Research, development, demonstration, and early deployment policies for advanced-coal technology in China

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Energy Policy 35 (2007) 6467–6477 www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol

Research, development, demonstration, and early deployment policies for advanced-coal technology in China Lifeng Zhao, Kelly Sims Gallagher Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 79 John F. Kennedy Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA Received 4 June 2007; accepted 14 August 2007

Abstract Advanced-coal technologies will increasingly play a significant role in addressing China’s multiple energy challenges. This paper introduces the current status of energy in China, evaluates the research, development, and demonstration policies for advanced-coal technologies during the Tenth Five-Year Plan, and gives policy prospects for advanced-coal technologies in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. Early deployment policies for advanced-coal technologies are discussed and some recommendations are put forward. China has made great progress in the development of advanced-coal technologies. In terms of research, development, and demonstration of advanced-coal technologies, China has achieved breakthroughs in developing and demonstrating advanced-coal gasification, direct and indirect coal liquefaction, and key technologies of Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) and coproduction systems. Progress on actual deployment of advanced-coal technologies has been more limited, in part due to insufficient supporting policies. Recently, industry chose Ultra Super Critical (USC) Pulverized Coal (PC) and Super Critical (SC) PC for new capacity coupled with pollution-control technology, and 300 MW Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) as a supplement. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Advanced-coal Technology; Research, development, demonstration and deployment; Policy

1. Introduction During the past 10 years, the Chinese government promoted advanced-coal technologies through policies and financial support for research, development, demonstration, and early deployment (RD3). Since 2001, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) has included clean coal technology in its 863 Program, a sign of the beginning of systemic investments in the innovation of advanced-coal technologies. The State Council of China issued guidelines on its national medium- and long-term program for science and technology development (2006–2020) on February 9, 2006. The guidelines noted several important technological research and development areas, including natural resources, the environment, agriculture, and information technology, but energy received the highest priority. Technologies specific to Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 617 384 9244; fax: +1 617 495 8963.

E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Zhao). 0301-4215/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2007.08.017

advanced coal in the guidelines that were highlighted for increased research, development, and demonstration included: high-efficiency mining technologies and facilities, heavy gas turbines, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) systems, Ultra Super Critical (USC) Pulverized Coal (PC) facilities, supercritical Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) power generation technologies and facilities, coal conversion technologies involving coal liquefaction, coal gasification and coal chemical engineering, coal gasification based co-production technologies, and comprehensive pollution-control technologies and facilities. The purpose of this paper is to review the research, development, demonstration, and deployment policies for advanced-coal technologies and set forth some recommendations to further promote the deployment of these technologies in the coming years. The paper includes seven sections as follows. Section 2 shows current status of energy in China. Section 3 discusses China’s specific energy challenges. Sections 4 and 5 describe research, development,

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and demonstration policies and policy prospects for advanced-coal technology during the Tenth and Eleventh Five-Year Plan. Section 6 presents early deployment policies for advanced coal technology. Section 7 provides the conclusions. 2. Current status of energy in China Currently, China is the second largest energy producer and consumer in the world. With the rapid development of Chinese society and explosive economic growth, China’s total primary energy production and consumption have grown quickly, and China’s primary energy consumption has increased especially dramatically in the past 5 years. In 2006, primary energy consumption reached 2.46 billion tons of standard coal, which was 72% higher than in 2001. Coal accounted for 69.3% of total primary energy consumption. The production of primary energy in China was up to 2.21 billion tons of standard coal in 2006, and coal contributed 76.8% of total primary energy production (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2007). As China modernizes, electricity consumption has soared at a nearly unbelievable rate. In 1995, total power capacity was 217 GW. Five years later, in 2000, it surpassed 319 GW. By 2004, it had reached 441 GW (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2006). In the following 2 years, total power capacity surpassed 517 and 622 GW, respectively (China Electricity Council, 2006). At the beginning of this century, the prevalent electricity shortages resulted in a rapid expansion of power capacity, but by the end of 2007, supply and demand are projected to be in balance. In some regions electricity may be in surplus (State Grid, 2007); so the construction of power plants should slow down. Thus, in 2006, total installed capacity was up to 622 GW, of which thermal installed capacity was 484 GW, accounting for 77.8% of total capacity. Coal-fired capacity was responsible for 95% of thermal capacity. Electricity generation was up to 2834 billion kWh, of which thermal electricity generation was 2357 billion kWh, accounting for 83.2% (China Electricity Council, 2006). Electric power consumption per capita was around 2180 kWh in 2006. The bottom line is that electric power very basically depends on coal in China. Unlike the United States, China never had large reserves of natural gas or oil. Its main energy resource endowment is coal, which accounts for 92.6% of the gross reserves of the remaining exploitable fossil energy sources in China (Wang and Zhao, 2002). Coal is therefore abundant and relatively inexpensive. China has started to take active measures to gradually reduce dominance of coal in the country’s energy production and consumption by planning to increase the exploitation and utilization of non-fossil energy over the next 30–50 years and improving energy efficiency. However, in absolute terms, the amount of coal consumed in China will inevitably grow, and it is forecasted that it will be difficult to change the funda-

