable politics, numerous coups d′état which have eroded the country's infrastructural base and provoked social instability to a large extent [23]. Similarly, in March 2009, Madagascar was faced to a coup d′état which installed significant tension within the civil society
3. Energy profile of African island states 3.1. Macroeconomic indicators Table 1 provides demographic and economic features of selected countries which are highly distinct. Seychelles is the smallest among the selected countries with the highest per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) followed by Mauritius. Even though Mauritius is over two hundred times smaller than Madagascar with incomparable population size, the GDP per capita of Madagascar is much lower due to its larger population. In terms of economic competitiveness, the Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016 ranked Mauritius first in sub-Saharan Africa and 46th globally while Seychelles was ranked 8th (97th globally), Cape Verde 12th (112th globally) and Madagascar 25th (130th worldwide) in the African region [7]. In 2015, Mauritius was also designated first among 54 African countries in political stability and good governance through the Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) [8]. In the same IIAG ranking, Cape Verde was ranked 3rd, Seychelles Table 1 Macroeconomic indicators of selected African states (Compiled from [8–10]).
Cape Verde São T & P Comoros Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
Population (thousand)
GDP per capita (US $/cap)
Area (km2)
HDI, rank
IIAG scores
514 186 770 1800 23,600 1300 91
3450 1670 790 550 440 9630 14,120
4000 960 1900 36,000 587,000 2040 455
0.646, 0.555, 0.503, 0.420, 0.510, 0.777, 0.772,
73.0 (+1.9) 69.5 (+2.9) 50.3 (+3.7) 41.3, (+4.0) 48.5, (−7.6) 79.9 (+2.3) 72.6 (+4.0)
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122th 143th 159th 178th 154th 63th 64th
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losses originate from external sources such as electricity theft, vandalism, inaccurate meters among others [38]. High dependence on petroleum products, mostly oil make these countries susceptible to supply disruptions and fluctuating oil prices on the international market. In 2008, oil imports were over 10% of total imports imparting huge financial implications to the utility company of almost all countries as indicated in Table 3. Despite weak infrastructures and intrinsic technical deficiencies, limiting reliance of fossil fuels remains one of their main motivation to shift to renewable energy. There is a certain level of renewable energy penetration within the power sector of these countries, even though renewable energy accounts only for a tiny share. For example, Mauritius has exploited five renewable sources even though as at 2014, 74.8% of their electricity sector were fossil fuel-based. Countries like Madagascar and Seychelles, being overwhelmingly dependent on diesel, have developed only one renewable energy source, as illustrated in Fig. 1. On a country-level basis:
Table 2 Access to electricity for the period 2009–2014 (Compiled from [26–28]). Electrification rate (%)
Cape Verde São T & P Comoros Guinea-Bissau Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
2010
2012
2014
National
National
National
Urban
Rural
94 59 45 20 15 100 97
96 59 69 21 13 100 98
100 70 89 37 22 100 98
89 40 62 6 8 100 98
17 99
and disintegrated state institutions to some extent [24]. Under these circumstances, it is unlikely for relevant authorities to soundly coordinate electrification programmes as robust institutional and administrative capacities which can positively influence energy performance in these countries [25] were lacking.
