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Renewable energy versus fossil resources
C H A P T E R
3 Renewable energy versus fossil resources O U T L I N E 3.1 Renewable raw materials for the industry
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References
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Relevant websites
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A renewable resource can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally. Renewable energy is evolving expeditiously, whereas fossil fuels are going the way of the dinosaur. The distinction between the renewable energy and fossil fuels does not look so complicated. Renewable energy is derived from natural sources that can be replaced during an average human lifetime (Jering and Gunther, 2010; Tyson Stevens, 2018; Dahlson-Rutherford, 2013; Panwar et al., 2011; Demirbas, 2006; Bilgen et al., 2004). Table 3.1 shows different types of renewable energy. Examples are shown in Table 3.2. Natural gas is a fossil fuel. When it is burned, carbon dioxide is released. In the case of biomass, things usually get a little more complicated. When wood is burnt, more carbon dioxide is released in comparison with burning coal. Burning of wood is a common method of energy generation from biomass. Wood is classified as a renewable resource because trees can be replenished (www.amigoenergy.com). Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources, because they have taken several thousands of years to get formed. These resources cannot be replenished once these are used. In addition, carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas—is released when fossil fuels are burnt. This has an adverse impact on the environment and also impacts human health and contributes to climate change. These issues are provoking the world to explore alternate sources of energy that are renewable and are not much harmful. Furthermore, the slow exhaustion of traditional fossil fuel resources has motivated companies to develop more challenging reserves. These untraditional resources usually have higher cost of production. There is a higher risk of environmental impact too.
Biotechnology in the Chemical Industry https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818402-8.00003-3
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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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3. Renewable energy versus fossil resources
TABLE 3.1 Renewable energy. Solar Wind power Hydroelectric energy Biomass is the term for energy from plants Hydrogen and fuel cells Geothermal power Other forms of energy
TABLE 3.2 Fossil fuels. Coal: formed from ferns plants and trees that hardened due to pressure and heat Oil: formed from smaller organisms like zooplankton and algae. Intense amounts of pressure caused this complex organic matter to decompose into oil Natural gas: undergoes the same process as oil; however, the process is longer and subject to higher amounts of heat and pressure causing further decomposition
“Even though natural gas increased its market share significantly over the past decade, renewable energy grew faster than any fossil fuel. In 2016, renewable energy generation in the United States grew to a record 22 gigawatts of capacity—burying fossil fuel growth” (www. amigoenergy.com). “The energy produced by renewables is just as affordable as energy produced by fossil fuels, if not cheaper in some cases. Some solar panel projects can even produce power at roughly half the cost of fossil fuels like coal. That is a lot of potential savings. Renewable energy is expected to get cheaper over time” (www.amigoenergy.com). One of the most noteworthy attribute of renewable energy is that it is available in abundance (Gavrilescu and Chisti, 2005). It is unlimited. Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy having a significantly reduced negative environmental impact as compared with traditional fossil energy technologies. Most of the investment in the area of renewable energy has been made on materials and personnel for building and maintaining the facilities, rather than importing expensive energy. Technological developments have been made in the area of mass communication. People are becoming conservant with the disadvantages of burning fossil fuels. Renewable energy is a high-priority area. It is clean and sustainable. This has forced the human beings to take advantage. Researchers are continuously researching this area. They are exploring new techniques to exploit these energy sources in an effective manner. Global warming is becoming a serious problem. It results from burning of coal, oil, and natural gas. It is detrimental for the planet and the living creatures. Furthermore, fossil fuels cause several unfortunate accidents in the past. To bring to an end to this devastation, we should use renewable resources. This is due to the fact that they are cleaner and do not produce harmful gases. Furthermore, fossil fuels are limited. They will be exhausted one day. So, before this crucial stage comes up, energy experts should maintain
3. Renewable energy versus fossil resources
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a positive view and must make high endeavors for replacing fossils fuels with renewable energy resources as the major sources of producing electricity. Renewable energy is available in abundance. It will be potentially inexpensive, once this technology and its present infrastructure are improved. “The major sources of renewable energy include solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydropower, and tidal energy. Nonrenewable energy, such as coal, natural gas and oil, require expensive explorations and potentially dangerous mining and drilling, and they will become more expensive as supplies get exhausted and energy demand increases. Renewable energy produces only small levels of carbon dioxide emissions and therefore helps to fight climate change caused by burning of fossil fuel. Renewable energy sector is relatively new in most countries and this can attract several companies to invest. This will generate new jobs for the unemployed people. This will be beneficial particularly for the developing countries. This will boost their economies. Renewable energy can make the electricity prices stable. This is due to the reason that their cost is dependent upon the initial capital investment and is free of the fluctuating