mental role that coal plays in the country’s energy mix in the first half of this century. There are still many small power plants in China, with 43% sized between 6–300 MW. By the end of 2005, units larger than 300 MW accounted for only 39% of the total. Super Critical (SC) and sub-critical PC units accounted for 25% (China Electricity Council, 2006). CFB accounted for 17% of total installed capacity. The first USC PC unit went on line in November 2006, and still there are no IGCC plants as of early 2007. 3. What are China’s specific energy challenges? China faces an especially daunting set of energy challenges for 21st century, including the need for energy to sustain economic growth, high energy intensity, increasing foreign dependency for oil and gas, increasingly severe urban air pollution, already massive acid deposition, growing concerns about global climate change, access to advanced energy technologies to address all of the above challenges. The first challenge is the continued huge and growing energy demand. China has set ‘‘building a well-off society in an all-round way’’ as its social and economic goal in 2020. The goal is to triple Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from the 2000 level, and this requires growth of energy supply, hopefully at a slower rate due to improved efficiency. The Center for Forecasting Science at the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) conducted a scenario analysis for energy demand from 2010–2020. The projection showed that the demand for primary energy in China will reach 2.55–3.48 billion tons of standard coal in 2020, or 3.01 billion tons of standard coal on average (Wei et al., 2006). The Energy Information Agency’s (EIA, 2006) projection is 3.834 billion tons of standard coal. The experts projected that the Chinese coal production will reach its peak very soon, probably around 2015, and start to decline rapidly (Energy Watch Group, 2007). It is clear that the conflict between energy supply and demand will be becoming acuter and acuter. Another challenge is China’s high energy intensity. In 2004, China total primary energy supply to GDP (PPP) ratio was 0.23 toe/thousand-2000US$, higher than India (0.18), the United States (0.22), the United Kingdom (0.14), Japan (0.16), and Germany (0.16) (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2006b). China’s hard coal-fired power-plant efficiency is steadily improving. It has improved from 27% in 1974 to 33% in 2003. But, it is still lower than the United States, Japan and Western Europe. The US electric efficiency for hard coal-fired generation is 37% in 2003. Japan is 42% and Western Europe is 39% (IEA, 2006a). Other researchers arrived at the same conclusions (Graus et al., 2007). Their results showed that the United Kingdom and Ireland, Germany, Japan, and United States, are respectively 11%, 8%, 10%, and 1% above average in 2003 in terms of fossil-fuel-firedgenerating efficiency. China performed 6% below average

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in 2003. This gap in energy efficiency between China and industrialized countries suggests that there is big potential for energy savings in China. At present, the potential of energy savings is estimated to be about 300 million tons of standard coal, equal to 13.5% of the country’s total energy consumption in 2005 (National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), 2006b). Commercial power-generating facilities also face environmental protection challenges. China is failing to control its regional acid rain problem and, in fact, the problem has worsened in recent years. In 2005, China emitted 25.49 million tons of SO2 (State Environmental Protection Administration of China (SEPA), 2005), higher in absolute terms than any other country in the world. NOx emissions in China reached around 20 million tons, half of which came from the power industry, while soot emissions totaled 11.825 million tons (SEPA, 2005). If stricter and stronger control measures are not taken, in 2020 the emissions of coal combustion are predicted to be between 27.5 and 35.6 million tons of SO2, 29 million tons of NOx, and between 16.40 and 21.20 million tons of soot (SEPA, 2005). Emissions of heavy metal and fine particulate matter have drawn attention in recent years. In addition, there is increasing pressure on plant operators to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, China is confronting a formidable challenge in terms of environmental protection. Just like in the United States, oil security is a big concern for China. In 1993, China became a net oil importing country. In 2004, China became second largest consumer of oil in the world and it is presently the third-largest importer after the United States and Japan. In 2006, China imported 163 million tons of oil, which represented 47% of its total consumption. The IEA has forecasted that in 2030, China’s primary oil demand will reach 15.3 million barrels per day, and import dependence will be 77% (IEA, 2006c). CO2 produced from the use of fossil fuels is the main anthropogenic greenhouse gas that results in global warming. On a per capita basis, the United States remains by far the largest emitter. The Chinese CO2 emissions per capita for 2004 were 3.65 t, compared with the United States at 19.73 t. Japan was 9.52 t and United Kingdom was 8.98 t (IEA, 2006b). Although China still has low levels of per capita emissions, its large population and rapid economic growth will cause total CO2 emissions to increase rapidly absent preventative measures. China’s total CO2 emissions were 4769 Mt in 2004, 83% of the United States’ emissions, and surpassing the total emissions of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Europe (IEA, 2006c). China’s 2006 CO2 emissions surpassed those of the USA by 8%. With this, China tops the list of CO2 emitting countries for the first time (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 2007). Domestic and international pressures on the Chinese government to reduce CO2 emissions will intensify over time, requiring the country to shift its emphasis towards lower-carbon energy technologies and fuels. It will be very difficult to immediately change China’s coal-dominated

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energy mix. Therefore, developing and deploying advanced technologies that can utilize China’s vast coal supplies more cleanly has great strategic importance to the country. 4. Research, development, and demonstration policies for advanced-coal technology during the Tenth Five-Year Plan During the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001–2005), MOST included clean coal technology in its 863 Program for the first time, aimed at indigenous innovation in advanced-coal technology. The 863 program is China’s high-technology research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) program launched in March 1986. The strategic goals of clean coal technology during the Tenth Five-Year Plan were to produce coal-based liquid fuels, alleviate oil resource shortages, increase coal utilization efficiency, and reduce environmental pollutants. Several important tasks were identified, including clean coal power technology, pollution-control technology, coal gasification technology, Coal-To-Liquids (CTL), coal gasification-based co-production technology and other innovative projects. The RD&D of advanced-coal technology during the Tenth Five-Year Plan technologically laid the foundation for projects and topics undertaken in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010). 4.1. Advanced-coal-fired power generation technology 4.1.1. CFB power generation technology China owns relatively plentiful coal reserves, but, the coal’s characteristics vary greatly so the differences in quality are huge. 28% of China’s coal has a sulfur content higher than 1%. About 51% of China’s coal has an ash content higher than 20% (Li, 2003). Because the CFB boiler technology has the ability to fire waste and other low-grade fuels in addition to various grades of coal without SO2 and NOx control systems, this technology was chosen to supplement conventional PC power plants in China. Currently, China has the largest number of CFB boilers in the world. CFB boilers will dominate heat and power units below 300 MWe and large size SC CFB boilers will be applied to high ash and sulfur content coals in the future. The development of CFB technology in China was achieved through a combination of imported and innovated technology. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, Tsinghua University finished the conceptual design of a 600 MW SC CFB boiler financed by MOST. Demonstration plants of 135 and 200 MW using reheated CFB boilers made in China were funded by China/United Nations Development Program Clean Energy Action. 4.1.2. USC PC power generation technology The Eleventh Five-Year Plan for national economic and social development definitively set forth two goals for energy conservation and emission reduction. It stated that energy consumption per unit of GDP in 2010 should be

