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Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China
JES-01712; No of Pages 17 JOUR N AL OF EN VI R ONM E NT AL S CI E N CE S XX ( XXX X) X XX
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
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Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China Xuefeng Sun1,2 , Miao Chen1,2 , Dongbin Wei1,2,⁎, Yuguo Du1,2,⁎
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Invited Article
1. State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-Toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Article history:
Disinfection is an indispensable water treatment process for killing harmful pathogens and
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Received 10 October 2018
protecting human health. However, the disinfection has caused significant public concern due
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Revised 25 January 2019
to the formation of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). Lots of studies on disinfection and
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Accepted 5 February 2019
DBPs have been performed in the world since 1974. Although related studies in China started in
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Available online xxxx
1980s, a great progress has been achieved during the last three decades. Therefore, this review
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Keywords:
included: (1) the occurrence of DBPs in water of China, (2) the identification and detection
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Disinfection
methods of DBPs, (3) the formation mechanisms of DBPs during disinfection process, (4) the
Disinfection by-products
toxicological effects and epidemiological surveys of DBPs, (5) the control and management
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Identification
countermeasures of DBPs in water disinfection, and (6) the challenges and chances of DBPs
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health. © 2019 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Contents
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studies in future. It is expected that this review would provide useful information and reference for optimizing disinfection process, reducing DBPs formation and protecting human
Control
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Occurrence of DBPs in China . . . . . 2. Identification and detection of DBPs . 3. Formation mechanisms of DBPs . . . 3.1. Substitution. . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Reduction–oxidation reaction . 3.3. Hydrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Toxicology and health effects of DBPs
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summarized the main achievements on disinfection and DPBs studies in China, which
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⁎ Corresponding authors at: State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-Toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China. E-mail addresses: [email protected], (D. Wei), [email protected]. (Y. Du).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003 1001-0742 © 2019 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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4.1. Cytotoxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity (tumorigenicity) 4.3. Other toxicities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Toxicity test in vivo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Epidemiological survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Control and management of DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Reduce precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Optimize disinfection techniques. . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Reduce the generated DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. DBPs studies in future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncited references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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200 institutions in China have achieved fruitful work on DBPs related science research and engineering practices. Up to now, more than 1600 publications can be searched from the ISI Web of Science database, and about 1800 Chinese publications can be searched from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database. Among them, more than 80% articles were published during the last 10 years. The Chinese Academy of Science, Tongji University and Tsinghua University were the top three institutions that had the highest numbers of publications in China. The studies on the disinfection and DBPs in China mainly include: occurrence of DBPs, identification and detection of DBPs, formation of DBPs, toxicity and toxicological mechanisms of DBPs, and control and management of DBPs. A summary of DBPs studies in China during 1974–2018 is shown in Fig. 1.
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1. Occurrence of DBPs in China
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Considering the potential adverse biological effects, some DBPs have been regulated by several national and international agencies, named as regulated DBPs. For example, China has regulated TCM, dichloromethane (DCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), etc. in the “Standards for drinking water quality of China (GB/T5749-2006)”. And the others, have not been regulated in the standards are named as “unregulated DBPs”. The first report on DBPs in China was published in 1986, which showed the TCM levels in three drinking water treatment plants (disinfected with bleaching powder) ranged from 7.5 to 24 μg/L (Yang and Cai, 1986). The total concentration of four THMs (TCM, tribromomethane (TBM), DBCM and DCBM) in the drinking water collected from 24 large and medium-sized cities in China in 1984 ranged from 0.01 to 86 μg/L (Huang et al., 1987). A survey on THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in drinking water from China mainland showed that the total concentrations of THMs and HAAs were generally present at not detected (ND) to 92.8 and ND-40 μg/L, respectively (Deng et al., 2008). However, Chang et al. (2010) reported that THMs levels in drinking water from Taiwan were occasionally beyond 100 μg/L. A total of 155 water samples were collected in 2011 and 2012 from Guangzhou, Foshan and Zhuhai. The median (range) levels of THMs and HAAs were 17.7 (0.7–62.7) μg/L and 8.6
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Disinfection is a necessary water treatment unit for killing harmful pathogens and protecting public health from infectious water-borne diseases. Disinfection has been adopted as a standard treatment for drinking water, swimming pool water and reclaimed water. The commonly used chemical disinfectants include chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and so on (Richardson, 1998). Among these, chlorine is the predominantly used disinfectant due to its efficient bacteria-killing ability, convenient operation and low cost (Li et al., 2013a). Chlorine-containing disinfectants mainly include chlorine gas (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca (ClO)2) (WHO, 2006). The typical concentration of available chlorine in WTPs of China was about 0.3–0.5 mg/L. Although chemical disinfectants are effective for killing harmful pathogens, they may react with natural organic matter (NOM), anthropogenic contaminants in water and generate unexpected DBPs. The studies on disinfection and DBPs has drawn much attention in the last decades due to their significant toxicological effects. Trichloromethane (TCM) was the first DBP identified from chlorinated drinking water in 1974 (Rook, 1974; Bellar et al., 1974). Two years later, the reports from the U.S. EPA and the National Cancer Institute showed that, trihalomethanes (THMs) were ubiquitous in chlorinated drinking water, and TCM was carcinogenic in laboratory animals. Since then, disinfection and DBPs became a hot research field, and lots of efforts have been directed toward increasing our understanding on DBPs formation, occurrence, and health effects. Up to September 2018, more than 8700 articles and 1000 patents on DBPs have been published around the world. Among them, the United States had the largest contribution, accounting for ca. 30% of all related publications worldwide. Water Research and Environmental Science & Technology were the most popular journal sources in this field, in which more than 1000 research articles on DBPs were published. Although the study on disinfection and DBPs in China was about 10 years later than in the USA, the Chinese scientists and engineers have paid more attention to this topic. Based on the statistical data of publications and researchers in the past 40 years, China has the second largest contribution in the world. More than 1700 scientists and engineers from about
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Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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2. Identification and detection of DBPs
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About 700 DBPs have been identified, while more DBPs are unknown yet. Therefore, the identification and detection of regulated and unregulated DBPs is still an emergent task in disinfection practices. The identification of DBPs is mainly
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concentrations of NAs in pipe water were 10.65–55.80 ng/L, and the concentration of predominant species NDMA was 37.76 ng/ L. For Xiamen city, dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) was the predominant species (5.25 μg/L) among the total HANs (ND – 9.36 μg/L) in pipe water (Dong et al., 2016). NDMA, Nnitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosopiperidine, TCNM and four HANs had higher concentrations in dry season than in wet season in Shenzhen, Fuzhou, Xiamen and Harbin. And BrHANs (brominated HANs) had similar seasonal trend in three coastal cities (Dong et al., 2016). A survey on DBPs in swimming pool of China showed that the median concentrations of THMs, HAA9, chloral hydrate (CH), HAN4 and 1,1-dichloropropanone (DCP) and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (TCP) were 33.8, 109.1, 30.1, 3.2, 0.8 μg/L and below detection limit, respectively (Zhang et al., 2015a). A recent survey found that the levels of TCM, BDCM, DBCM, and TBM in drinking water of Xi'an city ranged from ND to 52.50 mg/L (mean: 12.67 mg/L), ND to 12.80 mg/L (mean: 1.42 mg/L), ND to 8.50 mg/L (mean: 0.60 mg/L), and ND to 5.30 mg/L (mean: 0.13 mg/L) (Zhang et al., 2018). A survey on haloacetamides (HAcAms) concentrations of five DWTPs which use the Yangtze River or Yellow River as source water showed that the rank order of HAcAms was: Cl-HAcAms (15.3 μg/ L) > > Cl-Br-HAcAms (1.2 μg/L) > Br-HAcAms (1.0 μg/L). Among the three Cl-HAcAms, dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) had the highest concentration (10.7 μg/L), followed by trichloroacetamide TCAcAm (3.1 μg/L) and chloroacetamide (CAcAm) (1.5 μg/L) (Yang et al., 2014b). The concentration data of some representative DBPs in China are listed in Table S2. These results imply that the DBPs pollution in drinking water of China should be noticed.
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(0.3–81.3) μg/L, respectively (Gan et al., 2013). Ding et al. (2013) detected 28 DBPs in 70 drinking water treatment plants from 31 cities across China, and the average detection frequency of 21 DBPs was 50%. Of these, THM4 and HAAs were the predominant species, with median concentrations of 10.53 and 10.95 μg/L, respectively. Two iodine-containing THMs (I-THMs) ranged from ND to 5.58 μg/L. The total median concentration of haloacetonitriles (HANs) was 1.11 μg/L (ND to 39.20 μg/L). The maximum concentrations of chloronitromethane (CNM) and TCNM were 0.96 and 0.28 μg/L, respectively. A recent survey on DBPs occurrence in 8 counties in Jinhua Region of Zhejiang Province in China shows that median (range) of THMs, HAAs, HANs, haloketones (HKs) and halonitromethanes (HNMs) were 23.2 (9.1–40.9), 15.3 (5.8–38.6), 2.2 (0.7–7.6), 2.1 (0.2–6.4) and 0.7 (0.2–2.9) μg/L, respectively (Zhou et al., 2019). Bei et al. (2016) detected 9 nitrosamines (NAs) in 164 drinking water samples from 44 large-, medium-, and small-size cities of 23 Chinese provinces. It was found that N,N-dimethyl-nitrosamine (NDMA) was the dominant species, whose mean levels in finished water of plants and tap water were 11 and 13 ng/L, respectively. Compared to the California notification level of 10 ng/L, ~26% of the finished waters and ~29% of the tap waters exceeded this value. The percentage of detects of NDMA was 37% in Chinese water samples (based on using the same maximum residue limit (MRL) as in the U.S.), which was 3.6 times that in the U.S. (Bei et al., 2016). Another similar survey on N-DBPs (nitrogen-containing DBPs) occurrence in drinking water from six cities was performed from June 2015 to January 2016. It was found that the N-DBPs levels in coastal cities were higher than in inland ones, and in southern cities were higher than those in northern ones, which may because the source water in southern China has the characteristics of low turbidity, high algae and micro-pollution. Sewage discharge and algae activities will increase the concentration of nitrogen-containing precursors, promote the production of N-DBPs, result in the average level of N-DBPs in drinking water in southern cities is higher than that in northern cities. The concentration of trichloronitromethane (TCNM) was less than 1.21 μg/L in six cities. For Shenzhen city, the total
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Fig. 1 – A summary of DBPs studies in China during 1974–2018
Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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3. Formation mechanisms of DBPs
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Among the identified 700 DBPs, the frequently detected DBPs in drinking water include THMs, HAAs, HANs, HAcAms, HKs, TCNM, trichloroacetaldehyde (CH), NAs and so on (Huang et al., 2017b; Wang et al., 2015b; Serrano et al., 2015). Recently, more and more researches have been conducted to identify DBPs and explore their formation mechanisms, toxicity effects, exposure characteristics, and potential health risk. In fact, how the DBPs form in disinfection treatment seems to be the first question that should be answered. Up to now, several chemical reactions involved in DBPs formation have been disclosed, which are summarized as following.
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bacterial studies have shown that bromoacetic acid is approximately 20 times more cytotoxic and 200 times more mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 than chloroacetic acid (Zhang et al., 2014). Xiao et al. (2013)) found that tens of disinfection by products were formed during chlorination treatment on benzophenone-4, and chlorinated products exhibited high genotoxicity. The study of Li et al. (2013a) showed that the chlorination of cefazolin would produce sulfoxide products with high genotoxicity. The detection methods of main DBPs and detection limits in drinking water of China are shown in Table S3.