costs of coal, oil and natural gas” (Shahzad, 2015). The price of oil is dependent on many factors that also include political stability in several regions of the world. In the past, political disagreement has caused acute energy crises. Renewable energy can be produced locally, and so, it will not be affected by distant political disturbances. Several safety concerns are associated with fossil fuels, such as explosions on oil platforms and collapsing coal mines. These concerns do not exist with renewable energy. Coal, natural gas, and oil reserves are limited. An unknown and insufficient amount of each resource is buried deep underground or under the ocean (Shahzad, 2015). “As more of these reserves are harvested, finding new sources shall become more complicated and more expensive, and using them becomes tougher and sometimes risky as well. Trivial reserves, such as oil sands, require the burning of huge amounts of natural gas to process them into exploitable oil. Drilling under the ocean floor can lead to calamitous accidents, such as the famous British Petroleum Oil Spill in 2010. On the contrary, renewable energy is as effortless to find as wind or sunlight. Renewable energy is much cleaner than fossil fuels. Coal mining and petroleum exploration produce solid toxic wastes, such as mercury, lead and other heavy metals. The burning of coal to produce electricity uses large quantities of water which often discharges arsenic and lead compounds into surface waters and releases carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and mercury into the air. Gasoline and other products of petroleum cause similar pollution” (Shahzad, 2015; www.iteejournal.org). These pollutants cause several problems listed later (Shahzad, 2015): • Respiratory diseases and death • Produce acid rain, which damages buildings and ruins fragile ecosystems • Depletion of the ozone layer through global warming “Renewable energy is cleaner than fossil fuels. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the earth’s temperature has increased at an increasing rate, raising oceanic water levels in its wake. Not only do fossil fuels heat the earth, they produce unhealthy by-products like air pollution, which adversely affects the lung health. Renewable energy, on the other hand, typically releases less carbon dioxide than fossil fuels. In fact, renewables like solar and wind power—apart from construction and maintenance—don’t release any carbon dioxide at all. When comparing renewable energy to fossil fuels, renewable energy generation is cleaner,
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easier to sustain over time, expanding more rapidly, and sometimes even inexpensive than fossil fuels” (www.amigoenergy.com). The use of renewable resources for industrial applications is not new (Eggersdorfer et al., 1992). People have used these materials from the first civilizations onward. To meet the basic requirements, people have used raw materials from plant and animals; natural fibers for clothing, wood for heating, animal fat for lighting, natural dyes for textiles and art works, etc. The initial industrial activities were also mostly based on the use of renewable resources, and this trend continued until the industrial revolution. In the 19th century, there was a radical change, brought about by the development of carbochemistry (the chemistry of carbon, particularly the chemical transformation of coal into industrially useful materials) and in the 20th century by the emergence of petrochemistry. The use of renewable raw materials reduced substantially, due to the very low prices for petrochemical resources. During this period, the developing chemical industry was almost systematically based on petrochemical feedstocks. These days, a large part of the chemical industry is based on these resources, and our energy needs are also largely met by fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. More than 90% of all organic chemical substances produced in Europe (including fuel) are based on fossil resources. Nonetheless, several important industries are derived from renewable resources. Most of the fibers used in the textile industry are natural fibers (cotton, wool, flax, etc.), the oleochemical industry supplies our daily requirements for soap and detergents based on vegetable oils, the building industry is even now using a lot of wood and other natural fibers as construction material, etc. Furthermore, petrochemistry does not offer a good alternative for the use of renewable resources in several areas. For instance, most of the antibiotics are produced by fermentation, from sugars. About half of our drugs are still isolated from living organisms. The oil crisis between 1973 and 1979, when Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) increased the oil prices from 2 to 30 USD per barrel gave rise to a renewed interest in renewable resources. “Due to this crisis, serious concern grew about our increasing dependence on fossil resources and the fact that these are not available infinitely. This concern was largely channeled politically into the energy question and resulted in several studies concerning the development of alternative energy sources. The results of these studies showed that renewable raw materials were not yet competitive, and the interest for renewable raw materials rapidly disappeared when the oil price dropped again and the economy turned back to business as usual. In the nineties, the discussions around sustainable development and the greenhouse effect and also the emergence of the green political parties provided new impulses. The problems related to the food surpluses in the European Union were also an important driving force. Because of the high costs arising from these food surpluses, the European Union strongly intervened into the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). For this purpose, the European Union developed the set-aside” land concept in 1992. According to this principle, subsidies were given to farmers for not planting anything on parts of their land, in order to limit overproduction. Then, within the European Common Agricultural Policy, possibilities were created to use this land for nonfood applications. Thus, farmers could earn additional revenue from this land” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; www.europa-bio.be). “With the increasing awareness and concern about industrial waste and its effects on the environment, the need arose for better biodegradable intermediates and final end products. These biodegradable products can naturally degrade into components that are absorbed back
