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Replacing Corn with Sun-Dried Manure of Laying Pullet, Mature Pig, Sheep, and Cow
METABOLISM AND NUTRITION Replacing Corn with Sun-Dried Manure of Laying Pullet, Mature Pig, Sheep, and Cow J. A. OLUYEMI, BIODUN LONGE, and R. ESUBI
Department of Animal Science, University oflbadan, Ibadan, Nigeria ABSTRACT Sun dried (30 to 35 C) manure of adult fowl, pig, cow, or sheep was used to replace 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the maize in corn-peanut base diets for started broiler and pullet replacement chicks and for laying pullets. The manure of the fowl followed by that of the cow were superior to that of pig and of sheep in replacing up to 15% of maize (7.5% of the whole diet) for the different categories of birds used in the experiment. The beneficial effects of the poultry and cow manure were manifested most prominently on growth rate of the chicks and on egg production of the layers which were either comparable with or higher than those of the control. The mineral contents of the manure of the fowl and pig appeared to be beneficial in maintaining egg size and shell thickness. However these types of manure tended to reduce the intensity of egg yolk color. 1979 Poultry Science 58:852-857 INTRODUCTION The concentration of droppings, due to the modern factory production system of farm animals, has created problems of environmental sanitation. The attempted solution to these problems, especially in the case of poultry, consists partly of recycling the droppings as poultry feed. Recycling raises hopes of economic potentialities which have not been consistently justified by experimental results. Although Lee and Blair (1972), in agreement with Wehuent et al. (1960), found that the addition of dried poultry droppings to chick diets improved the growth rate of the chicks, Biely et al. (1972) reported that a dietary level of dried poultry droppings above 10% depressed the growth and feed efficiency of replacement and broiler chicks and of growing pullets. In the studies which showed improved growth rate with poultry manure, the basal diet was either low in crude protein or the dried droppings were accompanied with crystalline amino acids. Yet, Trakulchang and Balloun (1975) found that a 15% protein diet supplemented with dried poultry droppings and amino acids decreased the weight gain and feed efficiency of broiler chicks and of eight-monthold layers. Sloan and Harms (1973) indicated that depression of growth rate due to feeding dried poultry droppings might be due to a depression in caloric intake of the birds. Subclinical infection also appears to be a possible factor if the litter is not dried (Warden and Schaible, 1960). With respect to the performance of layers, Lee and Blair (1972) obtained higher egg production when the diet of layers' was supple-
mented with dried poultry droppings and crysalline amino acids. This is consistent with the findings of Flegal and Zindel (1969) who experimented with 10 to 40% dried poultry droppings. The birds on 10% laid best while those on 40% plus 4.5% animal fat laid least. Treatment did not affect egg weight and egg shell thickness. However, Trakulchang and Balloun (1975) reported a decrease in egg production with an increase in the level of dried poultry droppings. Adverse effects of dietary dried poultry manure, in terms of reduced egg weight and feed efficiency, were reported by Biely et al. (1972). Information appears scarce on the dietary effects of the manure of other farm animals on poultry with the possible exception of cow manure. Palafox and Rosenberg (1951) found that air dried cow manure fed at 15% of total mash satisfactorily supported egg production, egg weight, hatchability, and feed consumption but not body weight. The diet was also supplemented with herring meal to insure a minimum of 16% crude protein. This somewhat contrasted with the evidence of Whitson et al. (1946) that the inclusion of oven-dried cow manure dehydrated at 45 C significantly depressed egg production but this was not so when dehydration was at 80 C. At the lower temperature, cow manure was speculated to contain considerable androgenic potency which has a restricting effect on egg production. Littlefield et al. (1973) found that when cow manure was added at 0, 2.5, 5, and 10% of the diet containing 0 and 23 mg xanthophylls/ kg diet, positive linear correlation existed between the amount of xanthophyll in blood, 852
FEEDING MANURE TABLE 1. Composition of the concentrates fed to cow, pig, and sheep and of the mash fed to the layers from which droppings were collected
853
TABLE 2. Composition of the sun-dried manure of poultry and of different farm animals used in Experiments 1 and 2 Composition