3.1. Substitution
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dependent on target analysis and non-target analysis. The target analysis for known DBPs was performed by using gas phase chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometer (GC– MS), high performance liquid phase chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometer (HPLC–MS) and related techniques (APHA, 1998). Wang et al. (2011) developed an improved liquid– liquid extraction-gas chromatography-electron capture detector (LLE-GC-ECD) method for THMs detection, the detection limit for TCM, CCl4, BDCM, DBCM and TBM were 0.002, 0.004, 0.008, 0.0012 and 0.011 μg/L, respectively. The study of Li et al. (2007) showed that the detection limit of improved GC-ECD for monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), monobromoacetic acid (MBAA), DCAA, trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), and dibromoacetic acid (DBAA) were 1.25, 0.10, 0.07, 0.05 and 0.05 μg/L, respectively. Except for the recommended or standard detection methods, researchers have also developed some analytical methods for DBPs to gain satisfactory sensitivity and detection limit. A cold on-column (COC) injection in track-oven mode coupled with a GC–MS system was developed for HNMs analysis (Chen et al., 2016b). The advantage of COC method over the conventional split/splitless injection was minimizing thermal degradation of HNMs, especially dibromochloro- and tribromo-nitromethanes in water. Huang et al. (2013) developed a fast and sensitive LLE method for HNMs analysis, which had good linearity (r > 0.9925), high recovery (81%–120%, RSD% < 6.7), and low detection limit (MDL: 0.017–0.217 μg/L). As for the unknown DBPs, the common identification methods are GC–MS and HPLC-MS. For example, more than 600 peptides in drinking water samples were identified using HPLC-MS/MS method with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode (Huang et al., 2017a). To identify more DBPs, the present instruments and methods should be optimized. A non-targeted screening method involving comprehensive two-dimensional GC × GC-qMS combined with OECD QSAR Toolbox Ver. 3.2 was developed for identifying and prioritizing the volatile and semi-volatile DBPs in drinking water (Li et al., 2016a). The method was successfully applied to identify DBPs formed during chlorination, chloramination or ozonation of raw water, more than 500 DBPs were tentatively identified in each sample. Recently, the application of ultra high resolution mass Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI FT-ICR MS) has a rapid development and plays an important role in identifying the molecular composition of unknown DBPs and their precursors in water (Wang et al., 2016b; Zhang et al., 2012a; Zhang et al., 2012b; Zhang et al., 2014). By aiding of ESI FT-ICR MS, 659 mono-chlorinated products, 348 dichlorinated products, 441 mono-brominated products, 37 di-brominated products, 178 mono-iodinated products, 13 di-iodinated products and 15 mono-chlorinated and iodinated products were indentified in the chlorinated drinking water sample, while only tens of products have been reported in previous studies (Wang et al., 2016b; Zhang et al., 2012a; Zhang et al., 2012b; Zhang et al., 2014). These results demonstrate that the ESI FT-ICR MS method can provide valuable molecular composition and structure information on unknown DBPs. Except for instrumental analysis, bioassay was also used to screen the formation of DBPs based-on their toxicity effects. The mammalian cell toxicity test was a useful tool for profiling the occurrence of toxic DBPs. For example,
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Substitution is the most commonly occurring chemical reaction in chlorination disinfection process. The disinfectant hypochlorous acid is easily polarized as Cl⊕–OHӨ, the chlorine atom with partial positive charge will readily attack carbon atoms with partial negative charge, and form chlorinated products. During chlorine disinfection process, resorcinol can easily transform into mono-, di-, and trichlorinated resorcinol via substitution reaction (Fig. 2). Since the hydroxyl groups on 1- and 3-position of benzene ring have strong electron-donating effects, the carbon atoms on their o-, and p-position (2-, 4-, and 6-position of benzene ring) have more negative charge, which would be easily attacked by Cl⊕ to form chlorinated products. It has been reported that chlorinated resorcinol could be quickly transformed into TCM (Boyce and Hornig, 1983). When bromine or iodine ions are present in water chlorination, aqueous chlorine will easily oxidize the halides to hypobromous acid or hypoiodous acid respectively and, form some brominated or iodinated products. Chloramine is another disinfectant used widely, and substitution would also occur during chloramination treatment. During the chloramination of iodide-containing water, NOM would be converted into iodoform (CHI3), iodoacetonitrile (IAN), diiodoacetonitrile (DIAN), iodoacetamide (IAcAm), diiodoacetamide (DIAcAm), iodoacetic acid (IAA) and TIAA. The important formation mechanism of these DBPs is iodine substitution. As shown in Fig. S1, iodine will substitute both hydrogen atoms of the intermediate R-CH2-CN to form R-CI2-CN, which will be further hydrolyzed into DIAN (Liu et al., 2017). And the transformation pathways of NOM and formation of DBPs was provided in Fig. S2.
Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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Fig. 2 – Chlorination substitution and formation of chlorinated resorcinol
3.2. Reduction–oxidation reaction
Reduction–oxidation (Redox) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction 346 involves both a reduction process and a complementary 347 oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron 348 transfer processes. Generally, redox reactions involve the 349 transfer of electrons between chemical species. Redox reac350 tions often occur during the disinfection process because most 351 of chemical disinfectants are oxidative agents. NOM contains 352 various function groups, such as carboxylic, aromatic, amino 353 and hydroxyl, which easily react with oxidative disinfectants. 354 Phenolic chemicals are often present in water, they would be 355 oxidized into hydroquinone intermediate during disinfection 356 and further formed benzoquinone, one kind of DBPs with high 357 toxicity (Guan et al., 2018). Some reductive anions, such as 358 iodide ions in source waters are easily oxidized to HOI, which 359 can react with natural organic matter (NOM) to form various I360 DBPs. As shown in Fig. S3, the tri-iodocarbonyl compound (R361 CO-CI3) can either be hydrolyzed to CHI3 and a corresponding 362 acid (R-COOH) or be oxidized to TIAA if the R- is an oxidizable 363 group (Liu et al., 2017). 364 Except for the conventional redox reaction, Baeyer-Villiger 365 oxidation was found by Xiao et al. in chlorination disinfection 366 system (Fig. 3), the UV-filter benzophenone-4 (2-hydroxy367 4-methoxy- benzophenone-5-sulfonic acid) was converted 368 into phenyl ester derivatives (Xiao et al., 2013). Similarly, Liu 369 et al. (2016b)) found Baeyer-Villiger oxidation could occur in 370 the chlorination of 4-hydroxyl benzophenone. Baeyer-Villiger 371 oxidation is an organic reaction that forms an ester from a 372 ketone or a lactone from a cyclic ketone, using peroxy acids or 373 peroxides as the oxidant (Baeyer and Villiger, 1899). First, 374 peroxy acid protonates the oxygen of the carbonyl group, 375 making the carbonyl group more susceptible to attack by 376 peroxy acid. Second, peroxy acid attacks the carbon of the 377 carbonyl group forming Criegee intermediate. Third, one of 378 the substituents on the ketone migrates to the oxygen of the 379 peroxide group while a carboxylic acid leaves. Finally, 380 deprotonation of the oxocarbenium ion produces the ester 381 Q13 (Baeyer and Villiger, 1899; Kürti and Czakó, 2005).
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Substitution, redox, and hydrolysis are most predominant reactions during disinfection treatment. In addition, there are many kinds of unsatured chemical bonds in NOM and anthropogenic compounds, such as alkenes (C =C), alkynes (C≡C), ketones (C= O), imines (C= N), nitriles (C≡ N) and so on. These compounds readily undergo addition reactions with disinfectants HClO or NH2Cl and form addition products or its
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Hydrolysis usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Acid- or base-catalyzed hydrolysis is very common. Take amides and esters as example, their hydrolysis occurs when nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxide ions) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group. In alkaline system, hydroxide ions are stronger nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water. In acid system, the carbonyl group is protonated resulting in easier nucleophilic attack. The final hydrolysis products contain carboxylic acid group. The chlorinated cytosine (a) is easily hydrolyzed to form (1-amino-1,2-dichloro-2hydroxy-3-iminopropyl)- chlorocarbamic acid (b). And (b) would further take place hydrolysis and form chloromethanamine, 1chloro-2-iminoethan-1-ol and chlorocarbamic acid after hydrolyzing (Fig. S4) (Zhang et al., 2017a). In the chlorination transformation of Tyr–Tyr–Tyr, two products DCAcAm and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) were detected. DCAN could transform to DCAcAm via hydrolysis, which would be further hydrolyzed into DCAA (Chu et al., 2015b). Another report showed that HAAs and some other trihalogenated DBPs (e.g., chloral hydrate) would take place hydrolysis and form THMs (Zhang et al., 2015a) (Fig. 4). The esters compounds are also easily hydrolyzed under acid or alkaline conditions. Since HClO is a nucleophilic agent, it would promote the hydrolysis of esters. As mentioned above, UV filter benzophenone-4 was oxidized into ester via Baeyer-Villiger oxidation first, and the ester would be further hydrolyzed into corresponding phenolic and benzoic products. (Fig. S5) (Xiao et al., 2013).
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Fig. 3 – Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of benzophenone-4 during chlorination disinfection.
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Fig. 4 – Hydrolysis reactions of HANs and formation of THMs.
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DBPs having attracted much attention since more and more adverse biological effects were observed. In 1976, the US National Cancer Institute published the first toxicological results linking TCM to kidney epithelial tumors in laboratory rodents (Page and Saffiotti, 1976). Thereafter, the potential health impacts of DBPs became a sensitive but important issue. In the past decades, cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, endocrine disrupting effects and some other toxicological effects of DBPs have been explored by scientists in China and other countries.
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Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. It is widely used to evaluate the adverse biological effect of DBPs. The cells treated with DBPs may undergo necrosis, losing membrane integrity and dying rapidly as a result of cell lysis. These processes of cell fates can be detected by staining method, luminescence method and so on. For example, MTT (3-(4,5dimethyl-2-thiazolyl) -2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide) assay was used to measure the cytotoxicity of a new DBP phenazine. It was found that phenazine had significant cellspecific toxicity toward T24 (inhibitive concentration-50 (IC50)
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free chlorine. The possible reactions included bromine sub- 449 stitution on the benzene rings, further oxidation, addition and 450 decarboxylation (Fig. 8). 451
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isomer during the chlor(am)ination process. Within the chlor (am)ination of acrylamide (Fig. 5), an initial Cl⊕ transferred to the double bonds and generated a chloronium ion, which is followed by the addition of OHӨ (Ding et al., 2018). As shown in Fig. 5, addition also occurred in the process of dichloroacetic acid (DCAN) hydrolyzing and producing DCAcAm. Along with the substitution reaction, some function groups such as carboxyl, amino, alkanes and sulfonic acid groups would be easily eliminated. Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). A study on chlorination of dipeptide Tyr–Ala showed that the carboxyl group in the chlorinated products of Tyr–Ala would be removed and form DCAN (Fig. 6) (Chu et al., 2015b). Furthermore, the results of tripeptide Tyr–Tyr–Tyr chlorination showed that trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) could be produced through a dehydration reaction (Fig. S6) (Chu et al., 2015b). Xiao et al. (2013) found that product (A), formed from UV filter benzophenone-4 via chlorination and oxidation, would take place hydrolysis, chlorination and decarboxylation to form product (B). And product (B) would be further converted into product (C) via chlorination and desulfonation (Fig. 7). Similarly, as shown in Fig. S7, the chlorination cytosine could transform into DCAA via hydrolysis and deamination (Zhang et al., 2017a). In fact, the chemical reactions involved in disinfection process are very complex, and many of them take place simultaneously. Pan et al. (2016) found a new group of DBPs, trihalo-hydroxy-cyclopentene-diones, which would be easily decomposed to THMs and HAAs in the presence of excessive
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Fig. 5 – Addition reactions of acrylamide during chlorination process.
Fig. 6 – The possible reactions occurred in chlorination of dipeptide Tyr–Ala.
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Fig. 7 – The possible reactions ocurred in benzophenone-4 chlorination.
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Genotoxicity means the DNA damage induced by physical or chemical factors. The common genotoxicity assays can be classified into two major categories: DNA damage/repair assay (e.g., Ames test, comet assay and SOS/umu test) and chromosomal damage assay (micronucleus assays). With comet assay in HepG2 cell lines, the DNA-damaging potency of HAAs was ranked as: I-HAAs > Br-HAAs > Cl-HAAs according to their minimal effective concentrations (MECs) 0.01, 0.1, and 100 μmol/L, respectively (Zhang et al., 2012c). Using umu test with the genetically modified strain TA1535/pSK1002 of S. typhimurium, the genotoxicity variation during the chlorination disinfection of wastewater was evaluated. It was found that after disinfection treatment, the genotoxicity decreased for water with low NH3-N level (<10–20 mg/L), while it increased for water with high NH3-N level (> 10–20 mg/L)
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disinfection processes, the results showed that the toxicity had significant increase after chlorination disinfection treatment (Chen et al., 2016c; Xiao et al., 2014). In addition, some biological active molecules were chosen as biomarkers to reflect the adverse biological effects of DBPs. The colorimetric protein phosphatase inhibition assay was used to evaluate the adverse effects of DBPs formed from the disinfection of microcystin-LR (MCLR-DBPs). The results showed that MCLR-DBPs had higher toxicity (IC50 = 0.8 μg/L) than their parent MCLR (IC50 = 2.6 μg/L), implying the secondary pollution of MCLR-DBPs in drinking water disinfection should be a concern (Zong et al., 2013). Interestingly, Pan et al. conducted chronic cytotoxicity assay of DBPs with the CHO cells, and found cytotoxicity was reduced by 77% after boiling for 5 min (Pan et al., 2014b). A survey on cytotoxicity and occurrence of 28 DBPs in 70 drinking water treatment plants from 31 cities across China showed that, HANs had the strongest cytotoxicity contribution in spite of their much low concentration (median value was 1.11 mg/L) in drinking water (Ding et al., 2013). Table S4 shows the cytotoxicity information of main DBPs.