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about 20% lower than it was at the end of the Tenth FiveYear Plan. The power sector is an energy-intensive industry and it faces a large task in improving efficiency enough. According to the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, the average coal consumption per kWh of electricity generation in 2010 should be 355 g of standard coal, 15 g lower than it was in 2005. Possible technical solutions to this task are to increase unit parameters, scale up unit size, reduce energy consumption during the process of electricity generation, enhance unit reliability, and upgrade the technologies. USC PC power generation technology coupled with pollution-control technology is highly efficient, technically mature, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly. Currently, the efficiency of USC units operating in the world is up to 43–47%, 4% higher than that of a SC unit, and 6% higher than that of a sub-critical unit (Expert Group on the Clean Coal Technology Subject, 2004). If the only goal was to improve efficiency, USC would be an excellent technology choice for the power industry because it is technically mature and many operating units exist around the world. The risks to investors and producers are quite low. The maturity of the technology in China has to be considered when the power sector chooses cleaner power generation technology. Compared to IGCC, USC power generation technology can be commercialized and manufactured on a large scale easily in China based on current industrial capabilities. It is also relatively easier to realize a large size for USC units compared to other technologies. Currently, the largest size of single CFB and IGCC units is 300 MW grade. But, there are 1000 MW USC units operating now. Therefore, speeding up construction of USC PC power plants is an immediately practical and feasible solution to meet quick growth in electricity demand in a more energy-efficient way. The China Power Engineering Consulting Group Corporation projected in 2002 that capital costs per kW of sub-critical PC, SC PC, USC PC, and IGCC were around $525, 535, 543, and 796, respectively, when domestic manufacturers have the capability to make most of the component equipment (China Power Engineering Consulting Group Corporation, 2002). So, a typical USC PC unit is very economically competitive. Coupled with pollution-control technology, USC PC units can also meet the requirements of Chinese emission standards. At the same time, because of its high efficiency it can significantly reduce CO2 emissions compared to a typical sub-critical PC plant. There is great potential to increase the thermal parameters for USC PC units with the development of new materials and production processes. Therefore, USC PC power generation technology is one example of a highly efficient, cleaner coal-fired power generation technology used around the world that has begun to be deployed in China. In the near term, USC technology can be a fast and practical way for power generators to meet China’s power generation goals. MOST-funded project set forth concrete guidelines for the technological parameters of USC units: generating capacity should be 600 MW grade or 1000 MW grade,

steam parameters are to be between 25 and 28 MPa, 600/ 600 degrees centigrade. The research team completed schematic designs of three USC boilers and one USC turbine, and they researched and developed the design and operation technologies of power plant systems. These technologies were tested at a USC PC demonstration plant in Yuhuan Power Plant owned by China Huaneng Group and rated at 2  1000 MW (China Huaneng Group, 2006a). 4.1.3. IGCC and co-production technology China started research on IGCC technology in the 1970s. In 1979, the Chinese government decided to build an experimental 10 MW IGCC power plant. The research group’s task was to test the principles behind IGCC technology and to provide a research and development platform to overcome key technological problems. However, this project was stopped for a variety of reasons (Pang, 2005). During the Eighth, Ninth, and the Tenth Five-Year Plans, the government supported research and development on the analysis and optimization of IGCC systems. In 1996, a US-Sino Expert Report on IGCC technology was organized by the Institute of Engineering Thermophysics (IET), CAS, China and Tulane University, in which the authors made clear that the newer versions of IGCC needed a co-production component because of the valuable co-products in the Chinese context. In 1998, IET started to develop coal-based co-production technologies (Xiao, 2001, 2004). In 1999, the necessary agencies and departments approved an IGCC demonstration project in Yantai, Shandong Province with an intended installed capacity of 300–400 MW. In 2002, the government set up a working group to reform the power sector. Subsequently, the State Power Corporation was split into 2 grid companies and 5 power generation companies, thus separating the grid from power generation. The IGCC demonstration project was assigned to the State Grid Corporation. The assessment of bids was finished in 2003, but, because of a much higher cost than anticipated, the project was halted. The cost, based on bids collected in 2003, was around $1000 per kW. The need to import nearly all the technology and equipment was the main reason for the higher cost. Thanks to support from the Knowledge Innovation Program of CAS, and the 973 and 863 programs, Chinese researchers have also undertaken research and development of co-production technology. Supported by key technology innovations made by IET, Yankuang has built the first coal gasification-based co-production system with an output of 60 MWe and 240 thousands tons of methanol per year. The Yankuang plant was a breakthrough for IGCC and co-production in China. This demonstration project came into operation in April 2006, and its successful operation has laid the foundation for long-term development of IGCC and co-production in China. Several coal and electric power corporations are planning to construct new IGCC and co-production plants. Yankuang

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Group is planning to construct a new co-production plant with capacity of 200 MWe and 800 thousands tons of synfuel per year. The Lu’an Group has plans to build a demonstration plant of 60 MWe and 160 thousands tons of synfuel per year. The feasibility report for Shenhua Group’s project of 800 MW power and 400 thousands tons of methanol per year co-production has been finished. All of these new demonstration plants will receive some support from MOST, but will be mainly funded by industry. Meanwhile, China Huaneng Group joined the US government-sponsored FutureGen alliance. In December of 2005, China Huaneng Group also teamed up with seven other corporations in China to found the GreenGen Corporation. GreenGen Corporation has committed to researching, developing, demonstrating and deploying the next generation of coal-fired power technology that is highly efficient and produces near zero emissions, can produce chemicals from coal with advanced gasification technology, and resolves problems in current coal-fired power generation technology. China Huaneng Group and the Tianjin Municipal People’s Government signed a cooperative agreement on September 1, 2006 to build a 250 MW IGCC demonstration plant in Tianjin. Construction will begin at the beginning of 2007 and is planned to be completed at the end of 2009 (Greengen Corporation Limited, 2006). Both China Huadian Corporation and China Datang Corporation are also planning to construct IGCC power plants and/or retrofit existing units. Because of the uncertainty of Liquefied Natural Gas supply, oil prices and environmental protection legislation, new and/ or soon-to-be-upgraded oil-powered combined cycle power plants in Dongguan, Fushan and Shantou will include IGCC as an option. These IGCC power plants will have a capacity range between 100 and 800 MW. Future power plants are likely to be developed with co-production in mind. IGCC has the ability to utilize high-sulfur coal in an environmentally friendly way, but like other countries, China is facing obstacles with regard to the higher capital cost of IGCC in comparison with conventional PC plants. The coal chemical industry uses complicated processes and rigorous operational conditions for getting high coal conversion rates that result in huge equipment sizes and high capital and production costs. The gasification-based co-production system aims to utilize coal efficiently and thoroughly through co-production of electricity, liquid fuels and/or chemicals. It can greatly lower energy and mass losses and has the potential to meet the multiple objectives of high efficiency, relatively low-cost, and environmental friendliness. So, in China, coal gasification-based co-production is likely to be the main future direction of technological development for coal utilization.