Percent of diet Ingredient
Layers Pig
Maize 36.2 Guinea corn 32.3 10.0 Groundnut cake Palm kernel meal Fish meal 2.5 Blood meal Meat and bone meal 6.0 Rice bran "Luru" a 6.0 Dried yeast 2.5 Oyster shell 4.0 Dicalcium phosphate Feed additives'3 .5
45.35 33.0
Sheep and cow 64 5 17 5 15 0
12.5 25
Manure
Moisture
Ash
Crude protein
Cow Poultry Sheep Swine
15.7 48.3 30.5 36.5
2.9 17.1 6.1 13.2
3.4 15.1 6.3 10.9
4.5
1.15 3.0 .5
Gross energy (kcal/kg)
3.97 2.80 3.84 3.10
and were subjected to proximate analyses (Table 2). The basal diets used in the first and second Dried and ground leaves of Adenosonia digitata. experiments were composed as in Table 3. The remaining experimental diets were composed Feed Additives (Pfizer). by replacing 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the maize with the dried droppings of either one of the species of farm animals or of the layers. amount in yolk, and yolk visual score. There was a negative correlation between the pigmenting efficiency and the amount of cow manure added. TABLE 3. Composition of the basal diets fed to the The purpose of this study was to determine experimental birds in Experiments 1 and 2 the effects of the droppings of the fowl, cow, pig, and sheep on the performance of chicks Composition (%) and of layers. Broiler Pullet 5
MATERIALS AND METHODS Diets. This study consisted of two experiments. In both, all the farm animal species whose droppings were used in formulating the diets of the experimental birds were of mature age. The cow and sheep were maintained partly on pasture which was predominantly Cynodon 1 and partly on concentrates. The composition of the concentrates and of the diets on which the pigs and the layers were maintained are presented in Table 1. Care was exercised in collecting the droppings of the birds and farm animals to exclude extraneous mateials. The droppings were collected daily on polythene sheets in the case of layers and on washed concrete floors in the case of other farm animals. The droppings were sundried (30 to 35 C) to fairly constant weights
1
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Ingredient
starter
chick
Layers
Maize Palm oil Groundnut cake Fish meal Blood meal DL-methionine Rice bran Dried yeast or brewers grains Oyster shell Dicalcium phosphate "Luru" Salt Feed additives a , trace minerals, and vitamins
50.15 5.00 28.50 6.00 3.50
53.2
54.59 2.50 17.00 2.50 2.50 .16
2.00
2.5
1.00 .50 2.50
2.5 2.0
.25
.3
7.50 4.00 6.00 2.50 .25
.60
.5
.50
33.0 5.0 1.0
Pfizer feed additives supplying the following per kg of chick diet: Vitamin A, 6000 IU; vitamin D 3 , 1320 ICU; riboflavin, 4.4 mg; niacin, 22 mg; Ca pantothenate, 8.8 mg; choline, 440 mg; vitamin B, 2 , 5 meg; Mn, 52.4 mg; Fe, 20.2 mg; Cu, 8 mg; Zn, 50 mg;Co, .5 mg; and layers' diet: Vitamin A, 10,000 IU; vitamin D3 , 1400 IU; riboflavin, 3 mg; pantothenic acid, 3 mg; niacin, 10 mg; choline chloride, 400 mg; manganese, 80 mg; zinc, 50 mg; iodine, 1.2 mg; cobalt, 200 meg; copper, 2 mg; and iron, 25 mg.
854
OLUYEMI ET AL.
Birds and Their Management. For the first experiment, 1700 male broiler hybrid chicks (White Rock X Cornish) or Rhode Island Red X White Leghorn replacement pullet chicks were used. All the chicks were floor brooded, starting with brooder temperatures of 3 5 C for broilers and 32 C for pullet chicks. However, brooding was for relatively short periods as environmental temperatures were high, especially during the day. For the second experiment, 1360 pullets and 170 cocks of the Rhode Island Red X White Leghorn cross were used. They were floor reared conventionally and maintained on a standard nutritional regimen before the experiment started. Experimental Procedure. In Experiment 1, two replicate groups each of 50 broiler and of pullet replacement chicks were at day old randomly assigned to each of the experimental broiler and pullet replacement diets respectively. The broilers and the replacement chicks were maintained on these diets for 6 and 8 weeks respectively. A complete randomized block design was also used in Experiment 2 for the pullets, assigning 40 pullets and 5 cocks to each replicate group. The breeders were maintained for six months. The initial and final body weights, feed consumption, and the mortality of the chicks were recorded. The percentage egg production, egg qualities, and reproductive performance of the breeders were also recorded and percentages were arc-sin transformed. Data were subjected to variance analyses in accordance with the method of Steel and Torrie (1960) and significant differences among means were determined using Duncan's (1955) multiple range test.