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0.50 mmol/L) and HepG2 (IC50 2.04 mmol/L) cell lines (Zhou et al., 2012a). A new real-time cell-electronic sensing (RT-CES) technique using T24 cell line as a probe was developed to analyze the comparative cytotoxicity of new DBPs halobenzoquinones (HBQs). The 72 hr-IC50 value of dichlorobenzoquinone (DCBQ) was 3.1 mmol/L. This result fit well with those data measured with the conventional neutral red uptake (NRU) and MTS (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium) assays (for NRU, R2 = 0.9480, p < .05) (Du et al., 2014). In addition, membrane integrity of cells is also an evaluation index of cytotoxicity. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release was used to reflect the cytotoxicity of DBPs. When Neuro-2a cells were treated with CA (chloroacetic acid) for 24 hr, a significant increase in the release of LDH was observed. And the lethal dose-50 (LD50) was determined as 1.5 mmol/L, which indicated that exposure of CA to neuronal cells can cause apoptosis (Lu et al., 2015). Although MTT assay has been widely used in cytotoxicity assessment, it is not always suitable for measuring cytotoxicity of complex wastewater samples. Yang et al. (2015c) found that the signal of MTT assay with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells treated with high concentration of secondary effluent samples (250–500 times concentrated) was quite lower than that of the control. The possible reason was attributed to the reaction of dye and phenolics in wastewater interfering the signal of MTT assay. Subsequently, the ATP assay with Luminescent Cell Viability Assay kit was used to measure the cytotoxicity of wastewater. The human liver hepatoma was treated with the same wastewater sample even at a lower concentration (50–130 times concentrated), the ATP decreased by 50%, which were consistent with those from flow cytometry determination (Yang et al., 2015c). Therefore, in order to avoid the interferential reactions of dyes with some substances in real environmental water, some cells with autologous luminescence or color were often adopted (Du et al., 2017b). For example, a marine bacteria strain Photobacterium phosphoreum was used to measure the acute toxicity variation of benzophenones UV-filters during
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Fig. 8 – Multiple reactions involved in the formation of trihalo-hydroxy-cyclopentene-diones.
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Besides the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, some other toxicity effects of DBPs were also found recently. For example, the antiestrogenic effect of the secondary effluent during chlorination disinfection was evaluated by using two-hybrid yeast cells containing rat estrogen receptor. After chlorination disinfection, the antiestrogenic activity of the sample spiked with bromide was 1.75 times than sample without bromide, indicating that bromide increased the anti-estrogenic activity of the secondary effluent during the chlorination disinfection (Wu et al., 2014). Developmental toxicity is the structural or functional alteration of the developmental processes (e.g., organogenesis, morphogenesis). The embryos of marine polychaete Platynereis dumerilii (PPD) and the marine green algal Tetraselmis marina were used to evaluate the developmental effects of DBPs (Yang and Zhang, 2013). It was surprisingly found that chlorinated saline wastewater effluents (effective concentration-50 (EC50) was 51.7%) were less toxic than a chlorinated freshwater wastewater effluent (EC50 was 36.5%) using PPD, and this result was also confirmed by the tests using marine alga Tetraselmis marina (Yang et al., 2015a). In addition, the neurotoxicity of chloroacetic acids (CAA) was tested, and the possible mechanism was proposed that CAA could trigger apoptosis in neuronal cells via a reactive oxygen species-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway (Lu et al., 2015).
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Obeying the “3R” principle of animal experiment, convenience, and cost saving, most toxicity experiments were often conducted in vitro. However, the in vivo experiment is essential to confirm the toxicity effects and investigate the complex metabolic process of toxic chemicals. For example, metabonomics, histopathology and oxidative stress analysis on bromoacetonitriles (BANs) and HAcAms were conducted. It was found that BAN and HAcAms could induce oxidative stress by disrupting metabolism of amino acid, energy, and lipid in mice (Deng et al., 2014; Deng et al., 2017). Furthermore, the high-throughput sequencing and metabonomics were combined to explore the effects of trichloroacetamide (TCAcAm) exposure on the gut microbiome and urine metabolic profiles in mice. TCAcAm exposure not only altered the abundance level of gut microbiome but also disrupted the metabolic function of the gut microbiota, corresponding to metabolic dysfunction (Zhang et al., 2015b). Caenorhabditis elegans was used as model organism to determine the in vivo toxicity of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (DCBQ). lethal concentration-50 (LC50) and EC50 of DCBQ were 3.28 × 102 and 6.37 μmol/L, respectively, which was more toxic than some regulated DBPs such as MBA, DBA, TCA, and DCA (LC50 and EC50 were 7.71 × 102–5 × 104 μmol/L and 11.82–83.13 μmol/L,
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quality survey in 35 major cities. The ingestion exposures contributed 93.6% of risk, which was the most important pathway for the total risk, and TCAA produced the highest risk (2.12 × 10−7 DALYs ppy) among the DBPs considered (Pan et al., 2014a). The genotoxicity of main DBPs in drinking water of China is shown in Table S5.
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(Wang et al., 2007a). Micronucleus (MN) assay is one of essential methods for assessing chromosome damage 553 (Fenech, 2000). Hu et al. (2017) evaluated the genotoxicity 554 potential of HAAs and HANs in chlorinated drinking water by 555 the combination of Vicia faba MN test and comet assay, the 556 positive ratio was 75% in MN test and 100% in comet assay. In 557 order to investigate the impact of recycling of combined filter 558 backwash water (CFBW) to drinking water treatment plant 559 (WTP), comet and MN assays with zebra fish (Danio rerio) were 560 selected to evaluate the genotoxicity of water samples from 561 two WTPs, one with recycling of CFBW, the other with a 562 conventional process. The results showed that there was no 563 statistically significant difference (P > .05) between the con564 ventional and recycling processes. However, for each WTP, 565 the water sample after disinfection treatment had higher DNA 566 strand breaks and MN frequency (Hu et al., 2017). 567 Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of DBPs may be attrib568 uted to the damage of genome, promotion of cells transfor569 mation, disturbance of cell cycle and gene expression or 570 disruption of cellular metabolism. Studies have showed that 571 exposure to the NAs-mixture doubled the revert ants in TA98 572 and TA100 S. typhimurium strains, increased DNA double573 strand breaks and micronuclear frequency in NIH3T3 cells 574 compared to a single exposure, indicating NAs-mixture 575 exposure increased mutagenicity (Wang et al., 2017b). The 576 ability to transform NIH3T3 cells to tumorigenic lines of 577 iodoacetic acid (IAA) and iodoform (IF) in Shanghai drinking 578 water was tested. It was found that IAA but not IF had 579 carcinogenic potential because IAA was a potent inducer of 580 NIH3T3 cell transformation with a positive response at −4 581 2 μmol/L (3.7 × 10 mg/mL), however, IF was negative in the 582 transformation assay (Wei et al., 2013b). 583 In addition, the computer-based method was also applied 584 to analyze the genotoxicity of unknown DBPs and avoid 585 cumbersome and inconvenient biological experiments. QSAR 586 (quantitative structure–activity relationship) is the most 587 commonly used modeling method to predict biological 588 activity by physico-chemical properties. Li et al. (2016a) used 589 two-dimensional gas chromatography quadrupole mass spec590 trometry and OECD QSAR Toolbox to evaluate the 591 genotoxicity of volatile and semi-volatile DBPs in drinking 592 water, the results showed that the total volumes of genotoxic 7 593 DBPs in chlorination (6.44 × 10 ) was higher than those in 7 7 594 chloramination (4.23 × 10 ) and ozonation (3.19 × 10 ) pro595 cesses. Li et al. (2016b) investigated the genotoxicity variation 596 (SOS/umu assay with S. typhimurium) and 2D-, 3D-QSAR of 20 597 quinolones during chlorination disinfection. The results 598 revealed that quinolones bearing hydrophilic substituents 599 with less H-bond donors and negative charge at the 1-position 600 of the quinolone ring exhibited a positive correlation with 601 genotoxicity elevation. 602 Some other model methods such as RfD/C, slope factor 603 Q15 approach developed by the USEPA (Guidelines for Carcinogen 604 Risk Assessment, 2005), and disability-adjusted life years 605 (DALYs, developed by World Health Organization) method 606 were combined with the disease models to assess the 607 potential cancer risk (e.g. renal and bladder cancer) resulting 608 from DBPs exposure (Wang et al., 2007b). For example, DALYs 609 method was used to assess the total cancer incidence caused 610 by THMs and HAAs in drinking water of China based on water
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5. Control and management of DBPs
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Killing pathogens and eliminating DBPs in disinfected water are two important tasks in water treatment. To achieve the two goals, many techniques have been developed to control DBPs concentration in water through reduction of precursors, optimization of disinfection operation and removal of DBPs.
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NOM and anthropogenic chemicals in water are the main precursors of DBPs, so the removal of precursors is the most effective strategy for DBPs control (Bond et al., 2011). It is possible for water utilities to lower the content of DBPs precursors by adopting some technologies such as enhanced coagulation (CW), adsorption, membrane filtration, photocatalysis, pre-oxidation and so on (Bond et al., 2011). However, the physicochemical
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The epidemiological survey is an effective tool to connect DBPs with human diseases. In the last decades, tens of epidemiological surveys have been performed in China for the relationship between DBPs and newborn health, reproductive capacity and cancer morbidity. A survey on 1184 pregnant women recruited in Hubei province was conducted from 2011 to 2013. It was found that the TTHMs (sum of TCM, BDCM, BDCM, and TBM) in maternal blood during late pregnancy were slightly associated with lower mean birth weight, and BDCM and DBCM exposures were weakly associated with smaller birth length (Cao et al., 2016). Another survey on 398 women who had given birth showed that, the mean birth weight of the newborns in the third and top quartiles of urinary creatinine adjusted TCAA concentrations was less than those in the lowest quartile (Zhou et al., 2012b). A total of 418 male partners were recruited from the Tongji Hospital in Wuhan China, and an investigation of DBPs exposure and impaired male reproductive health was conducted. A suggestive but inconclusive association between decreased sperm mobility and increased urinary TCAA levels was observed (Xie et al., 2011). Series of epidemiological surveys on the relationship between TTHMs levels in public water supplies and risk of esophageal, colon, bladder and kidney cancer were carried out in Taiwan. (Chang et al., 2007; Kuo et al., 2009; Liao et al., 2012; Tsai et al., 2013). It was found that there was no significant correlation between death risk of colon cancer and TTHMs in drinking water (when concentration was less than 6.03 ppb or more than 14.08 ppb) (Kuo et al., 2009). Some other surveys showed that TTHMs concentration had a strong positive correlation to the death risk of bladder cancer (Chang et al., 2007), and had a weak positive correlation to the death risk of kidney and esophageal cancer (Liao et al., 2012; Tsai et al., 2013). The epidemiological study of main DBPs in drinking water of China is shown in Table S6.
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properties of precursors are quite different due to their complex components, which would heavily influence the choice of treatment techniques and removal efficiency of DBPs. Taking CW as an example, it has great ability to remove high molecular weight (MW), hydrophobic and anionic precursors, while it is limited in removing hydrophilic and low molecular weight precursors. The study of Han et al. (2015) showed that the concentration of THMs decreased from 59 to 39 μg/L by removing hydrophobic acids (HoA) fraction using CW, whereas the removal efficiency was very low for the precursors whose MW < 5 kDa. Adsorption is one of the effective techniques for removing many kinds of pollutants. And activated carbon is commonly used due to its large surface area. Granular activated carbon (GAC) is usually utilized between CW-filtration/sedimentation and post-disinfection units. It has been found that placing GAC after chlorination was beneficial to eliminate aromatic halogenated DBPs precursors (Jiang et al., 2017). When GAC was placed after chlorination, the removals of THM4, HAA5, HAA9 and TOX were 96.9%, 78.2%, 88.6% and 63.2%, respectively. However, when GAC was placed before chorination, the removals were 29.6%, 30.7%, 31.2% and 37.6%, respectively (Jiang et al., 2017). Compared to GAC, powdered activated carbon (PAC) has bigger surface area, which can be applied at various stages of water treatment. Wang et al. (2017a)) found that PAC adsorption significantly improved the removal efficiency of THMs precursor (from 10.5% to 70%) and N-DBPs precursor (from 45% to 93%) compared with the single CW. However, Gao et al. (2016)) found that the addition of PAC in membrane bioreactor (MBR) relatively increased the formation of Br-THMs by 200% and increased THMs formation reactivity by 42% during the subsequent chlorination. Pre-oxidation is a frequently applied technique to degrade some reductive, large molecular compounds in water. Ferrate Fe(VI), ozone, persulfate, permanganate processes, and advanced oxidation processes such as UV/H2O2, and UV/persulfate are usually applied in water treatment practices to remove DBPs precursors (Chu et al., 2014; Chu et al., 2015a; Chu et al., 2016a; Chu et al., 2016b; Chu et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2018a; Yang et al., 2015b; Zhang et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2015). Studies have shown that I-THMs formation decreased drastically with increasing ferrate dosage, I-THMs were not found at >2 mg/L of ferrate (Zhang et al., 2016a). In general, preoxidation such as pre-O3 had a positive contribution on reduction of chloroform (CF) formation potentials (FPs) (Hu et al., 2018a). However, ozone is a strong oxidant, it can efficiently convert the high-MW fractions (20–1000 kDa) of extracellular organic matter (EOM) and intracellular organic matter (IOM) into low-MW fractions (0.3–10 kDa), which would increase DBPs yields during disinfection process (Zhou et al., 2015). Moreover, the low-MW fractions are more difficult to remove than high-MW fractions with conventional treatment. Another issue in ozonation treatment is the formation of bromates and related health risk, 40%–60% of Br− in the raw water would be transformed into BrO−3 during ozonation treatment at a high O3 dose (Zhang et al., 2017b; Mao et al., 2018). Since the pollution situation in ambient water is quite complex, a single technique is usually hard to remove DBPs precursors completely, while the combined techniques would
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respectively). The results of in vivo tests were similar to those of in vitro tests, HBQs were up to 1000-fold more cytotoxic than some regulated DBPs in CHO test (Zuo et al., 2017).