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into the natural cycle, in contrast to persistent products that do not (or only after an unacceptably long period) disappear from the environment or from the food chain. Biodegradability was the focal point of many products and these were frequently based on renewable resources, in view of their intrinsic biodegradability. Such applications are, for example, chemical substances that will almost certainly end up in the environment, like lubricating oils for tree saws and agricultural machinery, detergents, etc. Green detergents like alkylpolyglucosides have already achieved a significant market share and are made entirely from renewable resources (fatty acid alcohols and glucose)” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; www.europa-bio.be). The crude oil reserves in the world will not last forever (Campbell, 1998). Regarding fossil reserves, we are now faced with the contradictory situation that, while crude oil (petroleum) is being exhausted at a rapid pace, the proven oil reserves have remained the same for 30 years as a result of new oil finds. These proven oil reserves are located in increasingly difficult to reach places. So, the cost for extracting the crude oil increases, reflected in the high oil prices. By contrast, agricultural raw materials such as wheat and corn are becoming inexpensive as a result of the increasing agricultural yields. This trend is expected to continue for some time, also as a result of the realizations of the “green” biotechnology. This trend may be disturbed by the transitory effects of market imbalances and politics, but for several applications, the economic balance is tipping toward the use of renewable resources, also in bulk chemical sector. Renewable resources are less expensive than fossil resources (Table 3.3). “Agricultural byproducts such as straw are even 10 times less expensive than petroleum. It is also quite remarkable that the current world market prices for petroleum and sugar are about the same, inspite of the fact that sugar is a very pure (99.8%) and refined product and petroleum is a nonrefined crude raw material, consisting of a very complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other compounds. On an energy base, as renewable resources have about half the energy content of fossil resources, renewable and fossil resources are roughly equal in price. It is increasingly becoming clear that we are faced with a long-term trend in the price of petroleum instead of a transitional effect. For the simple reason of the price of raw materials, it is clear that the use of renewable raw materials has significant growth perspectives” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006).
TABLE 3.3 Average world market price of some fossil and renewable resources. Price (Euro/ton) Fossil resources Petroleum Coal Ethylene
250 40 500
Renewable resources Corn/wheat Straw Sugar
100 20 250
Based on Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. 10.1002/ biot.200600066.
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Fossil fuel generation costs USD 0.05–0.17 per kilowatt-hour in G20 countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, India, and Germany. But by 2020, the cost of renewables is expected to be USD 0.03–0.10 per kilowatt-hour, with the price of onshore wind power and solar photovoltaic projects expected to be as low as USD 0.03 per kilowatt-hour by 2019 (Kyree Leary, 2018). In the future, we expect to see that renewable energy becomes a real competitor in the fossil fuel industry. A new report recently published by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has predicted that the cost of renewable energy will experience significant price reduction by 2020, putting it on par with or inexpensive than fossil fuels (www.businessinsider.com/renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020).
3.1 Renewable raw materials for the industry Consumers are increasingly interested in products based on renewable raw materials because these are healthier and more natural, having a positive environmental impact. One of the main challenges facing the industry is the transition to sustainable operations. Industries are taking initiatives for reducing resource intensities or footprints and by adopting safer materials and processes. Many brand owners and retailers are therefore seeking to position themselves accordingly by defining strategies and goals for using renewable raw materials. In Europe, for instance, the use of renewable resources is also being driven by the European Commission’s measures to cut carbon dioxide emissions and to support the bioeconomy; similar programs exist in other regions. Renewable raw materials are preferred for two reasons: - These respond to the market pull resulting from consumer and retailer demand. - Renewable resources make it possible for developing products having novel functionalities and molecules that would otherwise not be accessible or less well accessible through fossil-based routes. Renewable raw materials can contribute to sustainable development by reducing carbon dioxide emissions and replacing fossil raw materials, but they are not per se sustainable. Several issues such as competition with food, land use, and biodiversity are playing a significant role in the debate about renewable resources. “Renewable resources are mainly based on the use of biomass and have a biological origin. Its fundamental basis is the plant growth and production, which takes place by the photosynthesis process, and perhaps via the intermediate step of animal production resulting in a large variety of available biomass. The total annual biomass production on our planet is estimated at 170 billion tons and consists of ~75% carbohydrates (sugars), 20% lignins, and 5% of other substances such as oils and fats, proteins, terpenes, alkaloids, etc. Of this biomass production, 6 billion tons (3.5%) are currently being utilised for human needs, distributed as: − 3.7 billion tons (62%) for human food use, possibly via animal breeding as an intermediate step. − 2 billion tons of wood (33%) for energy use, paper and construction requirements. − 300 million tons (5%) to meet the human requirements for technical (nonfood) raw materials (clothing, detergents, chemicals).