• Cape Verde
3.3. Power generation In electrified regions of these countries, electricity production is dependent on imported fossil fuels and locally available renewable energy resources. São Tomé and Príncipe is the only African island which has some fossil fuel reserves but exploration of these reserves has not yet started. Based on the work of Sovacool [29], it can be deduced that necessary instruments and oil development policies are in place to exploit these reserves in the most transparent way. Electricity generation is shared between state-owned power producers and Independent Power Producers (IPPs) but transmission and distribution rights are exclusively attributed to the national utility company. The performance of utility companies in these countries is also an issue, characterised by significant technical and non-technical losses. Technical losses are given in Table 3 and include electricity that is wasted at sub-stations, transformers and on transmission lines [38]. Mauritius recorded an average technical loss of 6.86% in 2014 which have been further reduced to 6.59% in 2015 [37]. Guinea-Bissau and Comoros have technical losses which are exorbitantly high – above 45% while Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe recorded losses in the order of 27%. These losses is a huge hurdle for electrification programmes as it reduces electricity available for consumption at consumers’ end and decrease revenue of utility companies [39]. Despite huge transmission losses, Comoros’ electrification programmes have been quite fruitful because of government intervention to inject funds into the national utility company and to keep the company running. Non-technical losses cannot be accurately computed because these
•
•
For the period 2010–2014, total electricity supply in Cape Verde has increased by 22% (averagely 6% per year) [40]. As at 2013, 300 GWh which represented 71% of total electricity produced was provided by 18 diesel power stations, 26% of the total by wind energy and 3% by solar photovoltaic systems [32,40]. Rising electricity demand in Cape Verde was met mostly by renewable energy sources, mostly wind where capacity addition, was in the order of 24 MW and 2 MW was from solar [32]. For the period 2006–2013, there was large development in wind energy in the country where electricity generated from wind increased by 91% [32]. São Tomé and Príncipe As at 2014, 90% of electricity production was derived from fossil fuels. For the last 10 years, electricity consumption in São Tomé and Príncipe has increased by nearly twofold whereby this increase in demand has been systematically complemented by electricity supplied from imported diesel [22]. Hydro is the single renewable energy source developed in the country which representes 10% of the electricity production. However with the gradual increase in electricity consumption over the years and no investment in hydropower, the share that hydropower occupies within the electricity mix has decreased by nearly 67% in the last decade [32]. Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissau for its part is entirely dependent on thermal-based (diesel) power generation [4]. Since 2000, following political turmoil in the country, the power sector has virtually collapsed with no development in the power sector [4]. Institutions falling under the energy sector has been ineffective in data collection and conducting feasibility studies to comprehensively assess community impacts of having access to electricity, economic costs and to analyse alternative energy roadmaps [6].
Table 3 Power plant capacity on African island states (Compiled from [30–37]). Cape Verde
São T & P
Utility Company Electra EMAE Year 2013 2013 Installed Capacity (MW) Total 142 28 Thermal 109 26 Renewable 33 2 Peak demand n.a. n.a. Total electricity consumption (GWh) and Transmission losses (%) Consumption 390 71 Losses 29 26 Net energy imports, 2009 Share of total imports (%) 11.8 16.1 Cost (US $ million) 87 18
Comoros
Guinea-Bissau
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
MAMWE, EDA 2013
EAGB 2014
JIRAME 2014
CEB 2014
PUC 2014
26 24 1 11
26 26 – n.a.
500 330 170 320
766 690 76 446
86 79 7 n.a.
43 48
32 47
1487 33
2642 6.86
300 n.a.
n.a. n.a.
n.a. n.a.
10.2 327
19.2 848
25.3 164
n.a. means data not available for corresponding year.
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Fig. 1. Electricity production in case study countries, by source (Data sources [31–33]).
• Comoros
•
•
Similar, in Comoros the electricity sector is highly petroleum intensive with nearly 85% of electricity produced from diesel in 2014. With rapid expansion in electrification in the country, electricity demand is expected to rise by 8% in Grand Comore and Moheli (two islands of Comoros) and by 15% in Anjouan [41], the second largest island of the Comoros. Hydro accounts for 15% of electricity production but little improvement in hydropower is seen over the last decade with power produced from hydro almost constant, and capacity additions mostly by diesel [32]. Madagascar Interestingly, the thermal installed capacity in Madagascar is 330 MW and hydro capacity is 170 MW, however most electricity is produced from hydropower which is around 56% of the total production [33]. Electricity demand has increased by 5% every year for the last 20 years and this demand was met mostly by electricity derived from hydro[36]. For the period 2006–2014, Malagasy authorities has added over 50 MW of hydropower on the national grid which represented an increase of 26% for this period [33]. Being an economically fragile state, Madagascar faces huge challenges to purchase oil from the market and hence, the country do not run diesel power plants to the optimum level to cut down energy costs. As a result, the population is penalised from electricity deprivation. Mauritius Electricity demand in Mauritius is on a constant rise of 3.3% per year and the country has, by now, gathered experience in five renewable sources where 22% of the total production was from renewable energy sources in 2014 [31,42]. Bagasse, a sugarcane byproduct, is the most exploitable renewable energy source. During
•
crop season, when sugarcane is available, the bagasse is used to generate 15% of total electricity (456 GWh). During off-season, the power plant uses coal as a substitute for bagasse. Coal input for power generation increased from 34.7% share of total fuel input in 2005 to 53.8% in 2014 while for the same period, oil input decreased from 34.2% to 25.2% [31]. In 2014, hydro accounted for 4% of total electricity produced but due to exhaustion of technically possible exploitable sites for large-scale hydropower plants, no major investment was seen over the last years and power generated from hydro stood almost stagnant over the last 10 years. Solar and wind were developed with a 15 MW solar farm, commissioned in 2014 [43] and a 9.35 MW wind farm in 2015 [44]. In 2014, solar photovoltaics accounted for a modest share of 0.8% within the Mauritian power sector. Landfill gas (methane) produced from organic waste decomposition is injected in engines to generate 20.4 GWh per year which accounted for 0.7% of total electricity production as at 2014 [31]. Seychelles Seychelles is heavily dependent on diesel and wind energy. In 2014, 98% of total electricity production came from diesel power plants and 7 GWh from wind farms which represented only 2%. Consumers can be divided into households, industries and services sector. Households take 27% (81.7 GWh) of electricity supplied by the PUC (Public Utilities Corporation) and industries consumed 28% (82.8 GWh). The remaining is used by the services sector. Considerately, growth in the emerging tourism sector leads to higher electricity demand in Seychelles which is complemented by ‘auto-producers’. The latter supplied 75 GWh to the services sector through off-grid systems [35].