RESULTS Experiment 1. The broiler and the pullet chicks appeared to be affected differently by the dietary regimens (Table 4). The body weights of the broiler chicks were not significantly (P>.05) affected by substituting up to 15% maize with poultry manure, 10% with cow manure, and 5% with sheep manure. It was significantly (P<.05) depressed by substitution at the other levels in respect of each of these droppings and at all levels of substitution with pig droppings. The body weights of the pullet chicks were significantly (P<.05) improved by the replace-
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ment of 10% and 20% of maize with poultry droppings and 5% with cow droppings. Significant (P<.05) depression of the 8 week old chick body weight occurred when 20% of maize was substituted with sheep manure and when pig manure was used for substitution at all levels. Neither the feed efficiencies of the broiler nor of the pullet replacement chicks were significantly (P<.05) affected by dietary treatments. Deaths did not exceed 6 birds per diet and for each strain of bird. Slightly more died in the pullet chicks and in the diets with the higher levels of substitution of maize with droppings. Experiment 2. Egg production percentages were significantly (P<.05) higher than the control on 5% cow manure and on 5% to 15% poultry manure and significantly (P<.05) less on sheep manure at all levels (Table 5). Production with pig manure and with 10, 15, and 20% cow and 20% poultry manure were not significantly (P<.05) different from that of the control. Only poultry manure at 15% produced significantly (P<.05) heavier eggs and sheep manure significantly (P<.05) lighter eggs than the control. The shell thickness and the Haugh unit of the eggs tended to be uniform though slightly thicker at the higher levels of poultry manure. However, significantly (P<.05) light yolk color was obtained with poultry and pig manure. All the treatment groups made weight gains. But only that of 15% cow manure was slightly higher than the control while the others were either slightly or significantly (P<.05) less than that of the control. The percentage fertility and the percentage hatchability of fertile eggs were not significantly (P>.05) affected by the dietary treatments, although cow manure appeared to result in slightly higher percentage hatchability. Mortality was generally higher and appeared to be higher with pig manure.
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DISCUSSION
This study indicates that the dried manure of poultry and of ruminants can be used to replace maize to different extents in broiler starter diets and in replacement pullet chick diets without detriment on performance of chicks. In poultry, part of the nitrogen in the manure is urinal which is not utilized by laying hens (Martindale, 1974), but part is also 'true'
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OLUYEMI ET AL.
protein (Wehuent et ah, 1960) which is highly digestible (McNab et al, 1974). The protein would be contributed by undegraded fish meal, groundnut cake, and other proteinaceous ingredients whose amino acid profile might be reflected in the diet into which it is incorporated. That is, the variability in the effect of dried poultry manure on growth rate of chicks may be ascribed partly to the quality of the undegraded protein in the manures and partly to the extent to which the diet meets the requirement of the chicks. For it will be seen that the 24% crude protein diet seemed to be adequate for the broilers whereas the 22% crude protein diet was not for the replacement pullet chicks. Even though the crude protein contents of the manures of the pig and poultry were close as compared with that of the ruminants, the undegraded protein in the manure of the ruminants and of poultry were probably closer. This is indicated by the composition of the diet of layers and of the ruminants whose manure was used. If the manure of the pig contained undegraded blood meal, it might impart some nutritional benefits unless its protein was denatured in the course of digestion. The manures of the fowl and of the pig were relatively high in minerals, no doubt originating from oyster shell and dicalcium phosphate. The growth promoting effect of dried poultry manure suggests that the minerals could be of additional nutritional benefit whereas pig manure depressed growth rate. It is tempting therefore to speculate that pig manure contained growth depressive factors which countered the beneficial effects of the minerals and of undegraded blood meal. By contrast, cow manure is claimed to possess growth promoting factors (Rubin and Bird, 1947) which might be identified partly as vitamins of the B-complex synthesized in the rumen of cows (McElroy and Goss, 1940). In any case, the cow manure would contain some dead microbes, the protein of which, according to Maynard and Loosli (1973), is of high biological value as measured by rat growth. The limitation of the nutritional benefits of the incorporated dried manure was probably due to the inability of the birds to obtain enough energy (Sloan and Harms, 1973). The feed consumption of each type of chick rose though only slightly with the amount of manure incorporated. Hence the variations in growth rate and in feed efficiency arose largely from the qualitative changes in the diets.