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The rest of biomass production is used in the natural ecosystems (feed for wild animals), is lost when biomass is obtained for humans (particularly by burning) or is lost as a result of the natural mineralization processes” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; Campbell, 1998; www. europa-bio.be). The renewable raw materials are provided by agriculture and forestry. The animal breeding sector and fisheries also contribute mainly animal fat, but are not much important in view of the low conversion efficiencies of plant to animal (about 10%–25%). Several methods can be used to industrially convert this available biomass into renewable raw materials or energy carriers. This is often connected to the food sector, due to the reason that food ingredients and renewable raw materials for industrial application can be made in the same factory from the same agricultural raw materials. For instance, sugar or glucose are produced for human food use and are also the most important raw materials for industrial fermentation processes. The industrial sectors that supply the most important renewable raw materials are listed in Table 3.4 (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006). “Although fractionation technology and enzyme technology are different in nature, the interaction between them is particularly decisive for success. For instance, the fractionation technology is strongly affected by using the hydrolytic enzymes. The obtained pure basic products (sugar, starch, cellulose, oils) are then converted into a very broad range of products, using physical, chemical and biotechnological processes. For example, starch and cellulose are chemically modified to derivatives that find several uses in our daily lives. Sugars like sucrose and glucose are chemically coupled to oleo-chemicals for obtaining detergents and emulsifiers. With respect to industrial biotechnological processes, the fermentation technology needs to be partiularly mentioned. This important technology makes use of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and fungi) for converting basic raw materials such as sugars and oils into an almost unlimited range of products. By simple use of another production organism, the raw material can be converted to totally different products, ranging from products with a TABLE 3.4 Industrial sectors supplying the most important renewable raw materials. Sugar and starch sector: Produces carbohydrates such as sugar, glucose, starch, and molasses from plant raw materials such as sugar beet, sugar cane, wheat, corn, potatoes, sweet cassava, and rice Oil and fat processing sector: Produces several oleochemical intermediates such as triglycerides, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and glycerol from plant raw materials like rape seeds, soybeans, palm oil, coconuts, and animal fats Wood processing sector, particularly the cellulose and paper industry: Produces mainly cellulose, paper, and lignins from wood. These industries process plant raw materials to break them down into separate components such as sugar, starch, cellulose, glucose, proteins, oils, and lignins. They make use of two technological pillars: Fractionation technology: This technology is mainly based on physical and chemical separation methods to separate agricultural raw materials into their separate components Enzymatic technology: This aspect of industrial biotechnology intervenes during the transformation of agricultural raw materials. In practice, mainly hydrolytic enzymes are used, for example, amylases, which hydrolyse starch to glucose Based on Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. 10.1002/biot.200600066.
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chemical structure that is very close to the raw material (example gluconic acid from glucose) to products that have essentially nothing in common with the starting material (for example, antibiotics, enzymes, etc.). These different process steps, implying the use of different types of technologies often takes place within the same factory or industry complex. These are usually referred to as biorefineries, similar to the petrochemical crude oil refineries” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006).
References Bilgen, S., Kaygusuz, K., Sari, A., 2004. Renewable energy for a clean and sustainable future. Energy Sources A: Recov. Util. Environ. Eff. 26 (12), 1119–1129. Campbell, C., 1998. The future of oil. Energy Explor. Exploit. 16, 125–152. Dahlson-Rutherford, C., 2013. Renewable Raw Materials in the Industrial Chemical Industry. vol. 10. ESSAI. Article 15, http://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol10/iss1/15. Demirbas, A., 2006. Global renewable energy resources. Energy Sources A: Recov. Util. Environ. Eff. 28 (8), 779–792. Eggersdorfer, M., Meyer, J., Eckes, P., 1992. Use of renewable resources for non-food materials. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 103, 355–364. Jering, A., Gunther, J., 2010. Use of Renewable Raw Materials: Presented to the ETC/SCP 2010 Report. European Environment Agency. Gavrilescu, M., Chisti, Y., 2005. Biotechnology—a sustainable alternative for chemical industry. Biotechnol. Adv. 23, 471–499. Kyree Leary, 2018. Renewable Energy Will Be Cheaper Than Fossil Fuels by 2020. www.businessinsider.com/ renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020. Panwar, N., Kaushik, S., Kothari, S., 2011. Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 15 (3), 1513–1524. Shahzad, U., 2015. The need for renewable energy sources. Int. J. Inform. Technol. Electric. Eng. 4, 16–19. www.iteejournal.org/archive/vol4no4/v4n4_4.pdf. Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. https://doi. org/10.1002/biot.200600066. Tyson Stevens, 2018. Renewable Energy vs Fossil Fuels: 5 Essential Facts. www.amigoenergy.com/blog/ renewable-energy-vs-fossil-fuels/.
Relevant websites www.amigoenergy.com. www.iteejournal.org. www.europa-bio.be. www.businessinsider.com/renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020.