Fig. 2. Per capita electricity consumption in case study countries, 2014 (Compiled from [10,45]; authors’ calculations).
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unpredictable nature of solar has often been raised as an issue for solar development [50], but with regards to the increasing use of solar photovoltaic systems worldwide and in Africa, it is evident that ways to address these challenges are not unsurmountable.
From the above analysis, two pertinent energy issues can be identified. Firstly, low level of electricity access in some countries mainly caused by political instability and secondly there is low exploitation of renewable energy sources. To increase development, there is a need to raise electricity consumption level at end–users in most of these countries. Taking a closer look at Fig. 2 and Table 1, higher per capita electricity consumption is synonymous to greater development. Mauritius has surpassed the average per capita electricity consumption threshold for middle-income countries while Seychelles has exceeded world average threshold accelerating economic development at an unprecedented rate. Other countries still have a long way to achieve the same level of development and electricity consumption for which the adoption of renewable energy is highly sought. Per capita electricity consumption in Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe are slightly above low-income threshold whereas the situation is very alarming in Guinea-Bissau, Comoros and Madagascar.
4.2. Wind energy Wind energy is a promising renewable energy resource that can meet rising electricity demand [51]. At adequately high velocity, the kinetic energy of the fast blowing gusts can be harness to rotate a turbine and produce electricity. The northern and southern parts of Madagascar have a wind speed of around 7 m/s (50 m high) which is favourable for electricity generation [52]. In Mauritius, wind regime can reach a magnitude of 8 m/s at 30 m height [53] and in GuineaBissau, wind velocity is between 2.5 and 7 m/s at a 50 m height [4]. Since wind energy depends on climatic conditions, wind velocity varies from location to location and as such can deliver different power outputs. In Comoros for instance, while in the past there has been some wind installations to drive pumps to access groundwater, electricity however cannot be generated as wind regime is inadequate, in the order of 3 m/s [41]. This situation repeats itself in Seychelles where some wind farm installations exist but faced with unreliable wind assessment exercises the exact potential of wind energy in other locations is understudied. Wind measurements in São Tomé and Príncipe show little potential, however an exact assessment of wind energy potential is absent which decelerate possible development in wind energy in the country [54]. Having a favourable wind velocity of 5–7 m/s at 50 m height [55], the government of Cape Verde has formed a parastatal body with the consorted effort from a number of shareholders to form Cabeólica, which is responsible for wind energy development in the country. One of Cabeólica achievement is quite impressive as in a oneyear time span, the company supplied Electra enough electricity to supply 21% of the electricity demand [40].