The tendency for the superiority of the cow manure over sheep manure is inconsistent with the higher percentage of crude protein and ash of the sheep than of the cow manure. Yet the two ruminants were maintained on the same pasture and concentrates. This evidence seems to point to different alterations of ingredients during degradation in the two animal species. The weight gains of the layers tended to be lowered by the dried droppings as expected considering the manure might have reduced the dietary energy of the diets required for body weight gains which were more of fat than tissue in the adult fowl. Expectedly, the manure of the monogastric lowered the yolk coloring while that of the ruminant, evidently higher in xanthophylls than the manure of the monogastric, maintained it. Evidence by Palafox and Rosenberg (1951) indicated that 15% cow manure in the diet was a potential egg yolk coloring matter. Evidence in this study, however, indicates that the 15% level of inclusion, egg production may be depressed through the inability of the birds to consume sufficient energy. The laying pullets whose diets contained higher levels of the manure tended to consume more feed to obtain adequate energy. Coupled with the lowering of feed quality at the higher levels of manure, this increased consumption is conducive to lowered feed efficiency of the birds with the exception of the layers on the fowl manure. We concluded from this study that the cost of poultry feed can be reduced by replacing about 15% of maize or 7% of the diet of chicks and of layers with the manure of hens and of mature cows under the experimental conditions. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was undertaken with funds provided by the Research Grant Committee of the University of Ibadan to which grateful thanks are due. REFERENCES Biely, J., R. Soong, L. Seier, and W. H. Pope, 1972. Dehydrated poultry waste in poultry rations. Poultry Sci. 51:1502-1511. Duncan, D. B., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11:1—12. Flegal, C. J., and H. C. Zindel, 1969. The utilization of poultry waste as feedstuff for growing chicks. Res. Rep. 117:21-28. Michigan State University, East
FEEDING MANURE Lansing, MI. Lee, D. J. W., and R. Blair, 1972. Effect on chick growth of adding various nonprotein nitrogen source or dried autoclaved poultry manure to diets containing crystalline essential amino acids. Brit. Poultry Sci. 13:243-249. Littlefield, L. H., J. K. Bletner, and O. E. Goff, 1973. The effect of feeding laying hens various levels of cow manure on the pigmentation of egg yolks. Poultry Sci. 5 2 : 1 7 9 - 1 8 1 . Martindale, L., 1974. The fate of recycled urate in hens fed on a diet containing dried poultry manure. Brit. Poultry Sci. 16:389-393. Maynard, L. A., and J. K. Loosli, 1973. Animal nutrition. 6th ed. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., Bombay and New Delhi. McElroy, L. W., and H. W. Goss, 1940. A quantitative study of the vitamins in the rumen contents of sheep and cows fed vitamin-low diets. II. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine). J. Nutrition 20:541—550. McNab, J. M., D. W. F. Shannon, and P. Blair, 1974. The nutritive value of a sample of dried poultry manure for the laying hen. Brit. Poultry Sci. 15: 159-166. Palafox, A. L., and M. M. Rosenberg, 1951. Dried cow
857
manure as a supplement in a layer and breeder ration. Poultry Sci. 30:136-142. Rubin, M., and H. R. Bird, 1947. A chick growth factor in cow manure. V. Relation to quantity and quality of soybean oil meal. J. Nutrition 34:233— 245. Sloan, D. R., and R. H. Harms, 1973. The effect of incorporating hen manure into the diet of young chicks. Poultry Sci. 52:803-805. Steel, R. D., and J. H. Torrie, 1960. Principles and procedures of statistics. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. Trakulchang, N., and S. L. Balloun, 1975. Nonprotein nitrogen for growing chicken. Poultry Sci. 54: 591-594. Warden, W. K., and P. J. Schaible, 1961. The effect of feeding antibiotics to chicks in the presence of fresh, dried and autoclaved hen faeces. Poultry Sci. 40:363-367. Wehuent, K. E., H. E. Futter, and H. M. Edwards, Jr., 1960. The nutritional value of hydrolyzed poultry manure for broiler chicks. Poultry Sci. 39:1057— 1063. Whitson, D., H. W. Titus, and H. R. Bird, 1946. The effect of feeding cow manure on egg production and hatchability. Poultry Sci. 25:143—147.