from thermal power plants on December 23, 2003. The standards were implemented on January 1, 2004, and included NOx for the first time. In terms of fuel reburning technology, MOST has financed three industrial-scale demonstration projects. These projects utilized three different technological options. Those options were demonstrated on 200, 350, and 600 MW coal-fired boilers. Test results indicated that the average NOx emission level of the boiler of Yuanbaoshan power plant which used micronized coal reburning technology in a medium-speed direct-firing pulverized system was 274 mg/m3. The NOx emission level of the boiler of Baogang power plant using gas reburning technology was 218 mg/m3. The average NOx emission level of the boiler of Zhenhai power plant using micronized coal reburning technology in a ball bin storage pulverized system was 440 mg/m3. All of these results were below permitted NOx emission levels (Li, 2006b).

4.2. Pollution-control technology

4.3. Coal-to-liquids (CTL)

4.2.1. NOx control technology The SEPA, in conjunction with other two national institutions, issued emission standards for air pollutants

The acute conflict between oil supply and demand caused China to become a net oil importer in the 1990s, and the third-largest oil importer in the world today. The

4.2.2. Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, MOST financed four FGD demonstration projects involving wet slurry jet FGD, activated carbon absorption, ammonia-based FGD, and electric beam FGD technologies. The first project group built an industrial-scale demonstration facility using wet slurry jet FGD technology in a 330 MW plant in the Haikou power plant, managed by the Huaneng Group. The demonstration has been successful. The wet slurry jet FGD technology has since been used on a 300 MW plant in Dengzhou, also owned by the Huaneng Group. The second project group built an industrial-scale demonstration facility in the Wonfu Phosphate Plant using active coke FGD with a flue gas treatment capacity of 200,000 N m3/h, which has also been successful. In this project, the desulfurization output is a highly concentrated mix of SO2 gas. Using a technically mature process, all chemical products containing sulfur can be currently produced. The Wonfu plant produces 98% industrial concentrated sulfuric acid and is making large profits (Wu et al., 2006). The third project involved research, development, and demonstration of a novel FGD technology, which used ammonia as the reagent to recover SO2 and produced ammonium sulfate, a valuable fertilizer. The project group built a demonstration unit with a flue gas flowrate of 300,000 N m3/h. This ammonia-based FGD process does not consume any extra natural resources to produce the fertilizer and does so without producing additional waste or pollution. Currently, a fourth project using electric beam FGD technology is ongoing.

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rate of oil imports has grown faster than the national economy. Coal liquefaction technology has thus been of great interest to the Chinese government and industry. The main advantage of CTL is that China could rely more heavily on domestic energy resources rather than importing additional oil. The downsides are that vehicle technologies would have to be modified, CTL is generally energyintensive, and CTL is significantly worse in terms of GHG emissions than oil, absent carbon capture and storage (CCS). During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, significant breakthroughs were made in coal liquefaction technology. On the basis of laboratory research, three pilot-scale facilities were built. The researchers have since mastered the key technologies, and a cost-effective catalyst was produced. These efforts greatly enhance the development of a CTL industry and offer a new approach to the oil supply problem in China. 4.3.1. Direct liquefaction Shen Hua’s coal direct liquefaction process was researched, developed and tested based on Bench Scale Unit (BSU) and Process Development Unit (PDU). A 0.1 t/d direct coal liquefaction BSU plant was built at the end of 2003. Researchers experimented ten times on the BSU in 207 days, totaling almost 5000 working hours. These experiments validated the feasibility and reliability of the direct coal liquefaction process and the recurrence of the liquefaction test. The construction and operation of the PDU was a milestone for the industrialization of Shen Hua’s direct coal liquefaction process. The 6 t/d direct coal liquefaction PDU was constructed in Shanghai in September 2004. By the end of 2005, the reliability of direct coal liquefaction process and equipment was confirmed through 18 nonstop days of experiments. The results showed that the conversion rate was 90–92% and hydrogen consumption was 5–7%. Moreover, the experimental results of PDU were consistent with those of BSU (Zhang, 2006). The China Coal Research Institute researched and developed a nanometer catalyst for direct coal liquefaction. The catalyst is characterized by its low-cost, low energy consumption, and high functionality. The Shen Hua Group Corporation has decided to apply the catalyst to Shen Hua’s direct coal liquefaction demonstration plant. Currently, Shen Hua Group Corporation is building the world’s first direct coal liquefaction demonstration plant, which will be in the Neimenggu Municipality. The planned scale of direct coal liquefaction is 5 million tons of synfuel per year, though the design capacity of the first production line is 1 million tons of synfuel per year. Construction of the demonstration plant was started in August 2004 and will be finished at the end of 2007. 4.3.2. Indirect liquefaction Sasol Company of South Africa famously commercialized indirect coal liquefaction technology many years ago.