4. Renewable energy potential Renewable energy sources have all the important elements to ensure a sustainable energy supply and it is no surprise why global interest is concentrated on the reduction of carbon emissions through the integration of more renewable energy within the power sector [46]. Promoting renewable energy can address the electricity demand-supply gap in a country hence increasing energy access to households [47] and can decarbonise the grid and mitigate the climate change effect. There is already a positive improvement in electricity produced from renewable energy which has been rising gradually since 2006 in some of the countries (see Table 4). 4.1. Solar energy For the period 2000–2015, cumulative installed capacity of solar photovoltaic systems in the world has risen by nearly 27,000 times from 0.88 GW to 222 GW. In the African continent, solar development has gained much momentum increasing from 500 MW in 2013 to 2100 MW in 2015, with the largest installed capacity in South Africa followed by Algeria. With recent solar development worldwide, there is no doubt that solar photovoltaic systems can compete with fossil fuel technologies [48]. In the selected countries, daily solar radiation ranges from 5000 to 6500 W/h/m2 which can be considered as technically feasible for solar energy development [47]. Mauritius has a daily solar radiation of 6000 W/h/m2 [49], Guinea-Bissau and Comoros some 5000 W/h/m2 [4,41]. Capturing solar energy is a cost-effective and feasible option to electrify remote settlements as the technology can readily be used to supply households that cannot be connected to the grid. A hypothetical un-electrified household spends between US $84 to US $270 per year to satisfy energy needs (kerosene lamps, candles, batteries) whereby a solar home system of 20 W costs around US $225 and of 1 kW costs between US $725 to US $1270 per year [48]. Considering the improvement in energy service quality (bulbs are brighter than kerosene lamps) and health benefits (see Ref. [19]), solar system is regarded as an economically viable option. Concerns about the variability and
4.3. Hydropower potential Compared to wind and solar, hydro offers two key benefits which are: (1) high efficiency energy conversion (about 80%) and (2) the ability to recycle already used water and decrease the effects of seasonal fluctuations [47]. However, hydro is site specific and it cannot be generally stated that the potential is high in all countries. While in Mauritius, large scale electricity production from flowing water has nearly reached saturation point by the exhaustion of all available sites, there is still a possibility to develop mini and micro-hydro power plants and to increase hydro-electricity production through dam improvements. However, a decrease in the share of electricity supplied by hydropower is expected by 2025 in Mauritius as the inability to develop hydro sites cannot outweigh rising electricity demand [56]. A similar situation in Seychelles and Cape Verde where possible sites cannot be technically and economically exploited for hydropower [57]. In Madagascar, the hydropower potential is in the order of 7800 MW where only 2% is currently utilised [36]. It is estimated the 184 MW hydroelectricity can be developed along the rivers of Corubal and Geba in Guinea-Bissau [4]. In São Tomé and Príncipe, sixteen potential sites were identified which has a total exploitable capacity of 96 MW [22]. Three difficulties that these countries face to develop these sites are: (1) inability to secure funding or to provide an ‘enticing’ investment climate for the private sector, (2) lack of in-depth and accurate hydro resource assessment to determine optimum exploitable capacity and (3) weak institutional capacities (for e.g., no hydrographic and bathymetric services). Addressing these challenges with a high level of commitment from policymakers will tremendously move hydroelectricity forward.
Table 4 Electricity production from renewable energy (GWh), 2006–2014 (Source: Ref. [34]).
Cape Verde STP Comoros GB Madagascar Mauritius Seychelles
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
7 8 5
7 10 5
6 8 5
5 7 5
14 5 5
28 6 5
74 7 5
90 7 5
114 7 5
638 523
720 552
701 595
742 609
713 577
693 549
759 567
813 594 7
847 596 7
4.4. Bioenergy Bioenergy is the energy that is produced from the processing of
STP=São Tomé and Príncipe, GB=Guinea–Bissau.
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Madagascar, Mauritius and Seychelles is estimated to have a power potential of averagely 15–25 kW/m [64] and at least 7 kW/m is expected in Cape Verde [65]. While the potential exists, little has been done to assess economic, social and environmental feasibility of marine energy development. Policy mechanisms of enhance marine energy uptake is also not existent at this point.