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References
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Relevant websites
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A renewable resource can be used repeatedly and replaced naturally. Renewable energy is evolving expeditiously, whereas fossil fuels are going the way of the dinosaur. The distinction between the renewable energy and fossil fuels does not look so complicated. Renewable energy is derived from natural sources that can be replaced during an average human lifetime (Jering and Gunther, 2010; Tyson Stevens, 2018; Dahlson-Rutherford, 2013; Panwar et al., 2011; Demirbas, 2006; Bilgen et al., 2004). Table 3.1 shows different types of renewable energy. Examples are shown in Table 3.2. Natural gas is a fossil fuel. When it is burned, carbon dioxide is released. In the case of biomass, things usually get a little more complicated. When wood is burnt, more carbon dioxide is released in comparison with burning coal. Burning of wood is a common method of energy generation from biomass. Wood is classified as a renewable resource because trees can be replenished (www.amigoenergy.com). Fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources, because they have taken several thousands of years to get formed. These resources cannot be replenished once these are used. In addition, carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas—is released when fossil fuels are burnt. This has an adverse impact on the environment and also impacts human health and contributes to climate change. These issues are provoking the world to explore alternate sources of energy that are renewable and are not much harmful. Furthermore, the slow exhaustion of traditional fossil fuel resources has motivated companies to develop more challenging reserves. These untraditional resources usually have higher cost of production. There is a higher risk of environmental impact too.
Biotechnology in the Chemical Industry https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818402-8.00003-3
23
© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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3. Renewable energy versus fossil resources
TABLE 3.1 Renewable energy. Solar Wind power Hydroelectric energy Biomass is the term for energy from plants Hydrogen and fuel cells Geothermal power Other forms of energy
TABLE 3.2 Fossil fuels. Coal: formed from ferns plants and trees that hardened due to pressure and heat Oil: formed from smaller organisms like zooplankton and algae. Intense amounts of pressure caused this complex organic matter to decompose into oil Natural gas: undergoes the same process as oil; however, the process is longer and subject to higher amounts of heat and pressure causing further decomposition
“Even though natural gas increased its market share significantly over the past decade, renewable energy grew faster than any fossil fuel. In 2016, renewable energy generation in the United States grew to a record 22 gigawatts of capacity—burying fossil fuel growth” (www. amigoenergy.com). “The energy produced by renewables is just as affordable as energy produced by fossil fuels, if not cheaper in some cases. Some solar panel projects can even produce power at roughly half the cost of fossil fuels like coal. That is a lot of potential savings. Renewable energy is expected to get cheaper over time” (www.amigoenergy.com). One of the most noteworthy attribute of renewable energy is that it is available in abundance (Gavrilescu and Chisti, 2005). It is unlimited. Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy having a significantly reduced negative environmental impact as compared with traditional fossil energy technologies. Most of the investment in the area of renewable energy has been made on materials and personnel for building and maintaining the facilities, rather than importing expensive energy. Technological developments have been made in the area of mass communication. People are becoming conservant with the disadvantages of burning fossil fuels. Renewable energy is a high-priority area. It is clean and sustainable. This has forced the human beings to take advantage. Researchers are continuously researching this area. They are exploring new techniques to exploit these energy sources in an effective manner. Global warming is becoming a serious problem. It results from burning of coal, oil, and natural gas. It is detrimental for the planet and the living creatures. Furthermore, fossil fuels cause several unfortunate accidents in the past. To bring to an end to this devastation, we should use renewable resources. This is due to the fact that they are cleaner and do not produce harmful gases. Furthermore, fossil fuels are limited. They will be exhausted one day. So, before this crucial stage comes up, energy experts should maintain
3. Renewable energy versus fossil resources
25
a positive view and must make high endeavors for replacing fossils fuels with renewable energy resources as the major sources of producing electricity. Renewable energy is available in abundance. It will be potentially inexpensive, once this technology and its present infrastructure are improved. “The major sources of renewable energy include solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydropower, and tidal energy. Nonrenewable energy, such as coal, natural gas and oil, require expensive explorations and potentially dangerous mining and drilling, and they will become more expensive as supplies get exhausted and energy demand increases. Renewable energy produces only small levels of carbon dioxide emissions and therefore helps to fight climate change caused by burning of fossil fuel. Renewable energy sector is relatively new in most countries and this can attract several companies to invest. This will generate new jobs for the unemployed people. This will be beneficial particularly for the developing countries. This will boost their economies. Renewable energy can make the electricity prices stable. This is due to the reason that their cost is dependent upon the initial capital investment and is free of the fluctuating costs of coal, oil and natural gas” (Shahzad, 2015). The price of oil is dependent on many factors that also include political stability in several regions of the world. In the past, political disagreement has caused