Department of Animal Science, University oflbadan, Ibadan, Nigeria ABSTRACT Sun dried (30 to 35 C) manure of adult fowl, pig, cow, or sheep was used to replace 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the maize in corn-peanut base diets for started broiler and pullet replacement chicks and for laying pullets. The manure of the fowl followed by that of the cow were superior to that of pig and of sheep in replacing up to 15% of maize (7.5% of the whole diet) for the different categories of birds used in the experiment. The beneficial effects of the poultry and cow manure were manifested most prominently on growth rate of the chicks and on egg production of the layers which were either comparable with or higher than those of the control. The mineral contents of the manure of the fowl and pig appeared to be beneficial in maintaining egg size and shell thickness. However these types of manure tended to reduce the intensity of egg yolk color. 1979 Poultry Science 58:852-857 INTRODUCTION The concentration of droppings, due to the modern factory production system of farm animals, has created problems of environmental sanitation. The attempted solution to these problems, especially in the case of poultry, consists partly of recycling the droppings as poultry feed. Recycling raises hopes of economic potentialities which have not been consistently justified by experimental results. Although Lee and Blair (1972), in agreement with Wehuent et al. (1960), found that the addition of dried poultry droppings to chick diets improved the growth rate of the chicks, Biely et al. (1972) reported that a dietary level of dried poultry droppings above 10% depressed the growth and feed efficiency of replacement and broiler chicks and of growing pullets. In the studies which showed improved growth rate with poultry manure, the basal diet was either low in crude protein or the dried droppings were accompanied with crystalline amino acids. Yet, Trakulchang and Balloun (1975) found that a 15% protein diet supplemented with dried poultry droppings and amino acids decreased the weight gain and feed efficiency of broiler chicks and of eight-monthold layers. Sloan and Harms (1973) indicated that depression of growth rate due to feeding dried poultry droppings might be due to a depression in caloric intake of the birds. Subclinical infection also appears to be a possible factor if the litter is not dried (Warden and Schaible, 1960). With respect to the performance of layers, Lee and Blair (1972) obtained higher egg production when the diet of layers' was supple-
mented with dried poultry droppings and crysalline amino acids. This is consistent with the findings of Flegal and Zindel (1969) who experimented with 10 to 40% dried poultry droppings. The birds on 10% laid best while those on 40% plus 4.5% animal fat laid least. Treatment did not affect egg weight and egg shell thickness. However, Trakulchang and Balloun (1975) reported a decrease in egg production with an increase in the level of dried poultry droppings. Adverse effects of dietary dried poultry manure, in terms of reduced egg weight and feed efficiency, were reported by Biely et al. (1972). Information appears scarce on the dietary effects of the manure of other farm animals on poultry with the possible exception of cow manure. Palafox and Rosenberg (1951) found that air dried cow manure fed at 15% of total mash satisfactorily supported egg production, egg weight, hatchability, and feed consumption but not body weight. The diet was also supplemented with herring meal to insure a minimum of 16% crude protein. This somewhat contrasted with the evidence of Whitson et al. (1946) that the inclusion of oven-dried cow manure dehydrated at 45 C significantly depressed egg production but this was not so when dehydration was at 80 C. At the lower temperature, cow manure was speculated to contain considerable androgenic potency which has a restricting effect on egg production. Littlefield et al. (1973) found that when cow manure was added at 0, 2.5, 5, and 10% of the diet containing 0 and 23 mg xanthophylls/ kg diet, positive linear correlation existed between the amount of xanthophyll in blood, 852