Table 5 Power generation potential from agricultural residues (Source: Ref. [59]). Country
Cereal production (MT)
Agro-residues (MT)
Power potential at 30% availability (MW)
Madagascar Guinea-Bissau Comoros
3.391 0.171 0.021
3.391 0.171 0.021
127 6 1
5. Roadmap to increase renewable energy in selected countries biomass which is organic matter mainly from animal manure, forestry, municipal solid waste and agro-residues. Bioelectricity generation in the world has increased from 170 TWh in 2000 to 462 TWh in 2013 [58] and is expected to be the dominant renewable energy source to satisfy world energy demand by 2030 [1]. Biomass is highly praised to supply grid quality electricity [59] that is why it has gained much interest among policymakers. In most of the countries bioelectricity potential has been understudied and little is known on its technical potential. Mauritius has exploited bagasse but with growing population and a transition of the economy to non-agricultural sectors, vast portions of land is used for buildings, limiting bagasse availability to further develop bioelectricity. In this context, it was suggested to use cane tops and leaves (CTL) for power generation. Feasibility testing has already been concluded and policy mechanisms set in the 2016–2017 National Budget to encourage exploitation of CTL for power generation by power plants [60]. The production of cereal in selected African countries produces large amount of residual organic matter which represents significant potential for power generation. If only 30% of agroresidues is used to produce electricity, this represents 127 MW capacity addition in Madagascar, 6 MW in Guinea-Bissau and 1 MW in Comoros. The role that biomass has to play in the Malagasy energy sector is commendable. Table 5 shows power generation potential from some agro-residues and as observed its contribution to improve the Malagasy energy sector is commendable.
It is also observed that whether it is an attempt to expand electrification or to decarbonise the grid by integrating more renewable energy, a common hindrance that affect these countries is poor political will. Political decisions have a great influence on renewable energy planning and in the implementation of conducive programmes to expand electrification [46]. Besides technical, economic, financial and market barriers (See Ref. [68]), there is also a need of strong political commitment to drive and coordinate the activities of the so-called ‘policy enablers’ (see Ref. [6]) that could have significant impact on renewable energy and electrification programmes. In an atmosphere of good political stability, forward-looking governmental entities can create policy mechanisms to open market opportunities and stimulate private sector participation [69]. As a consequence, this creates considerable pressure on governmental agencies to work effectively and ‘deliver the goods’ as it should be. Hence, there will be a high probability that the existing issues with regards to weak electricity infrastructure in Cape Verde [40], capacity shortages of São Tomé and Príncipe [22], poor collection efficiency in Comoros [41], and disordered production and electricity transmission infrastructure in Guinea-Bissau [4] to be overcome to set a proper investment climate for the private sector. High political will also entails the setting up of institutional capacities to safeguard consumers’ rights through adequate tariff structure and monitoring schemes [46]. Existent data gaps can be eliminated as relevant data with respect to electricity production and consumption patterns, greenhouse gas emissions, resource assessment studies and policy frameworks are readily available to investors and other actors along the energy development chain [6]. Institutional frameworks are extremely important to build stronger power purchase agreements with the private sector and to boost market activity by providing a transparent policy environment and incentives like tax rebates and subsidies [14]. Following efforts from development and financial agencies like the Global Environment Facility (GEF), World Bank, European Investment Bank (EIB), EuropAid and the African Development Bank (AfDB) among others to increase renewable energy penetration within the grid, it is less likely to claim that financial instruments are difficult to secure in the African region as they can benefit from many of these facilities [14]. Hence, under firm energy governance and with suitable roadmaps in the African island states, renewable energy can be accelerated. Barriers can be addressed and attempts to integrate renewable energy and expand electrification programmes will hopefully, be fruitful. Technical barriers such as with regards to the intermittent nature of renewable energy and design, installation and performance of renewable energy technologies – which is a reason why Comoros do not want to invest in solar photovoltaic systems [41] – can be subdued through training and capacity building of local people. Training and capacity building through conferences, seminars and workshops will provide the necessary expertise and knowledge to practitioners regarding supply distribution technologies, demand forecasts, supply and demand-side management and pricing mechanism among other which is essential to foster a substantial development of the renewable energy sector [47]. Hence, despite some technical deficiencies in power production and supply in African island states, the potential to integrate renewable energy in the power sector exists, but the will power to develop these sustainable resources is required.