acute energy crises. Renewable energy can be produced locally, and so, it will not be affected by distant political disturbances. Several safety concerns are associated with fossil fuels, such as explosions on oil platforms and collapsing coal mines. These concerns do not exist with renewable energy. Coal, natural gas, and oil reserves are limited. An unknown and insufficient amount of each resource is buried deep underground or under the ocean (Shahzad, 2015). “As more of these reserves are harvested, finding new sources shall become more complicated and more expensive, and using them becomes tougher and sometimes risky as well. Trivial reserves, such as oil sands, require the burning of huge amounts of natural gas to process them into exploitable oil. Drilling under the ocean floor can lead to calamitous accidents, such as the famous British Petroleum Oil Spill in 2010. On the contrary, renewable energy is as effortless to find as wind or sunlight. Renewable energy is much cleaner than fossil fuels. Coal mining and petroleum exploration produce solid toxic wastes, such as mercury, lead and other heavy metals. The burning of coal to produce electricity uses large quantities of water which often discharges arsenic and lead compounds into surface waters and releases carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and mercury into the air. Gasoline and other products of petroleum cause similar pollution” (Shahzad, 2015; www.iteejournal.org). These pollutants cause several problems listed later (Shahzad, 2015): • Respiratory diseases and death • Produce acid rain, which damages buildings and ruins fragile ecosystems • Depletion of the ozone layer through global warming “Renewable energy is cleaner than fossil fuels. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the earth’s temperature has increased at an increasing rate, raising oceanic water levels in its wake. Not only do fossil fuels heat the earth, they produce unhealthy by-products like air pollution, which adversely affects the lung health. Renewable energy, on the other hand, typically releases less carbon dioxide than fossil fuels. In fact, renewables like solar and wind power—apart from construction and maintenance—don’t release any carbon dioxide at all. When comparing renewable energy to fossil fuels, renewable energy generation is cleaner,
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easier to sustain over time, expanding more rapidly, and sometimes even inexpensive than fossil fuels” (www.amigoenergy.com). The use of renewable resources for industrial applications is not new (Eggersdorfer et al., 1992). People have used these materials from the first civilizations onward. To meet the basic requirements, people have used raw materials from plant and animals; natural fibers for clothing, wood for heating, animal fat for lighting, natural dyes for textiles and art works, etc. The initial industrial activities were also mostly based on the use of renewable resources, and this trend continued until the industrial revolution. In the 19th century, there was a radical change, brought about by the development of carbochemistry (the chemistry of carbon, particularly the chemical transformation of coal into industrially useful materials) and in the 20th century by the emergence of petrochemistry. The use of renewable raw materials reduced substantially, due to the very low prices for petrochemical resources. During this period, the developing chemical industry was almost systematically based on petrochemical feedstocks. These days, a large part of the chemical industry is based on these resources, and our energy needs are also largely met by fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. More than 90% of all organic chemical substances produced in Europe (including fuel) are based on fossil resources. Nonetheless, several important industries are derived from renewable resources. Most of the fibers used in the textile industry are natural fibers (cotton, wool, flax, etc.), the oleochemical industry supplies our daily requirements for soap and detergents based on vegetable oils, the building industry is even now using a lot of wood and other natural fibers as construction material, etc. Furthermore, petrochemistry does not offer a good alternative for the use of renewable resources in several areas. For instance, most of the antibiotics are produced by fermentation, from sugars. About half of our drugs are still isolated from living organisms. The oil crisis between 1973 and 1979, when Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) increased the oil prices from 2 to 30 USD per barrel gave rise to a renewed interest in renewable resources. “Due to this crisis, serious concern grew about our increasing dependence on fossil resources and the fact that these are not available infinitely. This concern was largely channeled politically into the energy question and resulted in several studies concerning the development of alternative energy sources. The results of these studies showed that renewable raw materials were not yet competitive, and the interest for renewable raw materials rapidly disappeared when the oil price dropped again and the economy turned back to business as usual. In the nineties, the discussions around sustainable development and the greenhouse effect and also the emergence of the green political parties provided new impulses. The problems related to the food surpluses in the European Union were also an important driving force. Because of the high costs arising from these food surpluses, the European Union strongly intervened into the European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). For this purpose, the European Union developed the set-aside” land concept in 1992. According to this principle, subsidies were given to farmers for not planting anything on parts of their land, in order to limit overproduction. Then, within the European Common Agricultural Policy, possibilities were created to use this land for nonfood applications. Thus, farmers could earn additional revenue from this land” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; www.europa-bio.be). “With the increasing awareness and concern about industrial waste and its effects on the environment, the need arose for better biodegradable intermediates and final end products. These biodegradable products can naturally degrade into components that are absorbed back