FEEDING MANURE TABLE 1. Composition of the concentrates fed to cow, pig, and sheep and of the mash fed to the layers from which droppings were collected
853
TABLE 2. Composition of the sun-dried manure of poultry and of different farm animals used in Experiments 1 and 2 Composition
Percent of diet Ingredient
Layers Pig
Maize 36.2 Guinea corn 32.3 10.0 Groundnut cake Palm kernel meal Fish meal 2.5 Blood meal Meat and bone meal 6.0 Rice bran "Luru" a 6.0 Dried yeast 2.5 Oyster shell 4.0 Dicalcium phosphate Feed additives'3 .5
45.35 33.0
Sheep and cow 64 5 17 5 15 0
12.5 25
Manure
Moisture
Ash
Crude protein
Cow Poultry Sheep Swine
15.7 48.3 30.5 36.5
2.9 17.1 6.1 13.2
3.4 15.1 6.3 10.9
4.5
1.15 3.0 .5
Gross energy (kcal/kg)
3.97 2.80 3.84 3.10
and were subjected to proximate analyses (Table 2). The basal diets used in the first and second Dried and ground leaves of Adenosonia digitata. experiments were composed as in Table 3. The remaining experimental diets were composed Feed Additives (Pfizer). by replacing 5, 10, 15, and 20% of the maize with the dried droppings of either one of the species of farm animals or of the layers. amount in yolk, and yolk visual score. There was a negative correlation between the pigmenting efficiency and the amount of cow manure added. TABLE 3. Composition of the basal diets fed to the The purpose of this study was to determine experimental birds in Experiments 1 and 2 the effects of the droppings of the fowl, cow, pig, and sheep on the performance of chicks Composition (%) and of layers. Broiler Pullet 5
MATERIALS AND METHODS Diets. This study consisted of two experiments. In both, all the farm animal species whose droppings were used in formulating the diets of the experimental birds were of mature age. The cow and sheep were maintained partly on pasture which was predominantly Cynodon 1 and partly on concentrates. The composition of the concentrates and of the diets on which the pigs and the layers were maintained are presented in Table 1. Care was exercised in collecting the droppings of the birds and farm animals to exclude extraneous mateials. The droppings were collected daily on polythene sheets in the case of layers and on washed concrete floors in the case of other farm animals. The droppings were sundried (30 to 35 C) to fairly constant weights
1
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Ingredient
starter
chick
Layers
Maize Palm oil Groundnut cake Fish meal Blood meal DL-methionine Rice bran Dried yeast or brewers grains Oyster shell Dicalcium phosphate "Luru" Salt Feed additives a , trace minerals, and vitamins
50.15 5.00 28.50 6.00 3.50
53.2
54.59 2.50 17.00 2.50 2.50 .16
2.00
2.5
1.00 .50 2.50
2.5 2.0
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Pfizer feed additives supplying the following per kg of chick diet: Vitamin A, 6000 IU; vitamin D 3 , 1320 ICU; riboflavin, 4.4 mg; niacin, 22 mg; Ca pantothenate, 8.8 mg; choline, 440 mg; vitamin B, 2 , 5 meg; Mn, 52.4 mg; Fe, 20.2 mg; Cu, 8 mg; Zn, 50 mg;Co, .5 mg; and layers' diet: Vitamin A, 10,000 IU; vitamin D3 , 1400 IU; riboflavin, 3 mg; pantothenic acid, 3 mg; niacin, 10 mg; choline chloride, 400 mg; manganese, 80 mg; zinc, 50 mg; iodine, 1.2 mg; cobalt, 200 meg; copper, 2 mg; and iron, 25 mg.
854
OLUYEMI ET AL.