Shenhua Group is planning to import indirect liquefaction technology from Sasol Company, and this plan has been approved by NDRC. Two projects were already launched at the end of 2003. Shenhua Group will build two 3 million tons of synfuel per year coal indirect liquefaction plants in Shanxi Province and Ningxia Municipality, respectively. To date, the feasibility studies on the two projects are still ongoing. Just like the proposed Yantai IGCC plant, having to import technology and equipment is causing higher costs. Therefore, the progress is very slow, hampered by continual negotiation. The Institute of Coal Chemistry, CAS, constructed an indirect liquefaction pilot plant with a capacity of 750 t per year, and they have done at least seven operational experiments to date. In one test in 2004, researchers operated the plant with a full capacity for 1500 h. After 5000 operational hours, they had gathered ample engineering data, and determined that its synfuel could be used as an automobile fuel. The Yankuang Group constructed an indirect liquefaction pilot plant with a capacity of 5000 t per year. At last count, the plant has run for at least 6068 h, 4706 of which were at full capacity. Their experience so far has yielded enough data to determine what conditions are needed for optimal operation and to begin industrializing the process (Li, 2006a). Chinese researchers now have enough understanding of slurry phase design, catalyst preparation, reaction process, liquid-solid separation technologies to build an industrialscale demonstration plant with a capacity of 1 million tons of synfuel per year. The Shen Hua Group Corporation has developed plans for CTL plants in Shanxi Province, the Neimenggu and Ningxia Municipalities. Xinjiang Municipality will host its fourth CTL plant. Yankuang Group also has plans to build CTL plants in Shanxi Province, Guizhou Province and Xinjiang Municipality. Some corporations are also planning to build CTL projects, so the CTL industry appears to be thriving in China. 4.4. Coal gasification technology In recent years, coal gasification technology has been attracting more and more attention internationally and in China. It is central to most advanced-coal technologies, and it has the advantages of accommodating a range of fuels (various kinds of coal, municipal waste, coke and so forth) and producing relatively low emissions of NOx, SO2, particulate matter, and mercury. With some modification, it can also be CO2 capture ready. Gasification technologies have been widely applied to fields such as chemical engineering, metallurgy, and town gas production. Soon, it is likely to become an important industry and play a significant role in China’s energy composition. China imported a variety of gasification technologies, such as Lurgi’s pressurized fixed bed, U-gas fluidized bed, Texaco and Shell entrained-bed gasifiers. Lurgi’s pressurized fixed bed is a major and mature gasification

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technology that is widely used in China to produce process gas for chemicals or town gas. In essence, the fixed bed gasification technology has already been mastered in China. In December of 2006, Hai Hua Coal Chemical Company, Ltd. imported U-gas gasification technology owned by Synthesis Energy Systems. Currently, in China all the operating gasifiers are used to produce process gas for chemicals or town gas. In terms of entrained-bed gasification technologies, typical examples are Texaco gasification and Shell gasification technologies. The former utilizes coal-water slurry feed, while the latter utilizes dry powder feed. During the past several years, Shell gasification technology entered the Chinese market on a large scale. The first Shell gasifier was put into operation last year using technology imported by the Shuanghuan Chemical Group in Hubei Province. The Dongting Nitrogen Fertilizer Plant in Hunan Province and the Liuzhou Fertilizer Plant in Guangxi Province are building Shell gasifiers at different scales. In addition, a number of Shell gasifier projects are being developed in Liaoning, Zhejiang, Anhui, and Yunan provinces. The Texaco gasification technology is the entrained-bed gasification technologies with the most experience in commercial operation. In 1988, China introduced the first Texaco gasifier, which was put into operation in 1993 at the Lunan Fertilizer Plant in Shandong Province. Subsequently, three sets of Texaco gasifiers were imported and built in the Shanghai Coking Plant, Weihe Fertilizer Plant and Huainan Fertilizer Plant. Now there are 13 Texaco gasifers operating all over the country. China owns the largest number of Texaco gasifiers in the world for syngas production. Learning from the imported technologies, China started developing its own gasification technology many years ago. During the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, East China University of Science and Technology built a pilot plant with a capacity of 22 t of coal per day using new coal-water slurry with opposed multi-nozzles gasification technology in the Yankuang Group’s Lunan Fertilizer Plant. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan period, the Yankuang Group has scaled it up to 1150 t of coal per day (Yu and Yu, 2006). The Xi’an Thermal Power Research Institute has built a pilot plant with a capacity of 36 t of coal per day using Chinese dry-PC-pressurized gasification technology. Trials have been successful, and gasification indexes have reached the expected value. East China University of Science and Technology has also built a pilot facility in Yankuang Group with a capacity of 45 t of coal per day. These efforts have closed the gap of technological understanding between China and the rest of the world concerning dry-PC-pressurized gasification technology, laying the foundation of experiences for the further research and development. GreenGen Corporation has decided to apply dry-PC-pressurized gasification technology to its IGCC demonstration plant, and during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, this technology will be scaled up to 2000 t of coal per day.

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5. Research, development, and demonstration policy prospects for advanced-coal technology during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan The 863 program of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan in China was initiated in September 2006. The projects can be divided into three main discreet categories: those involving ‘‘momentous’’ projects, ‘‘key’’ projects, and ‘‘research themes’’ that are sub-divided according to specific R&D foci. Each category is administrated and managed separately. The research themes highlight the frontier of R&D on advanced technologies. Their goals are to enhance original innovation ability and acquire independent intellectual property rights. Momentous and key projects emphasize issues of national strategic interest and the need for greater integrated innovation. The goal of momentous projects is to form prototypes of products or technological systems. The goals of key projects are to develop breakthrough core technologies, develop prototypes of single technology products, and resolve important process problems in pilot plants. 5.1. Momentous projects MOST’s momentous projects include coal gasificationbased co-production demonstration plants, biomass energy technology, heavy duty gas turbines and quick neutron reactors. Because momentous projects need the participation of multiple parties and involve significant funding, MOST formed a comprehensive structure to organize and implement such projects. There are three organizations under MOST, including an expert group, auditing institute and project office. The expert group proposes projects to MOST and then oversees the implementation of the projects approved by MOST. The auditing institute supervises the use of project funding regularly. Both of them need to report on the progress of projects to MOST. The project office is also responsible for the day to day management of the projects. It serves as the interface between the expert group, auditing institute and project execution teams. The expert group is composed of people from academia, power companies, manufacturers and coal companies. Similarly, project execution teams are also composed of power companies, universities, research institutes, manufacturers and coal companies. The project of coal gasification based co-production demonstration will independently research and develop both key single technologies and an integrated system technology. These technologies will be validated and demonstrated with IGCC and co-production demonstration plants. The objectives of the project are to form the ability to research, develop and demonstrate key technologies for IGCC and co-production. The main areas of focus are: a 2000 t of coal per day coal-water slurry gasification technology, a 2000 t of coal per day dry-PCpressurized gasification technology, fuel flexible gasification, syngas-fired low emissions heavy gas turbine retrofit,