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into the natural cycle, in contrast to persistent products that do not (or only after an unacceptably long period) disappear from the environment or from the food chain. Biodegradability was the focal point of many products and these were frequently based on renewable resources, in view of their intrinsic biodegradability. Such applications are, for example, chemical substances that will almost certainly end up in the environment, like lubricating oils for tree saws and agricultural machinery, detergents, etc. Green detergents like alkylpolyglucosides have already achieved a significant market share and are made entirely from renewable resources (fatty acid alcohols and glucose)” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; www.europa-bio.be). The crude oil reserves in the world will not last forever (Campbell, 1998). Regarding fossil reserves, we are now faced with the contradictory situation that, while crude oil (petroleum) is being exhausted at a rapid pace, the proven oil reserves have remained the same for 30 years as a result of new oil finds. These proven oil reserves are located in increasingly difficult to reach places. So, the cost for extracting the crude oil increases, reflected in the high oil prices. By contrast, agricultural raw materials such as wheat and corn are becoming inexpensive as a result of the increasing agricultural yields. This trend is expected to continue for some time, also as a result of the realizations of the “green” biotechnology. This trend may be disturbed by the transitory effects of market imbalances and politics, but for several applications, the economic balance is tipping toward the use of renewable resources, also in bulk chemical sector. Renewable resources are less expensive than fossil resources (Table 3.3). “Agricultural byproducts such as straw are even 10 times less expensive than petroleum. It is also quite remarkable that the current world market prices for petroleum and sugar are about the same, inspite of the fact that sugar is a very pure (99.8%) and refined product and petroleum is a nonrefined crude raw material, consisting of a very complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other compounds. On an energy base, as renewable resources have about half the energy content of fossil resources, renewable and fossil resources are roughly equal in price. It is increasingly becoming clear that we are faced with a long-term trend in the price of petroleum instead of a transitional effect. For the simple reason of the price of raw materials, it is clear that the use of renewable raw materials has significant growth perspectives” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006).
TABLE 3.3 Average world market price of some fossil and renewable resources. Price (Euro/ton) Fossil resources Petroleum Coal Ethylene
250 40 500
Renewable resources Corn/wheat Straw Sugar
100 20 250
Based on Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. 10.1002/ biot.200600066.
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Fossil fuel generation costs USD 0.05–0.17 per kilowatt-hour in G20 countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, India, and Germany. But by 2020, the cost of renewables is expected to be USD 0.03–0.10 per kilowatt-hour, with the price of onshore wind power and solar photovoltaic projects expected to be as low as USD 0.03 per kilowatt-hour by 2019 (Kyree Leary, 2018). In the future, we expect to see that renewable energy becomes a real competitor in the fossil fuel industry. A new report recently published by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has predicted that the cost of renewable energy will experience significant price reduction by 2020, putting it on par with or inexpensive than fossil fuels (www.businessinsider.com/renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020).
3.1 Renewable raw materials for the industry Consumers are increasingly interested in products based on renewable raw materials because these are healthier and more natural, having a positive environmental impact. One of the main challenges facing the industry is the transition to sustainable operations. Industries are taking initiatives for reducing resource intensities or footprints and by adopting safer materials and processes. Many brand owners and retailers are therefore seeking to position themselves accordingly by defining strategies and goals for using renewable raw materials. In Europe, for instance, the use of renewable resources is also being driven by the European Commission’s measures to cut carbon dioxide emissions and to support the bioeconomy; similar programs exist in other regions. Renewable raw materials are preferred for two reasons: - These respond to the market pull resulting from consumer and retailer demand. - Renewable resources make it possible for developing products having novel functionalities and molecules that would otherwise not be accessible or less well accessible through fossil-based routes. Renewable raw materials can contribute to sustainable development by reducing carbon dioxide emissions and replacing fossil raw materials, but they are not per se sustainable. Several issues such as competition with food, land use, and biodiversity are playing a significant role in the debate about renewable resources. “Renewable resources are mainly based on the use of biomass and have a biological origin. Its fundamental basis is the plant growth and production, which takes place by the photosynthesis process, and perhaps via the intermediate step of animal production resulting in a large variety of available biomass. The total annual biomass production on our planet is estimated at 170 billion tons and consists of ~75% carbohydrates (sugars), 20% lignins, and 5% of other substances such as oils and fats, proteins, terpenes, alkaloids, etc. Of this biomass production, 6 billion tons (3.5%) are currently being utilised for human needs, distributed as: − 3.7 billion tons (62%) for human food use, possibly via animal breeding as an intermediate step. − 2 billion tons of wood (33%) for energy use, paper and construction requirements. − 300 million tons (5%) to meet the human requirements for technical (nonfood) raw materials (clothing, detergents, chemicals).