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5.2. Optimize disinfection techniques
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Although chlorine has been widely used as a disinfectant in the past decades, the formation of DBPs during chlorination disinfection resulted in the search for alternative disinfectants, such as chlorine dioxide (ClO2) (Fan et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2016), chloramine, ozone, permanganate and so on. The reactivity of chloramine is lower than that of chlorine, so it was expected to generate less DBPs during the chloramination process. During the chloramination of acetaminophen, the yields of TCM, DCAN, DCAcAm, and TCAcAm were 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.39%, 0.035%, less than those during chlorination 2.25%, 0.54%, 0.63%, 0.2%, respectively (Ding et al., 2018). However, some other studies showed that chloramination would generate more HAcAms than chlorination. The concentrations of HAcAms formed during chloramination and chlorination process were 4.0–88.5 nmol/L, and <30 nmol/L, respectively (Huang et al., 2017c). Also, NH2Cl would provide nitrogen for formation of TCNM. Moreover, chloramination would enhance the formation of I-DBPs (Wang et al., 2016b), the levels of IAA and IF in WTPs with chloramination (15 and 11 μg/L, respectively) were higher than those with chlorination (about 2 and 0 μg/L, respectively) (Wei et al., 2013a). Dose of disinfectant had obvious effects on DBPs formation, lower chlorine dose would decrease the formation of DBPs. It was found that there was no significant correlation between the formation of THMs and HAAs with the increasing chlorine dosages up to the breakpoint, but the formation increased sharply beyond the breakpoint dosing level (Du et al., 2017a; Yang et al., 2005). Nevertheless, reduction of disinfectant dose is limited since it has to meet the basic requirement for killing pathogens and keeping residual chlorine level in distribution system. As shown in Fig. 9, a concept of multiple-step chlorination process was provided. Compared with conventional one-step chlorination, the two-step chlorination and three-step chlorination of a primary saline sewage effluent decreased DBPs formation by 16.7% and 23.4% with the same total chlorine dosage (Li et al., 2017a; Li et al., 2017b). Except for chemical disinfection methods, physical or physicochemical methods draw more interests recently. Huo et al. developed a copper oxide nanowire (CuONW)-modified 3-D copper foam electrode and achieved superior disinfection performance with 1 V of operation voltage. Within 7 sec of treatment period, the energy consumption was 25 J/L, DBPs formation potential was decreased because of the low concentration of chlorine (Huo et al., 2016). Ultrasound (US) is regarded as a good option for disinfection enhancement methods when combined with ClO2, it would increase the production of ClO−2 and ClO−3 from 1.37 to 4.71 mg/L and from 0.168 to 2.57 mg/L, respectively (Zhou et al., 2016). UV irradiation combined with chlorination or chloramination is a possible alternative disinfection scheme, in which UV irradiation is expected to kill pathogens so that a lower chlorine/chloramine dose can be used as the secondary disinfectant. However, comparing with chlorination treatment, additional UV irradiation obviously increased formation of TCM (up to 2.12 times), DCAA (up to 1.67 times) and CNCl (up to 2.26 times) (Liu et al., 2006). Increasing UV intensity during sequential oxidation by Cl2, NH2Cl or ClO2 would promote the release of iodide ions and enhance the formation of I-DBPs (from 0 to 0.660 μmol/L) during iopamidol degradation (Tian et al., 2014).
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exert more advantages. For example, membrane filtration is a promising technique for removing NOM and anthropogenic chemicals, whereas membrane fouling and inefficient removal of low-MW fractions are its serious obstacles. Therefore, PAC and resin pretreatment were combined to prevent membrane fouling and lengthen membrane operation life (Huang et al., 2015). GAC was combined with CW to remove ROC, the removal efficiency of DOC, UV254, and TDS in the ROC increased from 16.9%, 18.9% and 39.7% to 91.8%, 96% and 76.5%, respectively (Sun et al., 2016). Combination of CW and ultrafiltration (UF) improved the DOC removal from 20% to 59%, DBPs formation potentials were decreased by 30.8% and 16.9% comparing with separate UF and CW (Wang et al., 2016a). CW-adsorption treatment showed a higher reduction capacity (57%) for NDMA formation potential compared with CW (28%) and adsorption (50%) alone (Wang et al., 2017c). O3 can convert large-MW contaminants into smaller-MW fractions and make them difficult to remove with CW, while O3/ GAC combination could efficiently remove NA precursors and the maximum of NDMA formation potential (TNAFPmax) decreased from 194 to 94 ng/L (Bei et al., 2016). Permanganate oxidation and powdered activated carbon adsorption (PMPAC) treatment process before CW–sedimentation–filtration significantly enhanced the removal of DOC, DON, NH+3-N, and algae from 52.9% to 69.5%, 31.6% to 61.3%, 71.3% to 92.5% and 83.6% to 97.5%, respectively (Chu et al., 2015a). UV irradiation combined with ozonation (UV/O3) inhibited the regeneration of NDMA from NO−2 and dimethylamine (DMA). The yields of DMA and NO−2 were 2.25 and 3.22 mg/L during UV irradiation, while they were 0.92 and 0.45 mg/L in UV/O3 treatment (Xu et al., 2009). Unfortunately, bromate concentration during the UV/O3 process was 17.1–77.6 μg/L, which was 2.1–2.9 times higher than that in ozonation treatment (Zhao et al., 2013). With the increasing eutrophication in China, algae blooms frequently occur in water body, and the IOM is important DBPs precursors. The moderate pre-chlorination was practically applied to enhance the CW removal of algae cells and reduce IOM release. The removal of algae by KMnO4-Fe(II) process increased from 71 to 96% when chlorine dose increased from 0 to 0.5 mg/L(Qi et al., 2016). Ion exchange, especially magnetic ion exchange (MIEX®) resins have been widely adopted for removal of ionic precursors, e.g., bromide ions (Ding et al., 2012). The removal rate of bromide ions was up to 80% during NDMP treatment, thus Br-DBPs formation in the subsequent disinfection was decreased (Wang et al., 2014). Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a low-cost and continent process for removing a variety of cations and anions such as bromide (Xu et al., 2008) and weakly charged organic matter (Liu et al., 2016a; Wang et al., 2015a). Xu et al. (2008) reported that the ion selectivity of CDI treatment on brackish produced water, the removal order was I > Br > Ca > alkalinity > Mg > Na > Cl, bromide removal efficiency was 50% in CDI treatment.
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For DBPs formed in disinfected water, it is necessary to remove them by using many chemical, physical or biological methods, such as boiling, UF, nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), advanced oxidation process (AOP), adsorption, ion exchange, electrodialysis and so on. Among them, heating was an effective household “detoxification” process for removing DBPs in water and reducing human exposure through tap water ingestion. Boiling was an effective household “detoxification” process for removing some DBPs in water and reducing human exposure through tap water ingestion. Li et al. (2013b) found that THMs were removed over 92.3% after boiling for 3 min. Pan et al. also found that after boiling for 5 min, the overall level of halogenated DBPs was reduced by 62.3%. Among them, the removal percentages of Br-DBPs and Cl-DBPs were 62.8% and 61.1%, respectively. Membrane filtration can effectively intercept some pollutants. RO, UF and NF have been widely used for the removal of trace DBPs in water. RO/NF can reject more than 90% of HAAs due to the combined effects of size exclusion and charge repulsion (Yang et al., 2017a). However, the high energy consumption and concentrated water limit the massively use of membrane in DBPs removal. Since most DBPs are halogenated organic compounds, dehalogenation of DBPs in redox reactions is a possible pathway to remove DBPs. The sulfite/UV254 process (Li et al., 2012) could eliminate 100% of MACC by dechlorination within 15 min, while the UV irradiation almost could not degrade yet. Some bimetallic catalysts (Cu/Fe and Pd/Fe) achieved 100% reductive dehalogenation of bromoform and TBAA within 60 min (Zha et al., 2016). TCAA could occur dechlorination rapidly via a carboxyl anion radical (CO−2) mechanism in UV254-TiO2 catalysis system with the presence of formate (FM) and dissolved oxygen (Liu et al., 2016c). Adsorption is a useful technique not only used in the control of DBPs precursors, but also in the removal of DBPs directly. Especially, some new materials (e.g., nanocomposites) were developed to achieve effective removal of DBPs. Zero-valent iron has been used intensively for removal of a variety of pollutants, such as chlorohydrocarbon, nitrobenzenes, chlorinated phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals and anions from water due to its large surface area, great surface reactivity and low price (Fu et al., 2014; Liang
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et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2007). Xiao et al. (2015)) developed zero valent iron/activated carbon nanocomposite (NZVI/AC), which could remove 90% of THMs via synergetic effect. Graphene is regarded as an ideal support material for loading inorganic nanoparticles because of its huge surface area, a graphene/Fe0 nanocomposite (G-nZVI) was prepared to remove almost 100% of TCNM (Chen et al., 2016a). Macroporous Cl-type strong base anion exchange resin (D201-Cl) was used as a low-cost and efficient sorbent to remove bromate from drinking water (Chen et al., 2014). Quartz sand (QS) is also a low-cost material used to remove organic pollutants in drinking water (Liu et al., 2011). For example, QS and ultrasound technique were combined to remove 12 regulated DBPs in drinking water, whose removal efficiency was more than 20% (Yang et al., 2014a). In order to reduce the generation of DBPs in water, it is necessary to develop and optimize treatment techniques for reducing precursors, improving disinfection efficiency and removing DBPs. Moreover, it is quite important to protect water source from pollution. It was reported that leaf organic matter (OM) (from allochthonous plant) and algal OM (from authonous algae) were potential precursors of C-DBPs and NDBPs, respectively (Sun et al., 2018). The study of Hong et al. (2013) showed that the sediment could release substantial amount of NOM to water and further transform to THMs and HAAs during disinfection treatment. The invasion of wastewater would lead more production of DBPs due to the precursors in wastewater (Xue et al., 2017). And, some inorganic ions (bromide, iodine and nitrite) sourced from sea water intrusion or wastewater input would become precursors and increase the formation of Br-DBPs, I-DBPs and NDBPs (Yang et al., 2017a; Hong et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2016). The study of Hong et al. (2015) showed that nitrite and bromide had significant positive effects on the formation of HNMs during chloramination. And both T-THMs and T-HANs were positively correlated with bromide (Hong et al., 2016). Besides, the presence of iodide ions increased the produce of I-DBPs during the chlorination of BP-4 (Yang et al., 2017b).
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Although more than 700 DBPs have been reported in the 982 literature, more than 50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) 983
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formed during chlorination of drinking water is unknown yet. Similarly, more than 50% of the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) formed during ozonation of drinking water has not been identified. The identification of unknown DBPs can hardly perform without the help of powerful detection instruments and optimized methods. Therefore, in the future, the first emergent task is to develop effective separation and sample pretreatment methods, sensitive and rapid methods for DBPs analysis. Second, the components in China's water source are quite complex, hundreds and thousands of natural and anthropogenic chemicals have been found, which would be the potential precursors of DBPs. Revealing the transformation mechanisms of various precursors become a hard but important work. Third, the DBPs exposure including internal and external exposure and adverse toxicological consequences are very complex, it needs to be disclosed by longterm systematic toxicological study, even epidemiological survey. Fourth, the control and management countermeasures on DBPs are still weak in China, some practically effective degradation techniques for DBPs and precursors should be developed and extended widely, and the framework of efficient assessment and management measures should be proposed as soon as possible. Fifth, the toxicity effects are the most important characteristic of DBPs, so toxicity-directed method can string together all DBPs related studies including identification of DBPs with high risk, their formation mechanisms, choice and assessment of elimination techniques, and management. The toxicity-directed DBPs studies would be an innovative and efficient method (Chen et al., 2018a). All in all, the study on DBPs is multi-disciplinary, involving chemistry, toxicology, epidemiology, engineering and technology. The close communication and cooperation between the scientists and engineers from different disciplines must be an effective way for preventing the outbreak of water-borne diseases, and reducing the potential health risk of DBPs.