4.5. Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the Earth's crust in the form of heat [60]. Contrary to wind and solar, geothermal energy is not an intermittent energy supply and can supply electricity continuously [61]. Since most of the islands are of volcanic origins, it is believed that the geothermal potential in these regions is high. Mauritius has fixed a target to achieve 2% electricity generation by geothermal sources by 2025 [62], but so far there is no resource assessment study conducted. In Comoros, while detailed studies are still ongoing to identify the exploitable capacity of geothermal energy, two regions have been selected based on a preliminary investigation in 2008 – Karthala and La Grille. Detailed studies is expected to locate suitable drilling sites and the output of some geophysical and geochemical studies which will confirm its technical feasibility [63]. Exploration of geothermal energy in other countries has not been investigated, most probably because of political factors and less conducive energy policies to exploit renewable energy sources. 4.6. Marine-based energy Marine-based energy is an emerging and alternative energy resource where electricity is produced from the movement of waves and tides. Development of marine-based renewable energy is still at an early stage in most countries, but some studies like Hammar et al. [64] and Bernardino et al. [65] assessed the technical feasibility of wave energy development in some Western Indian Ocean islands (Mauritius, Madagascar, Comoros) and in Cape Verde, respectively. Marine energy is particular encouraging in islands than continental areas as islands have the available water depth and shoreline distance to implement marinebased renewable energy technologies [66,67]. The south-eastern part of 181
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6. Conclusion
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In this paper, firstly the current energy sector in African island states is highlighted and major emphasis is laid on the potential for renewable energy in the region. It has been seen that barriers for energy access in these countries are various – while a lack of political commitment is hindering electricity access in Madagascar and Guinea-Bissau, other countries have been faced with limited investment in the energy sector or technical hindrances that have influenced electrification rate in these selected countries. Renewable energy can more likely be the solution to improve electrification rate, decarbonise electricity grid, improve sustainable development, mitigate climate change and most importantly, to enhance livelihood and improve standard of living but renewable energy development in most of these countries is average, if not low. The study showed that these African island states have the necessary technical potential of different renewable energy sources that can be exploitable but efficient enabling market and policy mechanisms are required to accelerate renewable energy uptake in all of these countries. The paper thus argues the need of high level of political will and adequate energy governance to bring institutional reforms in the energy sector of these countries. Identified barriers to renewable energy can be overcome and solutions can be well–established by taking into consideration territorial data of these countries (macroeconomics, technical potential of the renewable energy source, demography, geography). Acknowledgements The authors of this paper would like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments which significant improved the overall quality of the paper. References [1] IEA. World energy outlook. France: International Energy Agency Paris; 2009. [2] Shirley R, Kammen D. Renewable energy sector development in the Caribbean: current trends and lessons from history. Energy Policy 2013;57:244–52. [3] Salman D, Abdul I. Development of the mozambique and rovuma basins, offshore Mozambique. Sediment Geol 1995;96:7–41. [4] Seck L. Renewable energies in West Africa. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeir (GTZ) GmbH; 2009. [5] Chen D, Chen HW. Using the Köppen classification to quantify climate variation and change: an example for 1901–2010. Environ Dev 2013;6:69–79. [6] Timilsina GR, Shah KU. Filling the gaps: policy supports and interventions for scaling up renewable energy development in Small Island Developing States. Energy Policy 2016;98(65):62. [7] WEF. The global competitiveness report 2015–2016. Geneva: World Economic Forum; 2015. [8] IIAG. 2016 Ibrahim index of African governance – a decade of African Governance 2006–2015. Mo Ibrahim Found 2016. [9] UNDP. Human development report 2015. USA: United Nations Development Programme; 2015. [10] World Bank. The little green data book 2016. Washington DC: World Bank Group; 2016. [11] Brew–Hammond A. Energy access in Africa: challenges ahead. Energy Policy 2010;38:2291–301. [12] Dornan M. Access to electricity in small Island developing states of the Pacific: issues and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;31:726–35. [13] Eberhard A, Rosnes O, Shkartan M, Vennemo H. Africa's power infrastructure – investment integration, efficiency. Washington DC: World Bank; 2011. [14] Gujba H, Thorne S, Mulugetta Y, Rai K, Sokona Y. Financing low carbon energy access in Africa. Energy Policy 2012;47:71–8. [15] Mensah GS, Kemausuor F, Brew-Hammond A. Energy access indicators and trends in Ghana. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;30:317–23. [16] Mulder P, Tembe J. Rural electrification in an imperfect world: a case study from Mozambique 2008;36:2785–94. [17] Oseni MO. Improving households’access to electricity and energy consumption pattern in Nigeria: renewable energy alternative. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:3967–74. [18] Prasad G. Energy sector reform, energy transitions and the poor in Africa. Energy Policy 2008;36:2806–11. [19] Prasad G. Improving access to energy in sub–Saharan Africa. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2011;3:248–53. [20] Uddin N, Taplin R. Regional cooperation in widening energy access and also mitigating climate change: current programs and future potential. Glob Environ
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