3.1 Renewable raw materials for the industry
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The rest of biomass production is used in the natural ecosystems (feed for wild animals), is lost when biomass is obtained for humans (particularly by burning) or is lost as a result of the natural mineralization processes” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006; Campbell, 1998; www. europa-bio.be). The renewable raw materials are provided by agriculture and forestry. The animal breeding sector and fisheries also contribute mainly animal fat, but are not much important in view of the low conversion efficiencies of plant to animal (about 10%–25%). Several methods can be used to industrially convert this available biomass into renewable raw materials or energy carriers. This is often connected to the food sector, due to the reason that food ingredients and renewable raw materials for industrial application can be made in the same factory from the same agricultural raw materials. For instance, sugar or glucose are produced for human food use and are also the most important raw materials for industrial fermentation processes. The industrial sectors that supply the most important renewable raw materials are listed in Table 3.4 (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006). “Although fractionation technology and enzyme technology are different in nature, the interaction between them is particularly decisive for success. For instance, the fractionation technology is strongly affected by using the hydrolytic enzymes. The obtained pure basic products (sugar, starch, cellulose, oils) are then converted into a very broad range of products, using physical, chemical and biotechnological processes. For example, starch and cellulose are chemically modified to derivatives that find several uses in our daily lives. Sugars like sucrose and glucose are chemically coupled to oleo-chemicals for obtaining detergents and emulsifiers. With respect to industrial biotechnological processes, the fermentation technology needs to be partiularly mentioned. This important technology makes use of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and fungi) for converting basic raw materials such as sugars and oils into an almost unlimited range of products. By simple use of another production organism, the raw material can be converted to totally different products, ranging from products with a TABLE 3.4 Industrial sectors supplying the most important renewable raw materials. Sugar and starch sector: Produces carbohydrates such as sugar, glucose, starch, and molasses from plant raw materials such as sugar beet, sugar cane, wheat, corn, potatoes, sweet cassava, and rice Oil and fat processing sector: Produces several oleochemical intermediates such as triglycerides, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and glycerol from plant raw materials like rape seeds, soybeans, palm oil, coconuts, and animal fats Wood processing sector, particularly the cellulose and paper industry: Produces mainly cellulose, paper, and lignins from wood. These industries process plant raw materials to break them down into separate components such as sugar, starch, cellulose, glucose, proteins, oils, and lignins. They make use of two technological pillars: Fractionation technology: This technology is mainly based on physical and chemical separation methods to separate agricultural raw materials into their separate components Enzymatic technology: This aspect of industrial biotechnology intervenes during the transformation of agricultural raw materials. In practice, mainly hydrolytic enzymes are used, for example, amylases, which hydrolyse starch to glucose Based on Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. 10.1002/biot.200600066.
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chemical structure that is very close to the raw material (example gluconic acid from glucose) to products that have essentially nothing in common with the starting material (for example, antibiotics, enzymes, etc.). These different process steps, implying the use of different types of technologies often takes place within the same factory or industry complex. These are usually referred to as biorefineries, similar to the petrochemical crude oil refineries” (Soetaert and Vandamme, 2006).
References Bilgen, S., Kaygusuz, K., Sari, A., 2004. Renewable energy for a clean and sustainable future. Energy Sources A: Recov. Util. Environ. Eff. 26 (12), 1119–1129. Campbell, C., 1998. The future of oil. Energy Explor. Exploit. 16, 125–152. Dahlson-Rutherford, C., 2013. Renewable Raw Materials in the Industrial Chemical Industry. vol. 10. ESSAI. Article 15, http://dc.cod.edu/essai/vol10/iss1/15. Demirbas, A., 2006. Global renewable energy resources. Energy Sources A: Recov. Util. Environ. Eff. 28 (8), 779–792. Eggersdorfer, M., Meyer, J., Eckes, P., 1992. Use of renewable resources for non-food materials. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 103, 355–364. Jering, A., Gunther, J., 2010. Use of Renewable Raw Materials: Presented to the ETC/SCP 2010 Report. European Environment Agency. Gavrilescu, M., Chisti, Y., 2005. Biotechnology—a sustainable alternative for chemical industry. Biotechnol. Adv. 23, 471–499. Kyree Leary, 2018. Renewable Energy Will Be Cheaper Than Fossil Fuels by 2020. www.businessinsider.com/ renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020. Panwar, N., Kaushik, S., Kothari, S., 2011. Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 15 (3), 1513–1524. Shahzad, U., 2015. The need for renewable energy sources. Int. J. Inform. Technol. Electric. Eng. 4, 16–19. www.iteejournal.org/archive/vol4no4/v4n4_4.pdf. Soetaert, W., Vandamme, E., 2006. The impact of industrial biotechnology. Biotechnol. J. 1, 756–769. https://doi. org/10.1002/biot.200600066. Tyson Stevens, 2018. Renewable Energy vs Fossil Fuels: 5 Essential Facts. www.amigoenergy.com/blog/ renewable-energy-vs-fossil-fuels/.
Relevant websites www.amigoenergy.com. www.iteejournal.org. www.europa-bio.be. www.businessinsider.com/renewable-energy-will-be-cheaper-than-fossil-fuels-by-2020.