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Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China Xuefeng Sun1,2 , Miao Chen1,2 , Dongbin Wei1,2,⁎, Yuguo Du1,2,⁎
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1. State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-Toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Article history:
Disinfection is an indispensable water treatment process for killing harmful pathogens and
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Received 10 October 2018
protecting human health. However, the disinfection has caused significant public concern due
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Revised 25 January 2019
to the formation of toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). Lots of studies on disinfection and
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Accepted 5 February 2019
DBPs have been performed in the world since 1974. Although related studies in China started in
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Available online xxxx
1980s, a great progress has been achieved during the last three decades. Therefore, this review
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Keywords:
included: (1) the occurrence of DBPs in water of China, (2) the identification and detection
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Disinfection
methods of DBPs, (3) the formation mechanisms of DBPs during disinfection process, (4) the
Disinfection by-products
toxicological effects and epidemiological surveys of DBPs, (5) the control and management
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Identification
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studies in future. It is expected that this review would provide useful information and reference for optimizing disinfection process, reducing DBPs formation and protecting human
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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Occurrence of DBPs in China . . . . . 2. Identification and detection of DBPs . 3. Formation mechanisms of DBPs . . . 3.1. Substitution. . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Reduction–oxidation reaction . 3.3. Hydrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4. Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Toxicology and health effects of DBPs
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⁎ Corresponding authors at: State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Eco-Toxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China. E-mail addresses: [email protected], (D. Wei), [email protected]. (Y. Du).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003 1001-0742 © 2019 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V.
Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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4.1. Cytotoxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity (tumorigenicity) 4.3. Other toxicities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Toxicity test in vivo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5. Epidemiological survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. Control and management of DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Reduce precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Optimize disinfection techniques. . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Reduce the generated DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. DBPs studies in future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncited references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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200 institutions in China have achieved fruitful work on DBPs related science research and engineering practices. Up to now, more than 1600 publications can be searched from the ISI Web of Science database, and about 1800 Chinese publications can be searched from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database. Among them, more than 80% articles were published during the last 10 years. The Chinese Academy of Science, Tongji University and Tsinghua University were the top three institutions that had the highest numbers of publications in China. The studies on the disinfection and DBPs in China mainly include: occurrence of DBPs, identification and detection of DBPs, formation of DBPs, toxicity and toxicological mechanisms of DBPs, and control and management of DBPs. A summary of DBPs studies in China during 1974–2018 is shown in Fig. 1.
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1. Occurrence of DBPs in China
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Considering the potential adverse biological effects, some DBPs have been regulated by several national and international agencies, named as regulated DBPs. For example, China has regulated TCM, dichloromethane (DCM), bromodichloromethane (BDCM), dibromochloromethane (DBCM), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), etc. in the “Standards for drinking water quality of China (GB/T5749-2006)”. And the others, have not been regulated in the standards are named as “unregulated DBPs”. The first report on DBPs in China was published in 1986, which showed the TCM levels in three drinking water treatment plants (disinfected with bleaching powder) ranged from 7.5 to 24 μg/L (Yang and Cai, 1986). The total concentration of four THMs (TCM, tribromomethane (TBM), DBCM and DCBM) in the drinking water collected from 24 large and medium-sized cities in China in 1984 ranged from 0.01 to 86 μg/L (Huang et al., 1987). A survey on THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) in drinking water from China mainland showed that the total concentrations of THMs and HAAs were generally present at not detected (ND) to 92.8 and ND-40 μg/L, respectively (Deng et al., 2008). However, Chang et al. (2010) reported that THMs levels in drinking water from Taiwan were occasionally beyond 100 μg/L. A total of 155 water samples were collected in 2011 and 2012 from Guangzhou, Foshan and Zhuhai. The median (range) levels of THMs and HAAs were 17.7 (0.7–62.7) μg/L and 8.6
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Disinfection is a necessary water treatment unit for killing harmful pathogens and protecting public health from infectious water-borne diseases. Disinfection has been adopted as a standard treatment for drinking water, swimming pool water and reclaimed water. The commonly used chemical disinfectants include chlorine, ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and so on (Richardson, 1998). Among these, chlorine is the predominantly used disinfectant due to its efficient bacteria-killing ability, convenient operation and low cost (Li et al., 2013a). Chlorine-containing disinfectants mainly include chlorine gas (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and calcium hypochlorite (Ca (ClO)2) (WHO, 2006). The typical concentration of available chlorine in WTPs of China was about 0.3–0.5 mg/L. Although chemical disinfectants are effective for killing harmful pathogens, they may react with natural organic matter (NOM), anthropogenic contaminants in water and generate unexpected DBPs. The studies on disinfection and DBPs has drawn much attention in the last decades due to their significant toxicological effects. Trichloromethane (TCM) was the first DBP identified from chlorinated drinking water in 1974 (Rook, 1974; Bellar et al., 1974). Two years later, the reports from the U.S. EPA and the National Cancer Institute showed that, trihalomethanes (THMs) were ubiquitous in chlorinated drinking water, and TCM was carcinogenic in laboratory animals. Since then, disinfection and DBPs became a hot research field, and lots of efforts have been directed toward increasing our understanding on DBPs formation, occurrence, and health effects. Up to September 2018, more than 8700 articles and 1000 patents on DBPs have been published around the world. Among them, the United States had the largest contribution, accounting for ca. 30% of all related publications worldwide. Water Research and Environmental Science & Technology were the most popular journal sources in this field, in which more than 1000 research articles on DBPs were published. Although the study on disinfection and DBPs in China was about 10 years later than in the USA, the Chinese scientists and engineers have paid more attention to this topic. Based on the statistical data of publications and researchers in the past 40 years, China has the second largest contribution in the world. More than 1700 scientists and engineers from about
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About 700 DBPs have been identified, while more DBPs are unknown yet. Therefore, the identification and detection of regulated and unregulated DBPs is still an emergent task in disinfection practices. The identification of DBPs is mainly
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concentrations of NAs in pipe water were 10.65–55.80 ng/L, and the concentration of predominant species NDMA was 37.76 ng/ L. For Xiamen city, dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) was the predominant species (5.25 μg/L) among the total HANs (ND – 9.36 μg/L) in pipe water (Dong et al., 2016). NDMA, Nnitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosopiperidine, TCNM and four HANs had higher concentrations in dry season than in wet season in Shenzhen, Fuzhou, Xiamen and Harbin. And BrHANs (brominated HANs) had similar seasonal trend in three coastal cities (Dong et al., 2016). A survey on DBPs in swimming pool of China showed that the median concentrations of THMs, HAA9, chloral hydrate (CH), HAN4 and 1,1-dichloropropanone (DCP) and 1,1,1-trichloropropanone (TCP) were 33.8, 109.1, 30.1, 3.2, 0.8 μg/L and below detection limit, respectively (Zhang et al., 2015a). A recent survey found that the levels of TCM, BDCM, DBCM, and TBM in drinking water of Xi'an city ranged from ND to 52.50 mg/L (mean: 12.67 mg/L), ND to 12.80 mg/L (mean: 1.42 mg/L), ND to 8.50 mg/L (mean: 0.60 mg/L), and ND to 5.30 mg/L (mean: 0.13 mg/L) (Zhang et al., 2018). A survey on haloacetamides (HAcAms) concentrations of five DWTPs which use the Yangtze River or Yellow River as source water showed that the rank order of HAcAms was: Cl-HAcAms (15.3 μg/ L) > > Cl-Br-HAcAms (1.2 μg/L) > Br-HAcAms (1.0 μg/L). Among the three Cl-HAcAms, dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) had the highest concentration (10.7 μg/L), followed by trichloroacetamide TCAcAm (3.1 μg/L) and chloroacetamide (CAcAm) (1.5 μg/L) (Yang et al., 2014b). The concentration data of some representative DBPs in China are listed in Table S2. These results imply that the DBPs pollution in drinking water of China should be noticed.
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(0.3–81.3) μg/L, respectively (Gan et al., 2013). Ding et al. (2013) detected 28 DBPs in 70 drinking water treatment plants from 31 cities across China, and the average detection frequency of 21 DBPs was 50%. Of these, THM4 and HAAs were the predominant species, with median concentrations of 10.53 and 10.95 μg/L, respectively. Two iodine-containing THMs (I-THMs) ranged from ND to 5.58 μg/L. The total median concentration of haloacetonitriles (HANs) was 1.11 μg/L (ND to 39.20 μg/L). The maximum concentrations of chloronitromethane (CNM) and TCNM were 0.96 and 0.28 μg/L, respectively. A recent survey on DBPs occurrence in 8 counties in Jinhua Region of Zhejiang Province in China shows that median (range) of THMs, HAAs, HANs, haloketones (HKs) and halonitromethanes (HNMs) were 23.2 (9.1–40.9), 15.3 (5.8–38.6), 2.2 (0.7–7.6), 2.1 (0.2–6.4) and 0.7 (0.2–2.9) μg/L, respectively (Zhou et al., 2019). Bei et al. (2016) detected 9 nitrosamines (NAs) in 164 drinking water samples from 44 large-, medium-, and small-size cities of 23 Chinese provinces. It was found that N,N-dimethyl-nitrosamine (NDMA) was the dominant species, whose mean levels in finished water of plants and tap water were 11 and 13 ng/L, respectively. Compared to the California notification level of 10 ng/L, ~26% of the finished waters and ~29% of the tap waters exceeded this value. The percentage of detects of NDMA was 37% in Chinese water samples (based on using the same maximum residue limit (MRL) as in the U.S.), which was 3.6 times that in the U.S. (Bei et al., 2016). Another similar survey on N-DBPs (nitrogen-containing DBPs) occurrence in drinking water from six cities was performed from June 2015 to January 2016. It was found that the N-DBPs levels in coastal cities were higher than in inland ones, and in southern cities were higher than those in northern ones, which may because the source water in southern China has the characteristics of low turbidity, high algae and micro-pollution. Sewage discharge and algae activities will increase the concentration of nitrogen-containing precursors, promote the production of N-DBPs, result in the average level of N-DBPs in drinking water in southern cities is higher than that in northern cities. The concentration of trichloronitromethane (TCNM) was less than 1.21 μg/L in six cities. For Shenzhen city, the total
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Fig. 1 – A summary of DBPs studies in China during 1974–2018
Please cite this article as: X. Sun, M. Chen, D. Wei, et al., Research progress of disinfection and disinfection by-products in China, Journal of Environmental Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2019.02.003
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Among the identified 700 DBPs, the frequently detected DBPs in drinking water include THMs, HAAs, HANs, HAcAms, HKs, TCNM, trichloroacetaldehyde (CH), NAs and so on (Huang et al., 2017b; Wang et al., 2015b; Serrano et al., 2015). Recently, more and more researches have been conducted to identify DBPs and explore their formation mechanisms, toxicity effects, exposure characteristics, and potential health risk. In fact, how the DBPs form in disinfection treatment seems to be the first question that should be answered. Up to now, several chemical reactions involved in DBPs formation have been disclosed, which are summarized as following.
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bacterial studies have shown that bromoacetic acid is approximately 20 times more cytotoxic and 200 times more mutagenic in Salmonella typhimurium strain TA100 than chloroacetic acid (Zhang et al., 2014). Xiao et al. (2013)) found that tens of disinfection by products were formed during chlorination treatment on benzophenone-4, and chlorinated products exhibited high genotoxicity. The study of Li et al. (2013a) showed that the chlorination of cefazolin would produce sulfoxide products with high genotoxicity. The detection methods of main DBPs and detection limits in drinking water of China are shown in Table S3.