Birds and Their Management. For the first experiment, 1700 male broiler hybrid chicks (White Rock X Cornish) or Rhode Island Red X White Leghorn replacement pullet chicks were used. All the chicks were floor brooded, starting with brooder temperatures of 3 5 C for broilers and 32 C for pullet chicks. However, brooding was for relatively short periods as environmental temperatures were high, especially during the day. For the second experiment, 1360 pullets and 170 cocks of the Rhode Island Red X White Leghorn cross were used. They were floor reared conventionally and maintained on a standard nutritional regimen before the experiment started. Experimental Procedure. In Experiment 1, two replicate groups each of 50 broiler and of pullet replacement chicks were at day old randomly assigned to each of the experimental broiler and pullet replacement diets respectively. The broilers and the replacement chicks were maintained on these diets for 6 and 8 weeks respectively. A complete randomized block design was also used in Experiment 2 for the pullets, assigning 40 pullets and 5 cocks to each replicate group. The breeders were maintained for six months. The initial and final body weights, feed consumption, and the mortality of the chicks were recorded. The percentage egg production, egg qualities, and reproductive performance of the breeders were also recorded and percentages were arc-sin transformed. Data were subjected to variance analyses in accordance with the method of Steel and Torrie (1960) and significant differences among means were determined using Duncan's (1955) multiple range test.
RESULTS Experiment 1. The broiler and the pullet chicks appeared to be affected differently by the dietary regimens (Table 4). The body weights of the broiler chicks were not significantly (P>.05) affected by substituting up to 15% maize with poultry manure, 10% with cow manure, and 5% with sheep manure. It was significantly (P<.05) depressed by substitution at the other levels in respect of each of these droppings and at all levels of substitution with pig droppings. The body weights of the pullet chicks were significantly (P<.05) improved by the replace-
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ment of 10% and 20% of maize with poultry droppings and 5% with cow droppings. Significant (P<.05) depression of the 8 week old chick body weight occurred when 20% of maize was substituted with sheep manure and when pig manure was used for substitution at all levels. Neither the feed efficiencies of the broiler nor of the pullet replacement chicks were significantly (P<.05) affected by dietary treatments. Deaths did not exceed 6 birds per diet and for each strain of bird. Slightly more died in the pullet chicks and in the diets with the higher levels of substitution of maize with droppings. Experiment 2. Egg production percentages were significantly (P<.05) higher than the control on 5% cow manure and on 5% to 15% poultry manure and significantly (P<.05) less on sheep manure at all levels (Table 5). Production with pig manure and with 10, 15, and 20% cow and 20% poultry manure were not significantly (P<.05) different from that of the control. Only poultry manure at 15% produced significantly (P<.05) heavier eggs and sheep manure significantly (P<.05) lighter eggs than the control. The shell thickness and the Haugh unit of the eggs tended to be uniform though slightly thicker at the higher levels of poultry manure. However, significantly (P<.05) light yolk color was obtained with poultry and pig manure. All the treatment groups made weight gains. But only that of 15% cow manure was slightly higher than the control while the others were either slightly or significantly (P<.05) less than that of the control. The percentage fertility and the percentage hatchability of fertile eggs were not significantly (P>.05) affected by the dietary treatments, although cow manure appeared to result in slightly higher percentage hatchability. Mortality was generally higher and appeared to be higher with pig manure.
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DISCUSSION
This study indicates that the dried manure of poultry and of ruminants can be used to replace maize to different extents in broiler starter diets and in replacement pullet chick diets without detriment on performance of chicks. In poultry, part of the nitrogen in the manure is urinal which is not utilized by laying hens (Martindale, 1974), but part is also 'true'
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protein (Wehuent et ah, 1960) which is highly digestible (McNab et al, 1974). The protein would be contributed by undegraded fish meal, groundnut cake, and other proteinaceous ingredients whose amino acid profile might be reflected in the diet into which it is incorporated. That is, the variability in the effect of dried poultry manure on growth rate of chicks may be ascribed partly to the quality of the undegraded protein in the manures and partly to the extent to which the diet meets the requirement of the chicks. For it will be seen that the 24% crude protein diet seemed to be adequate for the broilers whereas the 22% crude protein diet was not for the replacement pullet chicks. Even though the crude protein contents of the manures of the pig and poultry were close as compared with that of the ruminants, the undegraded protein in the manure of the ruminants and of poultry were probably closer. This is indicated by the composition of the diet of layers and of the ruminants whose manure was used. If the manure of the pig contained undegraded blood meal, it might impart some nutritional benefits unless its protein was denatured in the course of digestion. The manures of the fowl and of the pig were relatively high in minerals, no doubt originating from oyster shell and dicalcium phosphate. The growth promoting effect of dried poultry manure suggests that the minerals could be of additional nutritional benefit whereas pig manure depressed growth rate. It is tempting therefore to speculate that pig manure contained growth depressive factors which countered the beneficial effects of the minerals and of undegraded blood meal. By contrast, cow manure is claimed to possess growth promoting factors (Rubin and Bird, 1947) which might be identified partly as vitamins of the B-complex synthesized in the rumen of cows (McElroy and Goss, 1940). In any case, the cow manure would contain some dead microbes, the protein of which, according to Maynard and Loosli (1973), is of high biological value as measured by rat growth. The limitation of the nutritional benefits of the incorporated dried manure was probably due to the inability of the birds to obtain enough energy (Sloan and Harms, 1973). The feed consumption of each type of chick rose though only slightly with the amount of manure incorporated. Hence the variations in growth rate and in feed efficiency arose largely from the qualitative changes in the diets.