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0.1–1 million tons of synfuel per year synthesis, operation and automation, system optimization and design, liquids and power co-production demonstration, and IGCC demonstration. 5.2. Key projects Key projects slated for research include: coal gasification and syngas cleanup technologies, high-temperature Fischer-Tropsch synthesis technologies, R&D on industrial energy efficiency, micro-gas turbine and a distributed energy supply system, MW-grade photovoltaic power generation system connected to the electricity grid, solar thermal power generation technology and demonstration, film battery technology research, hydrogen use and demonstration system, and nuclear security and fuel recycling technology. 5.3. Research themes Research themes include clean coal technology, energy efficiency, and distributed energy supply systems, renewable energy technologies, and hydrogen and fuel cells. Based on the development of clean coal technologies during the Tenth Five-Year Plan and on current energy technology trends, MOST arranged for exploration-oriented and target-oriented projects during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan. The primary focus areas involve: advanced-coal power, new emissions control, advanced-coal process and conversion, and CO2 reduction. The theme is aiming at increasing the ability for innovation of clean coal technology, achieving intellectual property rights, promoting integrated innovation of new technology and new equipment, and laying a foundation for the development of clean coal technology. At the end of August 2006, MOST released project bids for 2006, with annual funding slated for $5.8 million. The exploration-oriented projects stressed clean combustion, new emissions controls, coal process and conversion, and CO2 reduction. The funding of each project was not to exceed $128,000, and each project should last 3 years. Target-oriented projects highlighted advanced-coal power technology, coal-fired emissions control technology, and coal liquefaction technology. The funding of each project was not to exceed $641,000, and the project should also last 3 years. 5.4. Special science and technology action on CCS MOST issued ‘‘China’s Special Science and Technology Action in Response to Climate Change’’ on June 14, 2007. The major tasks presented in this Special Action include scientific problems of climate change, research and development on GHG control and climate change mitigation technology, technology and measures adaptive to climate change, and important strategies and policies to address climate change. Regarding research and development on

GHG control and climate change mitigation technology, efforts include energy efficiency technology, renewable and new energy, coal’s clean, efficient mining and utilization technology, oil, gas, and coal bed methane resources exploration and their clean, efficient mining and utilization technology, advanced nuclear energy, CO2 capture and storage, biologic and other carbon sequestration engineering technology, and GHG emission control through agriculture and land use pattern (MOST, 2007). 6. Early deployment policies for advanced-coal technology In order to promote the deployment of cleaner coal technology in industrial settings, the central and local governments have formulated a series of industrial policies. For example, in the power sector, the government encourages the development of cleaner power generation and combined heat and power, phasing out obsolete technologies and closing down small size plants for efficiency purpose. To control emissions, the government requires that new coal-fired units must be synchronously equipped with FGD, existing plants must have begun to be retrofitted with FGD technology before 2010, all plants should meet SO2 requirements before 2015, and new plants must set aside space for future flue gas denitrification equipment installations. For the coal sector, the government encourages use of briquette and coal–water mixtures, the development of gasification, liquefaction, and clean coal combustion technologies. For the manufacturing sector, the government encourages the development of desulfurization, dust removal, denitrification technologies, and equipments. By the end of 2005, there were 2000 CFB units larger than 75 t/h operating in China. The total installed capacity of these plants, including those CFB boilers being under construction, was 55 GW. These units accounted for 17% of total installed capacity of all coal-fired units. The first 300 MWe CFB made in China recently completed a 168 h test operation and was moved into commercial production on June 3, 2006. Now there are over ten 300 MW CFB boilers under construction in China. The first 300 MWe CFB plant using imported technology and equipment began operation on April 17, 2005, and went online on December 30, 2005 (Thermal Power Committee of Chinese Society for Electrical Engineering, 2006). Currently, there are twenty-two 1000 MW USC PC plants and twelve 600 MW USC PC plants under construction in China. The Yuhuan Power Plant of China Huaneng Group mentioned above went online on November 13, 2006 (China Huaneng Group, 2006b). Other coalfired power generation units currently under construction are 600 MW SC units, and 300 and 600 MW sub-critical units. According to national industrial policy, 600 MW SC PC and 1000 MW USC PC units are the preferred power plants for the coming years. Though not legally required, emission legislation for new coal-fired power plants calls for the plants to set aside space

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for future flue gas denitrification equipment installations, since such technology will be required eventually. Currently, only about ten power plants have flue gas denitrification facilities. New power generation units are equipped with low NOx burners in China. Also many existing units were retrofitted with this technology. Reburning technology was applied to the Wangting and Jiangyou power plants besides the three demonstration projects funded by MOST. Yuanbaoshan power plant is planning to apply micronized coal reburning technology to its #4 boiler. The total installed capacity of FGD technologies increased ten times from 5 GW in 2000 to 53 GW in 2005, accounting for 14% of total installed thermal power capacity. Even though a lot of FGD equipment has been installed, it is not clear whether it is always operated. The total amount of FGD capacity under construction exceeds 100 GW. Currently, there are over ten FGD technologies in use, including wet limestone gypsum FGD, flue gas circulation fluidized bed desulfurization, seawater scrubbing for FGD, integrated dust removal and desulfurization, semi-dry FGD, rotary spray dryer absorption FGD, limestone injection into the furnace and activation of calcium, activated carbon absorption, and electronic beam. Accounting for 90% of FGD technologies in use, wet limestone gypsum is by far the most popular FGD technology in China, as it is in other parts of the world (NDRC, 2006a). Various kinds of FGD processes serve different purposes. The choice of which FGD process to employ is most often a function of technology, economics, the plant’s specific needs, and so forth. According to NDRC, 240 GW of FGD capacity will be needed in the next 3 years, representing a total market of around $7.7 billion. Although the technological progress in terms of development and deployment has been rather good, enforcement of these NOx and SO2 emission standards has been a continuing challenge in China, and it will need to be a high priority for the Chinese government going forward. Despite this progress, national government institutions are experiencing challenges with managing advanced-coal deployment. In recent years, energy security and infrastructure concerns have promoted interest in all advancedcoal technologies. The Chinese government has not, however, formulated coherent plan for demonstration and deployment of advanced-coal technologies. Energy firms are moving forward according to their own strategic plans, but the goals of industry are not always consistent with those of the government or the public interest. This lack of government oversight is likely to lead to cost inefficiencies and sub-optimal siting of advanced technology demonstration and early deployment projects. During the past 2 years, there has been a surge of investments in CTL projects because of high world oil prices. There was no master plan for the industrialization of CTL technology. It is important to note that industrialscale coal liquefaction technology is still in a testing and demonstration phase; significant technological and engi-