3.1. Substitution
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dependent on target analysis and non-target analysis. The target analysis for known DBPs was performed by using gas phase chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometer (GC– MS), high performance liquid phase chromatography in tandem with mass spectrometer (HPLC–MS) and related techniques (APHA, 1998). Wang et al. (2011) developed an improved liquid– liquid extraction-gas chromatography-electron capture detector (LLE-GC-ECD) method for THMs detection, the detection limit for TCM, CCl4, BDCM, DBCM and TBM were 0.002, 0.004, 0.008, 0.0012 and 0.011 μg/L, respectively. The study of Li et al. (2007) showed that the detection limit of improved GC-ECD for monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), monobromoacetic acid (MBAA), DCAA, trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), and dibromoacetic acid (DBAA) were 1.25, 0.10, 0.07, 0.05 and 0.05 μg/L, respectively. Except for the recommended or standard detection methods, researchers have also developed some analytical methods for DBPs to gain satisfactory sensitivity and detection limit. A cold on-column (COC) injection in track-oven mode coupled with a GC–MS system was developed for HNMs analysis (Chen et al., 2016b). The advantage of COC method over the conventional split/splitless injection was minimizing thermal degradation of HNMs, especially dibromochloro- and tribromo-nitromethanes in water. Huang et al. (2013) developed a fast and sensitive LLE method for HNMs analysis, which had good linearity (r > 0.9925), high recovery (81%–120%, RSD% < 6.7), and low detection limit (MDL: 0.017–0.217 μg/L). As for the unknown DBPs, the common identification methods are GC–MS and HPLC-MS. For example, more than 600 peptides in drinking water samples were identified using HPLC-MS/MS method with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode (Huang et al., 2017a). To identify more DBPs, the present instruments and methods should be optimized. A non-targeted screening method involving comprehensive two-dimensional GC × GC-qMS combined with OECD QSAR Toolbox Ver. 3.2 was developed for identifying and prioritizing the volatile and semi-volatile DBPs in drinking water (Li et al., 2016a). The method was successfully applied to identify DBPs formed during chlorination, chloramination or ozonation of raw water, more than 500 DBPs were tentatively identified in each sample. Recently, the application of ultra high resolution mass Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI FT-ICR MS) has a rapid development and plays an important role in identifying the molecular composition of unknown DBPs and their precursors in water (Wang et al., 2016b; Zhang et al., 2012a; Zhang et al., 2012b; Zhang et al., 2014). By aiding of ESI FT-ICR MS, 659 mono-chlorinated products, 348 dichlorinated products, 441 mono-brominated products, 37 di-brominated products, 178 mono-iodinated products, 13 di-iodinated products and 15 mono-chlorinated and iodinated products were indentified in the chlorinated drinking water sample, while only tens of products have been reported in previous studies (Wang et al., 2016b; Zhang et al., 2012a; Zhang et al., 2012b; Zhang et al., 2014). These results demonstrate that the ESI FT-ICR MS method can provide valuable molecular composition and structure information on unknown DBPs. Except for instrumental analysis, bioassay was also used to screen the formation of DBPs based-on their toxicity effects. The mammalian cell toxicity test was a useful tool for profiling the occurrence of toxic DBPs. For example,
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Substitution is the most commonly occurring chemical reaction in chlorination disinfection process. The disinfectant hypochlorous acid is easily polarized as Cl⊕–OHӨ, the chlorine atom with partial positive charge will readily attack carbon atoms with partial negative charge, and form chlorinated products. During chlorine disinfection process, resorcinol can easily transform into mono-, di-, and trichlorinated resorcinol via substitution reaction (Fig. 2). Since the hydroxyl groups on 1- and 3-position of benzene ring have strong electron-donating effects, the carbon atoms on their o-, and p-position (2-, 4-, and 6-position of benzene ring) have more negative charge, which would be easily attacked by Cl⊕ to form chlorinated products. It has been reported that chlorinated resorcinol could be quickly transformed into TCM (Boyce and Hornig, 1983). When bromine or iodine ions are present in water chlorination, aqueous chlorine will easily oxidize the halides to hypobromous acid or hypoiodous acid respectively and, form some brominated or iodinated products. Chloramine is another disinfectant used widely, and substitution would also occur during chloramination treatment. During the chloramination of iodide-containing water, NOM would be converted into iodoform (CHI3), iodoacetonitrile (IAN), diiodoacetonitrile (DIAN), iodoacetamide (IAcAm), diiodoacetamide (DIAcAm), iodoacetic acid (IAA) and TIAA. The important formation mechanism of these DBPs is iodine substitution. As shown in Fig. S1, iodine will substitute both hydrogen atoms of the intermediate R-CH2-CN to form R-CI2-CN, which will be further hydrolyzed into DIAN (Liu et al., 2017). And the transformation pathways of NOM and formation of DBPs was provided in Fig. S2.
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Fig. 2 – Chlorination substitution and formation of chlorinated resorcinol
3.2. Reduction–oxidation reaction
Reduction–oxidation (Redox) is a chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Any such reaction 346 involves both a reduction process and a complementary 347 oxidation process, two key concepts involved with electron 348 transfer processes. Generally, redox reactions involve the 349 transfer of electrons between chemical species. Redox reac350 tions often occur during the disinfection process because most 351 of chemical disinfectants are oxidative agents. NOM contains 352 various function groups, such as carboxylic, aromatic, amino 353 and hydroxyl, which easily react with oxidative disinfectants. 354 Phenolic chemicals are often present in water, they would be 355 oxidized into hydroquinone intermediate during disinfection 356 and further formed benzoquinone, one kind of DBPs with high 357 toxicity (Guan et al., 2018). Some reductive anions, such as 358 iodide ions in source waters are easily oxidized to HOI, which 359 can react with natural organic matter (NOM) to form various I360 DBPs. As shown in Fig. S3, the tri-iodocarbonyl compound (R361 CO-CI3) can either be hydrolyzed to CHI3 and a corresponding 362 acid (R-COOH) or be oxidized to TIAA if the R- is an oxidizable 363 group (Liu et al., 2017). 364 Except for the conventional redox reaction, Baeyer-Villiger 365 oxidation was found by Xiao et al. in chlorination disinfection 366 system (Fig. 3), the UV-filter benzophenone-4 (2-hydroxy367 4-methoxy- benzophenone-5-sulfonic acid) was converted 368 into phenyl ester derivatives (Xiao et al., 2013). Similarly, Liu 369 et al. (2016b)) found Baeyer-Villiger oxidation could occur in 370 the chlorination of 4-hydroxyl benzophenone. Baeyer-Villiger 371 oxidation is an organic reaction that forms an ester from a 372 ketone or a lactone from a cyclic ketone, using peroxy acids or 373 peroxides as the oxidant (Baeyer and Villiger, 1899). First, 374 peroxy acid protonates the oxygen of the carbonyl group, 375 making the carbonyl group more susceptible to attack by 376 peroxy acid. Second, peroxy acid attacks the carbon of the 377 carbonyl group forming Criegee intermediate. Third, one of 378 the substituents on the ketone migrates to the oxygen of the 379 peroxide group while a carboxylic acid leaves. Finally, 380 deprotonation of the oxocarbenium ion produces the ester 381 Q13 (Baeyer and Villiger, 1899; Kürti and Czakó, 2005).
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Substitution, redox, and hydrolysis are most predominant reactions during disinfection treatment. In addition, there are many kinds of unsatured chemical bonds in NOM and anthropogenic compounds, such as alkenes (C =C), alkynes (C≡C), ketones (C= O), imines (C= N), nitriles (C≡ N) and so on. These compounds readily undergo addition reactions with disinfectants HClO or NH2Cl and form addition products or its
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Hydrolysis usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Acid- or base-catalyzed hydrolysis is very common. Take amides and esters as example, their hydrolysis occurs when nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxide ions) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group. In alkaline system, hydroxide ions are stronger nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water. In acid system, the carbonyl group is protonated resulting in easier nucleophilic attack. The final hydrolysis products contain carboxylic acid group. The chlorinated cytosine (a) is easily hydrolyzed to form (1-amino-1,2-dichloro-2hydroxy-3-iminopropyl)- chlorocarbamic acid (b). And (b) would further take place hydrolysis and form chloromethanamine, 1chloro-2-iminoethan-1-ol and chlorocarbamic acid after hydrolyzing (Fig. S4) (Zhang et al., 2017a). In the chlorination transformation of Tyr–Tyr–Tyr, two products DCAcAm and dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) were detected. DCAN could transform to DCAcAm via hydrolysis, which would be further hydrolyzed into DCAA (Chu et al., 2015b). Another report showed that HAAs and some other trihalogenated DBPs (e.g., chloral hydrate) would take place hydrolysis and form THMs (Zhang et al., 2015a) (Fig. 4). The esters compounds are also easily hydrolyzed under acid or alkaline conditions. Since HClO is a nucleophilic agent, it would promote the hydrolysis of esters. As mentioned above, UV filter benzophenone-4 was oxidized into ester via Baeyer-Villiger oxidation first, and the ester would be further hydrolyzed into corresponding phenolic and benzoic products. (Fig. S5) (Xiao et al., 2013).
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Fig. 3 – Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of benzophenone-4 during chlorination disinfection.
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DBPs having attracted much attention since more and more adverse biological effects were observed. In 1976, the US National Cancer Institute published the first toxicological results linking TCM to kidney epithelial tumors in laboratory rodents (Page and Saffiotti, 1976). Thereafter, the potential health impacts of DBPs became a sensitive but important issue. In the past decades, cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, endocrine disrupting effects and some other toxicological effects of DBPs have been explored by scientists in China and other countries.
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Cytotoxicity is the quality of being toxic to cells. It is widely used to evaluate the adverse biological effect of DBPs. The cells treated with DBPs may undergo necrosis, losing membrane integrity and dying rapidly as a result of cell lysis. These processes of cell fates can be detected by staining method, luminescence method and so on. For example, MTT (3-(4,5dimethyl-2-thiazolyl) -2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide) assay was used to measure the cytotoxicity of a new DBP phenazine. It was found that phenazine had significant cellspecific toxicity toward T24 (inhibitive concentration-50 (IC50)
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free chlorine. The possible reactions included bromine sub- 449 stitution on the benzene rings, further oxidation, addition and 450 decarboxylation (Fig. 8). 451
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isomer during the chlor(am)ination process. Within the chlor (am)ination of acrylamide (Fig. 5), an initial Cl⊕ transferred to the double bonds and generated a chloronium ion, which is followed by the addition of OHӨ (Ding et al., 2018). As shown in Fig. 5, addition also occurred in the process of dichloroacetic acid (DCAN) hydrolyzing and producing DCAcAm. Along with the substitution reaction, some function groups such as carboxyl, amino, alkanes and sulfonic acid groups would be easily eliminated. Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). A study on chlorination of dipeptide Tyr–Ala showed that the carboxyl group in the chlorinated products of Tyr–Ala would be removed and form DCAN (Fig. 6) (Chu et al., 2015b). Furthermore, the results of tripeptide Tyr–Tyr–Tyr chlorination showed that trichloroacetonitrile (TCAN) could be produced through a dehydration reaction (Fig. S6) (Chu et al., 2015b). Xiao et al. (2013) found that product (A), formed from UV filter benzophenone-4 via chlorination and oxidation, would take place hydrolysis, chlorination and decarboxylation to form product (B). And product (B) would be further converted into product (C) via chlorination and desulfonation (Fig. 7). Similarly, as shown in Fig. S7, the chlorination cytosine could transform into DCAA via hydrolysis and deamination (Zhang et al., 2017a). In fact, the chemical reactions involved in disinfection process are very complex, and many of them take place simultaneously. Pan et al. (2016) found a new group of DBPs, trihalo-hydroxy-cyclopentene-diones, which would be easily decomposed to THMs and HAAs in the presence of excessive
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Fig. 5 – Addition reactions of acrylamide during chlorination process.
Fig. 6 – The possible reactions occurred in chlorination of dipeptide Tyr–Ala.
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Fig. 7 – The possible reactions ocurred in benzophenone-4 chlorination.
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Genotoxicity means the DNA damage induced by physical or chemical factors. The common genotoxicity assays can be classified into two major categories: DNA damage/repair assay (e.g., Ames test, comet assay and SOS/umu test) and chromosomal damage assay (micronucleus assays). With comet assay in HepG2 cell lines, the DNA-damaging potency of HAAs was ranked as: I-HAAs > Br-HAAs > Cl-HAAs according to their minimal effective concentrations (MECs) 0.01, 0.1, and 100 μmol/L, respectively (Zhang et al., 2012c). Using umu test with the genetically modified strain TA1535/pSK1002 of S. typhimurium, the genotoxicity variation during the chlorination disinfection of wastewater was evaluated. It was found that after disinfection treatment, the genotoxicity decreased for water with low NH3-N level (<10–20 mg/L), while it increased for water with high NH3-N level (> 10–20 mg/L)
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disinfection processes, the results showed that the toxicity had significant increase after chlorination disinfection treatment (Chen et al., 2016c; Xiao et al., 2014). In addition, some biological active molecules were chosen as biomarkers to reflect the adverse biological effects of DBPs. The colorimetric protein phosphatase inhibition assay was used to evaluate the adverse effects of DBPs formed from the disinfection of microcystin-LR (MCLR-DBPs). The results showed that MCLR-DBPs had higher toxicity (IC50 = 0.8 μg/L) than their parent MCLR (IC50 = 2.6 μg/L), implying the secondary pollution of MCLR-DBPs in drinking water disinfection should be a concern (Zong et al., 2013). Interestingly, Pan et al. conducted chronic cytotoxicity assay of DBPs with the CHO cells, and found cytotoxicity was reduced by 77% after boiling for 5 min (Pan et al., 2014b). A survey on cytotoxicity and occurrence of 28 DBPs in 70 drinking water treatment plants from 31 cities across China showed that, HANs had the strongest cytotoxicity contribution in spite of their much low concentration (median value was 1.11 mg/L) in drinking water (Ding et al., 2013). Table S4 shows the cytotoxicity information of main DBPs.