The tendency for the superiority of the cow manure over sheep manure is inconsistent with the higher percentage of crude protein and ash of the sheep than of the cow manure. Yet the two ruminants were maintained on the same pasture and concentrates. This evidence seems to point to different alterations of ingredients during degradation in the two animal species. The weight gains of the layers tended to be lowered by the dried droppings as expected considering the manure might have reduced the dietary energy of the diets required for body weight gains which were more of fat than tissue in the adult fowl. Expectedly, the manure of the monogastric lowered the yolk coloring while that of the ruminant, evidently higher in xanthophylls than the manure of the monogastric, maintained it. Evidence by Palafox and Rosenberg (1951) indicated that 15% cow manure in the diet was a potential egg yolk coloring matter. Evidence in this study, however, indicates that the 15% level of inclusion, egg production may be depressed through the inability of the birds to consume sufficient energy. The laying pullets whose diets contained higher levels of the manure tended to consume more feed to obtain adequate energy. Coupled with the lowering of feed quality at the higher levels of manure, this increased consumption is conducive to lowered feed efficiency of the birds with the exception of the layers on the fowl manure. We concluded from this study that the cost of poultry feed can be reduced by replacing about 15% of maize or 7% of the diet of chicks and of layers with the manure of hens and of mature cows under the experimental conditions. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was undertaken with funds provided by the Research Grant Committee of the University of Ibadan to which grateful thanks are due. REFERENCES Biely, J., R. Soong, L. Seier, and W. H. Pope, 1972. Dehydrated poultry waste in poultry rations. Poultry Sci. 51:1502-1511. Duncan, D. B., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 11:1—12. Flegal, C. J., and H. C. Zindel, 1969. The utilization of poultry waste as feedstuff for growing chicks. Res. Rep. 117:21-28. Michigan State University, East
FEEDING MANURE Lansing, MI. Lee, D. J. W., and R. Blair, 1972. Effect on chick growth of adding various nonprotein nitrogen source or dried autoclaved poultry manure to diets containing crystalline essential amino acids. Brit. Poultry Sci. 13:243-249. Littlefield, L. H., J. K. Bletner, and O. E. Goff, 1973. The effect of feeding laying hens various levels of cow manure on the pigmentation of egg yolks. Poultry Sci. 5 2 : 1 7 9 - 1 8 1 . Martindale, L., 1974. The fate of recycled urate in hens fed on a diet containing dried poultry manure. Brit. Poultry Sci. 16:389-393. Maynard, L. A., and J. K. Loosli, 1973. Animal nutrition. 6th ed. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., Bombay and New Delhi. McElroy, L. W., and H. W. Goss, 1940. A quantitative study of the vitamins in the rumen contents of sheep and cows fed vitamin-low diets. II. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine). J. Nutrition 20:541—550. McNab, J. M., D. W. F. Shannon, and P. Blair, 1974. The nutritive value of a sample of dried poultry manure for the laying hen. Brit. Poultry Sci. 15: 159-166. Palafox, A. L., and M. M. Rosenberg, 1951. Dried cow
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