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neering challenges still exist. Fluctuations in world oil prices as well as the scale of a given project have great influence on an operator’s profits. CTL is very technologyintensive and capital-intensive process, so it doesn’t seem logical for CTL plants to be widely deployed until the technology matures more fully. In addition, CTL consumes large quantities of coal and water. One ton of oil yielded through the CTL process requires between 3–5 t coal and about 13 t water, depending on the specific CTL process used. The chosen sites for CTL plants were scattered without a consideration of coal and water sources, and the development of CTL in China was in a state of disorder. NDRC announced in July 2006 that CTL projects with capacity below 3 million tons per year were not generally allowed to start; small size projects were forced to stop. This led to loss of time and money, because developers invested money and human resources in conducting preliminary feasibility studies. Given these problems, the government should undertake efforts to provide a framework for future investment that takes into account coal availability, water resources, and environmental concerns. At present, the Chinese government is beginning to support IGCC demonstration projects, but not in a systematic way. In order to avoid blindly deploying IGCC technology like CTL, related national institutions should formulate a plan to regulate its industry development. For example, the plan should determine the number of projects and the sites where IGCC should be demonstrated first. The central government should determine several IGCC demonstration plants to validate key technologies and reduce costs. The government may wish to try co-locating the IGCC demonstration plants near possible carbon storage sites. While the demonstration plants are under construction, the Chinese government should begin planning how to accelerate the early deployment of additional IGCC plants if the demonstrations are successful. The Chinese government already provides cleaner coal technology projects with preferential fiscal policies. For example, the government offers a preferential price for electricity from power plants with FGD, and gives financial subsidies, low interest loans, and reduction or exemption of taxes to cleaner coal technology demonstration projects. With more preferential policies, more investment can be drawn from public and private enterprises to promote the early deployment of advanced-coal technologies. For the plants that employ the next generation of advanced-coal technologies, such as IGCC and flue gas denitrification, the government should provide a preferential price for electricity from plants. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan for national economic and social development called for a 10% reduction in SO2 emissions by 2010, a reduction from 25.49–22.94 million tons, but realizing the goal is a huge challenge. With the rapid growth of electricity demand, the engineering measures to reduce SO2 emissions only depend on the installation of FGD facilities. However, the installation of FGD facilities has not controlled the increase of total SO2

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emissions in reality. The SO2 reduction goal could be better realized by implementing an energy-efficiency plan and new trading system. Two main policies were formulated to control pollution in China. One is the emission standards for air pollutants from thermal power plants. The emission standard prescribes emission concentrations of SO2 and NOx, but this standard is not enough. Only the combination of setting standards for emission concentrations and for absolute quantities of emissions has the possibility of controlling pollution. The other policy promotes an emission charge system, which requires polluters to pay a fee based on the level of their emissions, including the type of pollution and amount. If the emission concentrations can not meet the requirements of emission standards, polluters face a fine besides paying a fee. Under this system, polluters should have incentives to update facilities and use new pollution-control technologies. Supervision and management of the environmental enforcement departments implementing these policies did not work well, and SO2 emissions in China have actually worsened over the past 5 years. Stricter regulatory measures and standards are likely to induce advanced technology transfer and deployment (Gallagher, 2006). Along with stricter legislation, implementation and monitoring measures need to be strengthened as well. An emission trading permit system could allow enterprises to realize emission reductions with lower costs. In 1999, SEPA and US EPA signed a cooperative agreement to study SO2 emission reductions using this market mechanism. In March 2002, SEPA and the US NonGovernmental Organization Environmental Defense started carrying out research on emissions trading in four Provinces (Jiangsu, Shandong, Henan, Shanxi), three cities (Shanghai, Tianjin, Liuzhou) and one enterprise (China Huaneng Power Corporation). However, because there are no rigorous monitoring and enforcement regimes, the market failed to function. In reality, the emission trading program depended on negotiations between local governments. A market for SO2 permits never emerged. Based on the experience from these studies, a SO2 emission trading permit system should be carried out as soon as possible in China with rigorous monitoring and enforcement. The Chinese government should gradually take actions to control heavy metal emissions, such as mercury. Some existing pollution-control technologies such as coal washing, electrostatic filter, bag filter, wet FGD, dry FGD, semi-dry FGD, and SCR are able to partly remove mercury. Coal-fired power plants should emphasize the combination of existing pollution-control technologies to remove mercury. Also, the Chinese government should gradually establish and improve laws and regulations to control fine particulate matter and CO2 emissions, and to encourage industries to adopt new technologies and products. China, as a developing country, has not committed itself to a quantitative target in CO2 emission reductions. So, currently, there are no explicit policies targeting CO2

reduction exclusively, although most of the efficiency policies and programs have the effect of reducing CO2. Some research has been done about possible carbon policies appropriate for China’s situation (Aunan et al., 2004; Meng et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2006). NDRC released China’s National Climate Change Program on June 4, 2007. The overall goals put forward in the program are to control GHG emissions, enhance capacity of adaptation to climate change, enhance R&D of science and technology, and raise public awareness and improve management. The goals of GHG emissions control by 2010 are to achieve the target of 20% reduction of energy consumption per unit GDP, raise the proportion of renewable energy (including large-scale hydropower) in primary energy supply up to 10%, extract coal bed methane up to 10 billion m3, maintain the emissions of nitrous oxide from industrial processes at 2005 levels, increase the forest coverage rate to 20%, and increase China’s carbon sink by 50 million tons over the level of 2005 (NDRC, 2007). According to China’s principles of addressing climate change, China’s government will consider actively this issue during the process of sustainable development. China will further implement and strengthen interrelated policies, such as energy conservation and energy efficiency improvement, development and utilization of hydropower and other renewable energy, ecological restoration and protection, family planning, and so forth (NDRC, 2007). 7. Conclusion China is the second largest energy producer and consumer in the world. With the rapid development of China’s society and economy, total primary energy production and consumption have grown quickly. Coal is the foundation of energy development in China. China’s energy resource endowment, technological capabilities, and projected rapid economic growth strongly indicate that coal will continue to dominate China’s energy mix in the next few decades. Power generation efficiency is still much too low and needs to be improved to extend China’s resource base. Coal burning has led to severe environmental problems such as air pollution, acid deposition, and global climate change. Emissions from coal burning have caused health damage, ecological degradation, and economic losses. These problems must be addressed. For China, climate change is not a driving factor for technology choice at this time. Other factors such as strong economic demand, energy security, and local environmental concerns dominate. For the Chinese, conventional pollutant control is much more urgent than CO2 control because of the direct public health benefits. For now, China is unlikely to be more aggressive than the United States in terms of a CO2 policy. But, once the United States commits to a mandatory climate change policy, the Chinese government is likely to take the issue more seriously. In the meantime, the Chinese government is very interested in