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0.50 mmol/L) and HepG2 (IC50 2.04 mmol/L) cell lines (Zhou et al., 2012a). A new real-time cell-electronic sensing (RT-CES) technique using T24 cell line as a probe was developed to analyze the comparative cytotoxicity of new DBPs halobenzoquinones (HBQs). The 72 hr-IC50 value of dichlorobenzoquinone (DCBQ) was 3.1 mmol/L. This result fit well with those data measured with the conventional neutral red uptake (NRU) and MTS (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium) assays (for NRU, R2 = 0.9480, p < .05) (Du et al., 2014). In addition, membrane integrity of cells is also an evaluation index of cytotoxicity. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release was used to reflect the cytotoxicity of DBPs. When Neuro-2a cells were treated with CA (chloroacetic acid) for 24 hr, a significant increase in the release of LDH was observed. And the lethal dose-50 (LD50) was determined as 1.5 mmol/L, which indicated that exposure of CA to neuronal cells can cause apoptosis (Lu et al., 2015). Although MTT assay has been widely used in cytotoxicity assessment, it is not always suitable for measuring cytotoxicity of complex wastewater samples. Yang et al. (2015c) found that the signal of MTT assay with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells treated with high concentration of secondary effluent samples (250–500 times concentrated) was quite lower than that of the control. The possible reason was attributed to the reaction of dye and phenolics in wastewater interfering the signal of MTT assay. Subsequently, the ATP assay with Luminescent Cell Viability Assay kit was used to measure the cytotoxicity of wastewater. The human liver hepatoma was treated with the same wastewater sample even at a lower concentration (50–130 times concentrated), the ATP decreased by 50%, which were consistent with those from flow cytometry determination (Yang et al., 2015c). Therefore, in order to avoid the interferential reactions of dyes with some substances in real environmental water, some cells with autologous luminescence or color were often adopted (Du et al., 2017b). For example, a marine bacteria strain Photobacterium phosphoreum was used to measure the acute toxicity variation of benzophenones UV-filters during
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Fig. 8 – Multiple reactions involved in the formation of trihalo-hydroxy-cyclopentene-diones.
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Besides the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity, some other toxicity effects of DBPs were also found recently. For example, the antiestrogenic effect of the secondary effluent during chlorination disinfection was evaluated by using two-hybrid yeast cells containing rat estrogen receptor. After chlorination disinfection, the antiestrogenic activity of the sample spiked with bromide was 1.75 times than sample without bromide, indicating that bromide increased the anti-estrogenic activity of the secondary effluent during the chlorination disinfection (Wu et al., 2014). Developmental toxicity is the structural or functional alteration of the developmental processes (e.g., organogenesis, morphogenesis). The embryos of marine polychaete Platynereis dumerilii (PPD) and the marine green algal Tetraselmis marina were used to evaluate the developmental effects of DBPs (Yang and Zhang, 2013). It was surprisingly found that chlorinated saline wastewater effluents (effective concentration-50 (EC50) was 51.7%) were less toxic than a chlorinated freshwater wastewater effluent (EC50 was 36.5%) using PPD, and this result was also confirmed by the tests using marine alga Tetraselmis marina (Yang et al., 2015a). In addition, the neurotoxicity of chloroacetic acids (CAA) was tested, and the possible mechanism was proposed that CAA could trigger apoptosis in neuronal cells via a reactive oxygen species-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling pathway (Lu et al., 2015).
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Obeying the “3R” principle of animal experiment, convenience, and cost saving, most toxicity experiments were often conducted in vitro. However, the in vivo experiment is essential to confirm the toxicity effects and investigate the complex metabolic process of toxic chemicals. For example, metabonomics, histopathology and oxidative stress analysis on bromoacetonitriles (BANs) and HAcAms were conducted. It was found that BAN and HAcAms could induce oxidative stress by disrupting metabolism of amino acid, energy, and lipid in mice (Deng et al., 2014; Deng et al., 2017). Furthermore, the high-throughput sequencing and metabonomics were combined to explore the effects of trichloroacetamide (TCAcAm) exposure on the gut microbiome and urine metabolic profiles in mice. TCAcAm exposure not only altered the abundance level of gut microbiome but also disrupted the metabolic function of the gut microbiota, corresponding to metabolic dysfunction (Zhang et al., 2015b). Caenorhabditis elegans was used as model organism to determine the in vivo toxicity of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (DCBQ). lethal concentration-50 (LC50) and EC50 of DCBQ were 3.28 × 102 and 6.37 μmol/L, respectively, which was more toxic than some regulated DBPs such as MBA, DBA, TCA, and DCA (LC50 and EC50 were 7.71 × 102–5 × 104 μmol/L and 11.82–83.13 μmol/L,
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quality survey in 35 major cities. The ingestion exposures contributed 93.6% of risk, which was the most important pathway for the total risk, and TCAA produced the highest risk (2.12 × 10−7 DALYs ppy) among the DBPs considered (Pan et al., 2014a). The genotoxicity of main DBPs in drinking water of China is shown in Table S5.
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(Wang et al., 2007a). Micronucleus (MN) assay is one of essential methods for assessing chromosome damage 553 (Fenech, 2000). Hu et al. (2017) evaluated the genotoxicity 554 potential of HAAs and HANs in chlorinated drinking water by 555 the combination of Vicia faba MN test and comet assay, the 556 positive ratio was 75% in MN test and 100% in comet assay. In 557 order to investigate the impact of recycling of combined filter 558 backwash water (CFBW) to drinking water treatment plant 559 (WTP), comet and MN assays with zebra fish (Danio rerio) were 560 selected to evaluate the genotoxicity of water samples from 561 two WTPs, one with recycling of CFBW, the other with a 562 conventional process. The results showed that there was no 563 statistically significant difference (P > .05) between the con564 ventional and recycling processes. However, for each WTP, 565 the water sample after disinfection treatment had higher DNA 566 strand breaks and MN frequency (Hu et al., 2017). 567 Mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of DBPs may be attrib568 uted to the damage of genome, promotion of cells transfor569 mation, disturbance of cell cycle and gene expression or 570 disruption of cellular metabolism. Studies have showed that 571 exposure to the NAs-mixture doubled the revert ants in TA98 572 and TA100 S. typhimurium strains, increased DNA double573 strand breaks and micronuclear frequency in NIH3T3 cells 574 compared to a single exposure, indicating NAs-mixture 575 exposure increased mutagenicity (Wang et al., 2017b). The 576 ability to transform NIH3T3 cells to tumorigenic lines of 577 iodoacetic acid (IAA) and iodoform (IF) in Shanghai drinking 578 water was tested. It was found that IAA but not IF had 579 carcinogenic potential because IAA was a potent inducer of 580 NIH3T3 cell transformation with a positive response at −4 581 2 μmol/L (3.7 × 10 mg/mL), however, IF was negative in the 582 transformation assay (Wei et al., 2013b). 583 In addition, the computer-based method was also applied 584 to analyze the genotoxicity of unknown DBPs and avoid 585 cumbersome and inconvenient biological experiments. QSAR 586 (quantitative structure–activity relationship) is the most 587 commonly used modeling method to predict biological 588 activity by physico-chemical properties. Li et al. (2016a) used 589 two-dimensional gas chromatography quadrupole mass spec590 trometry and OECD QSAR Toolbox to evaluate the 591 genotoxicity of volatile and semi-volatile DBPs in drinking 592 water, the results showed that the total volumes of genotoxic 7 593 DBPs in chlorination (6.44 × 10 ) was higher than those in 7 7 594 chloramination (4.23 × 10 ) and ozonation (3.19 × 10 ) pro595 cesses. Li et al. (2016b) investigated the genotoxicity variation 596 (SOS/umu assay with S. typhimurium) and 2D-, 3D-QSAR of 20 597 quinolones during chlorination disinfection. The results 598 revealed that quinolones bearing hydrophilic substituents 599 with less H-bond donors and negative charge at the 1-position 600 of the quinolone ring exhibited a positive correlation with 601 genotoxicity elevation. 602 Some other model methods such as RfD/C, slope factor 603 Q15 approach developed by the USEPA (Guidelines for Carcinogen 604 Risk Assessment, 2005), and disability-adjusted life years 605 (DALYs, developed by World Health Organization) method 606 were combined with the disease models to assess the 607 potential cancer risk (e.g. renal and bladder cancer) resulting 608 from DBPs exposure (Wang et al., 2007b). For example, DALYs 609 method was used to assess the total cancer incidence caused 610 by THMs and HAAs in drinking water of China based on water
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5. Control and management of DBPs
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Killing pathogens and eliminating DBPs in disinfected water are two important tasks in water treatment. To achieve the two goals, many techniques have been developed to control DBPs concentration in water through reduction of precursors, optimization of disinfection operation and removal of DBPs.
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NOM and anthropogenic chemicals in water are the main precursors of DBPs, so the removal of precursors is the most effective strategy for DBPs control (Bond et al., 2011). It is possible for water utilities to lower the content of DBPs precursors by adopting some technologies such as enhanced coagulation (CW), adsorption, membrane filtration, photocatalysis, pre-oxidation and so on (Bond et al., 2011). However, the physicochemical
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The epidemiological survey is an effective tool to connect DBPs with human diseases. In the last decades, tens of epidemiological surveys have been performed in China for the relationship between DBPs and newborn health, reproductive capacity and cancer morbidity. A survey on 1184 pregnant women recruited in Hubei province was conducted from 2011 to 2013. It was found that the TTHMs (sum of TCM, BDCM, BDCM, and TBM) in maternal blood during late pregnancy were slightly associated with lower mean birth weight, and BDCM and DBCM exposures were weakly associated with smaller birth length (Cao et al., 2016). Another survey on 398 women who had given birth showed that, the mean birth weight of the newborns in the third and top quartiles of urinary creatinine adjusted TCAA concentrations was less than those in the lowest quartile (Zhou et al., 2012b). A total of 418 male partners were recruited from the Tongji Hospital in Wuhan China, and an investigation of DBPs exposure and impaired male reproductive health was conducted. A suggestive but inconclusive association between decreased sperm mobility and increased urinary TCAA levels was observed (Xie et al., 2011). Series of epidemiological surveys on the relationship between TTHMs levels in public water supplies and risk of esophageal, colon, bladder and kidney cancer were carried out in Taiwan. (Chang et al., 2007; Kuo et al., 2009; Liao et al., 2012; Tsai et al., 2013). It was found that there was no significant correlation between death risk of colon cancer and TTHMs in drinking water (when concentration was less than 6.03 ppb or more than 14.08 ppb) (Kuo et al., 2009). Some other surveys showed that TTHMs concentration had a strong positive correlation to the death risk of bladder cancer (Chang et al., 2007), and had a weak positive correlation to the death risk of kidney and esophageal cancer (Liao et al., 2012; Tsai et al., 2013). The epidemiological study of main DBPs in drinking water of China is shown in Table S6.