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promoting energy efficiency, which has strong co-benefits for CO2 control. The Chinese Government has paid much attention to advanced-coal technology in recent years. In order to promote the research, development, demonstration, and deployment of advanced-coal technologies, the central government and local governments have formulated a series of industrial, fiscal, environmental policies, and plans. Great progress was made with respect to improving the technological capabilities of Chinese researchers and firms, and also in developing, demonstrating, and deploying certain advanced-coal technologies, such as USC and SC PC power generation technologies, and CFB. Where progress was substantial, it can be attributed both to functional RD3 policies and market mechanisms. Little progress was made on deploying other advanced-coal technologies, for example, advanced-coal gasification, indirect and direct coal liquefaction, and key technologies of IGCC and co-production systems. Because of relatively poor technological innovation capabilities, these technologies developed slowly in China in the past decade. China thus lags behind other industrialized countries in developing and deploying them. Chinese researchers and firms made concerted efforts to achieve breakthroughs in development and demonstration of them during the Tenth Five-Year Plan. However, the early deployment phase of these technologies needs to be strengthened. A strategic and comprehensive set of deployment policies in China are required to promote the early deployment of these technologies. References Aunan, K., Fang, J., Vennemo, H., Oye, K., Seip, H.M., 2004. Co-benefits of climate policy-lessons learned from a study in Shanxi, China. Energy Policy 32 (2004), 567–581. China Electricity Council, 2006. China Huaneng Group, 2006a. Research and Application of Ultra Supercritical Generation Technology (USC) in China. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing. China Huaneng Group, 2006b. The first USC demonstration unit was put into operation in Yuhuan Power Plant of China Huaneng Group /http://www.chng.com.cn/minisite/news/new/news_index_39074.htmlS. China Power Engineering Consulting Group Corporation, 2002. Thermal power mix optimization and technology upgrade in China, Beijing. Energy Information Agency (EIA), 2006. International Energy Outlook 2006, Washington DC. Expert Group on the Clean Coal Technology Subject, 2004. Strategic study on the development of ultra-supercritical pulverized coal power technology in China. National High Technology Development Program (The Tenth Five-Year Plan), Beijing. Gallagher, K.S., 2006. China Shifts Gears: Automakers, Oil, Pollution, and Development. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Graus, W.H.J., Voogt, M., Worrel, E., 2007. International comparison of energy efficiency of fossil power generation. Energy Policy 35, 3936–3951. Greengen Corporation Limited, 2006 /www.greengen.com.cnS, Beijing. International Energy Agency (IEA), 2006a. Energy Technology Perspectives: Scenarios and Strategies to 2050. OECD/IEA, Paris. IEA, 2006b. Key World Energy Statistics.

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IEA, 2006c. World Energy Outlook 2006. Li, W., 2003. Coal and Clean Coal Technologies-Similarities and Differences between China and USA. Presentation at Harvard, Cambridge. Li, W., 2006a. New Development and Progress of Indirect Coal Liquefaction Technology in China. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing. Li, Z., 2006b. R&D and Industrialization of Coal-Fired DeNOx Technologies with Low-NOx Combustion. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing. Liu, Y., Li, X., Fang, Z., Bai, B., 2006. Preliminary estimation of CO2 storage capacity in gas fields in China. Rock and Soil Mechanics 27 (12), 2277–2281. Meng, K.C., Williams, R.H., Celia, M.A., 2007. Opportunities for lowcost CO2 storage demonstration projects in China. Energy Policy 35 (2007), 2368–2378. Ministry of Science and Technology, 2007. China’s special science & technology action in response to climate change. National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2006 /http://www.stats.gov.cn/S. National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2007. China Statistical Abstract 2007. China Statistics Press, Beijing. National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), 2006a. Industrialization Status and Some Recommendations of FGD Technology in Thermal Power Plants, Beijing. National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), 2006b. People’s Daily, Beijing. National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), 2007. China’s National Climate Change Program. Available at: /http://en.ndrc. gov.cn/newsrelease/P020070604561191006823.pdfS. Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), 2007. China now no. 1 in CO2 emissions. USA in second position, available at: /http://www.mnp.nl/en/dossiers/Climatechange/moreinfo/ Chinanowno1inCO2emissionsUSAinsecondposition.htmlS. Pang, Z., 2005. Lost energy strategy: look back IGCC for 25 years. Economy and Management (18), 10–22. State Environmental Protection Administration of China (SEPA), 2005. Report on the state of the environment in China in 2005, Beijing. State Grid, 2007. The National Electricity Market Analysis and Projection for 2007. Available at: /http://www.sgnews.com.cn/gjdwzz/0702/ gc0702/t20070414_30016.shtmlS. Thermal Power Committee of Chinese Society for Electrical Engineering, 2006. The Evolution of CFB Boiler in China /http://www.china5e. comS. Wang, J., Zhao, Z., 2002. Energy Development Report of China. China Metrology Publishing House, Beijing. Wei, Y., Liang, Q., Fan, Y., Ma, X., Liu, L., Liao, H., 2006. Energy Demand Forecast from 2010 to 2020 by region in China. Center for Forecasting Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Wu, J., Liu, J., Zhang, W., 2006. The Resourcable FGD Technology and Its Development. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing. Xiao, Y., 2001. Cleaner coal, biomass and MSW technologies by thermochemical conversion. Sweden–China Workshop on Energy R&D and Climate Change, Stockholm. Xiao, Y., 2004. Co-production and hydrogen technology. Workshop on the Cooperation in Clean Coal Technologies between the United States and China, Hangzhou, China. Yu, Z., Yu, G., 2006. Development and Industrial Application of Coalwater Slurry Gasification Technology with Opposed Multi-burner. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing. Zhang, Y., 2006. New Development of China Shenhua Direct Coal Liquefaction Technology. Science & Technology Industry of China Journal, Beijing.