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properties of precursors are quite different due to their complex components, which would heavily influence the choice of treatment techniques and removal efficiency of DBPs. Taking CW as an example, it has great ability to remove high molecular weight (MW), hydrophobic and anionic precursors, while it is limited in removing hydrophilic and low molecular weight precursors. The study of Han et al. (2015) showed that the concentration of THMs decreased from 59 to 39 μg/L by removing hydrophobic acids (HoA) fraction using CW, whereas the removal efficiency was very low for the precursors whose MW < 5 kDa. Adsorption is one of the effective techniques for removing many kinds of pollutants. And activated carbon is commonly used due to its large surface area. Granular activated carbon (GAC) is usually utilized between CW-filtration/sedimentation and post-disinfection units. It has been found that placing GAC after chlorination was beneficial to eliminate aromatic halogenated DBPs precursors (Jiang et al., 2017). When GAC was placed after chlorination, the removals of THM4, HAA5, HAA9 and TOX were 96.9%, 78.2%, 88.6% and 63.2%, respectively. However, when GAC was placed before chorination, the removals were 29.6%, 30.7%, 31.2% and 37.6%, respectively (Jiang et al., 2017). Compared to GAC, powdered activated carbon (PAC) has bigger surface area, which can be applied at various stages of water treatment. Wang et al. (2017a)) found that PAC adsorption significantly improved the removal efficiency of THMs precursor (from 10.5% to 70%) and N-DBPs precursor (from 45% to 93%) compared with the single CW. However, Gao et al. (2016)) found that the addition of PAC in membrane bioreactor (MBR) relatively increased the formation of Br-THMs by 200% and increased THMs formation reactivity by 42% during the subsequent chlorination. Pre-oxidation is a frequently applied technique to degrade some reductive, large molecular compounds in water. Ferrate Fe(VI), ozone, persulfate, permanganate processes, and advanced oxidation processes such as UV/H2O2, and UV/persulfate are usually applied in water treatment practices to remove DBPs precursors (Chu et al., 2014; Chu et al., 2015a; Chu et al., 2016a; Chu et al., 2016b; Chu et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2018a; Yang et al., 2015b; Zhang et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2015). Studies have shown that I-THMs formation decreased drastically with increasing ferrate dosage, I-THMs were not found at >2 mg/L of ferrate (Zhang et al., 2016a). In general, preoxidation such as pre-O3 had a positive contribution on reduction of chloroform (CF) formation potentials (FPs) (Hu et al., 2018a). However, ozone is a strong oxidant, it can efficiently convert the high-MW fractions (20–1000 kDa) of extracellular organic matter (EOM) and intracellular organic matter (IOM) into low-MW fractions (0.3–10 kDa), which would increase DBPs yields during disinfection process (Zhou et al., 2015). Moreover, the low-MW fractions are more difficult to remove than high-MW fractions with conventional treatment. Another issue in ozonation treatment is the formation of bromates and related health risk, 40%–60% of Br− in the raw water would be transformed into BrO−3 during ozonation treatment at a high O3 dose (Zhang et al., 2017b; Mao et al., 2018). Since the pollution situation in ambient water is quite complex, a single technique is usually hard to remove DBPs precursors completely, while the combined techniques would
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respectively). The results of in vivo tests were similar to those of in vitro tests, HBQs were up to 1000-fold more cytotoxic than some regulated DBPs in CHO test (Zuo et al., 2017).
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Although chlorine has been widely used as a disinfectant in the past decades, the formation of DBPs during chlorination disinfection resulted in the search for alternative disinfectants, such as chlorine dioxide (ClO2) (Fan et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2016), chloramine, ozone, permanganate and so on. The reactivity of chloramine is lower than that of chlorine, so it was expected to generate less DBPs during the chloramination process. During the chloramination of acetaminophen, the yields of TCM, DCAN, DCAcAm, and TCAcAm were 0.004%, 0.005%, 0.39%, 0.035%, less than those during chlorination 2.25%, 0.54%, 0.63%, 0.2%, respectively (Ding et al., 2018). However, some other studies showed that chloramination would generate more HAcAms than chlorination. The concentrations of HAcAms formed during chloramination and chlorination process were 4.0–88.5 nmol/L, and <30 nmol/L, respectively (Huang et al., 2017c). Also, NH2Cl would provide nitrogen for formation of TCNM. Moreover, chloramination would enhance the formation of I-DBPs (Wang et al., 2016b), the levels of IAA and IF in WTPs with chloramination (15 and 11 μg/L, respectively) were higher than those with chlorination (about 2 and 0 μg/L, respectively) (Wei et al., 2013a). Dose of disinfectant had obvious effects on DBPs formation, lower chlorine dose would decrease the formation of DBPs. It was found that there was no significant correlation between the formation of THMs and HAAs with the increasing chlorine dosages up to the breakpoint, but the formation increased sharply beyond the breakpoint dosing level (Du et al., 2017a; Yang et al., 2005). Nevertheless, reduction of disinfectant dose is limited since it has to meet the basic requirement for killing pathogens and keeping residual chlorine level in distribution system. As shown in Fig. 9, a concept of multiple-step chlorination process was provided. Compared with conventional one-step chlorination, the two-step chlorination and three-step chlorination of a primary saline sewage effluent decreased DBPs formation by 16.7% and 23.4% with the same total chlorine dosage (Li et al., 2017a; Li et al., 2017b). Except for chemical disinfection methods, physical or physicochemical methods draw more interests recently. Huo et al. developed a copper oxide nanowire (CuONW)-modified 3-D copper foam electrode and achieved superior disinfection performance with 1 V of operation voltage. Within 7 sec of treatment period, the energy consumption was 25 J/L, DBPs formation potential was decreased because of the low concentration of chlorine (Huo et al., 2016). Ultrasound (US) is regarded as a good option for disinfection enhancement methods when combined with ClO2, it would increase the production of ClO−2 and ClO−3 from 1.37 to 4.71 mg/L and from 0.168 to 2.57 mg/L, respectively (Zhou et al., 2016). UV irradiation combined with chlorination or chloramination is a possible alternative disinfection scheme, in which UV irradiation is expected to kill pathogens so that a lower chlorine/chloramine dose can be used as the secondary disinfectant. However, comparing with chlorination treatment, additional UV irradiation obviously increased formation of TCM (up to 2.12 times), DCAA (up to 1.67 times) and CNCl (up to 2.26 times) (Liu et al., 2006). Increasing UV intensity during sequential oxidation by Cl2, NH2Cl or ClO2 would promote the release of iodide ions and enhance the formation of I-DBPs (from 0 to 0.660 μmol/L) during iopamidol degradation (Tian et al., 2014).
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exert more advantages. For example, membrane filtration is a promising technique for removing NOM and anthropogenic chemicals, whereas membrane fouling and inefficient removal of low-MW fractions are its serious obstacles. Therefore, PAC and resin pretreatment were combined to prevent membrane fouling and lengthen membrane operation life (Huang et al., 2015). GAC was combined with CW to remove ROC, the removal efficiency of DOC, UV254, and TDS in the ROC increased from 16.9%, 18.9% and 39.7% to 91.8%, 96% and 76.5%, respectively (Sun et al., 2016). Combination of CW and ultrafiltration (UF) improved the DOC removal from 20% to 59%, DBPs formation potentials were decreased by 30.8% and 16.9% comparing with separate UF and CW (Wang et al., 2016a). CW-adsorption treatment showed a higher reduction capacity (57%) for NDMA formation potential compared with CW (28%) and adsorption (50%) alone (Wang et al., 2017c). O3 can convert large-MW contaminants into smaller-MW fractions and make them difficult to remove with CW, while O3/ GAC combination could efficiently remove NA precursors and the maximum of NDMA formation potential (TNAFPmax) decreased from 194 to 94 ng/L (Bei et al., 2016). Permanganate oxidation and powdered activated carbon adsorption (PMPAC) treatment process before CW–sedimentation–filtration significantly enhanced the removal of DOC, DON, NH+3-N, and algae from 52.9% to 69.5%, 31.6% to 61.3%, 71.3% to 92.5% and 83.6% to 97.5%, respectively (Chu et al., 2015a). UV irradiation combined with ozonation (UV/O3) inhibited the regeneration of NDMA from NO−2 and dimethylamine (DMA). The yields of DMA and NO−2 were 2.25 and 3.22 mg/L during UV irradiation, while they were 0.92 and 0.45 mg/L in UV/O3 treatment (Xu et al., 2009). Unfortunately, bromate concentration during the UV/O3 process was 17.1–77.6 μg/L, which was 2.1–2.9 times higher than that in ozonation treatment (Zhao et al., 2013). With the increasing eutrophication in China, algae blooms frequently occur in water body, and the IOM is important DBPs precursors. The moderate pre-chlorination was practically applied to enhance the CW removal of algae cells and reduce IOM release. The removal of algae by KMnO4-Fe(II) process increased from 71 to 96% when chlorine dose increased from 0 to 0.5 mg/L(Qi et al., 2016). Ion exchange, especially magnetic ion exchange (MIEX®) resins have been widely adopted for removal of ionic precursors, e.g., bromide ions (Ding et al., 2012). The removal rate of bromide ions was up to 80% during NDMP treatment, thus Br-DBPs formation in the subsequent disinfection was decreased (Wang et al., 2014). Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a low-cost and continent process for removing a variety of cations and anions such as bromide (Xu et al., 2008) and weakly charged organic matter (Liu et al., 2016a; Wang et al., 2015a). Xu et al. (2008) reported that the ion selectivity of CDI treatment on brackish produced water, the removal order was I > Br > Ca > alkalinity > Mg > Na > Cl, bromide removal efficiency was 50% in CDI treatment.
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Fig. 9 – Developmental toxicity of the primary sewage effluent samples with one-step chlorination ( ) and three-step chlorination ( ) with a total chlorine dose of 4.0 mg/L as Cl2 and a total contact time of 30 min. (Li et al., 2017a).
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For DBPs formed in disinfected water, it is necessary to remove them by using many chemical, physical or biological methods, such as boiling, UF, nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), advanced oxidation process (AOP), adsorption, ion exchange, electrodialysis and so on. Among them, heating was an effective household “detoxification” process for removing DBPs in water and reducing human exposure through tap water ingestion. Boiling was an effective household “detoxification” process for removing some DBPs in water and reducing human exposure through tap water ingestion. Li et al. (2013b) found that THMs were removed over 92.3% after boiling for 3 min. Pan et al. also found that after boiling for 5 min, the overall level of halogenated DBPs was reduced by 62.3%. Among them, the removal percentages of Br-DBPs and Cl-DBPs were 62.8% and 61.1%, respectively. Membrane filtration can effectively intercept some pollutants. RO, UF and NF have been widely used for the removal of trace DBPs in water. RO/NF can reject more than 90% of HAAs due to the combined effects of size exclusion and charge repulsion (Yang et al., 2017a). However, the high energy consumption and concentrated water limit the massively use of membrane in DBPs removal. Since most DBPs are halogenated organic compounds, dehalogenation of DBPs in redox reactions is a possible pathway to remove DBPs. The sulfite/UV254 process (Li et al., 2012) could eliminate 100% of MACC by dechlorination within 15 min, while the UV irradiation almost could not degrade yet. Some bimetallic catalysts (Cu/Fe and Pd/Fe) achieved 100% reductive dehalogenation of bromoform and TBAA within 60 min (Zha et al., 2016). TCAA could occur dechlorination rapidly via a carboxyl anion radical (CO−2) mechanism in UV254-TiO2 catalysis system with the presence of formate (FM) and dissolved oxygen (Liu et al., 2016c). Adsorption is a useful technique not only used in the control of DBPs precursors, but also in the removal of DBPs directly. Especially, some new materials (e.g., nanocomposites) were developed to achieve effective removal of DBPs. Zero-valent iron has been used intensively for removal of a variety of pollutants, such as chlorohydrocarbon, nitrobenzenes, chlorinated phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals and anions from water due to its large surface area, great surface reactivity and low price (Fu et al., 2014; Liang
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et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2007). Xiao et al. (2015)) developed zero valent iron/activated carbon nanocomposite (NZVI/AC), which could remove 90% of THMs via synergetic effect. Graphene is regarded as an ideal support material for loading inorganic nanoparticles because of its huge surface area, a graphene/Fe0 nanocomposite (G-nZVI) was prepared to remove almost 100% of TCNM (Chen et al., 2016a). Macroporous Cl-type strong base anion exchange resin (D201-Cl) was used as a low-cost and efficient sorbent to remove bromate from drinking water (Chen et al., 2014). Quartz sand (QS) is also a low-cost material used to remove organic pollutants in drinking water (Liu et al., 2011). For example, QS and ultrasound technique were combined to remove 12 regulated DBPs in drinking water, whose removal efficiency was more than 20% (Yang et al., 2014a). In order to reduce the generation of DBPs in water, it is necessary to develop and optimize treatment techniques for reducing precursors, improving disinfection efficiency and removing DBPs. Moreover, it is quite important to protect water source from pollution. It was reported that leaf organic matter (OM) (from allochthonous plant) and algal OM (from authonous algae) were potential precursors of C-DBPs and NDBPs, respectively (Sun et al., 2018). The study of Hong et al. (2013) showed that the sediment could release substantial amount of NOM to water and further transform to THMs and HAAs during disinfection treatment. The invasion of wastewater would lead more production of DBPs due to the precursors in wastewater (Xue et al., 2017). And, some inorganic ions (bromide, iodine and nitrite) sourced from sea water intrusion or wastewater input would become precursors and increase the formation of Br-DBPs, I-DBPs and NDBPs (Yang et al., 2017a; Hong et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2016). The study of Hong et al. (2015) showed that nitrite and bromide had significant positive effects on the formation of HNMs during chloramination. And both T-THMs and T-HANs were positively correlated with bromide (Hong et al., 2016). Besides, the presence of iodide ions increased the produce of I-DBPs during the chlorination of BP-4 (Yang et al., 2017b).
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Although more than 700 DBPs have been reported in the 982 literature, more than 50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) 983
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Si and Ma, 2016 Sun et al., 2010 Tong et al., 2012 Wang et al., 2018 Xi et al., 2018 Yang et al., 2012 Yin and Zhou, 2000 Zeng et al., 2013 Zhang, 2018 Zhang et al., 2009 Zhang et al., 2011 Zhou et al., 2017 Zhu et al., 2015
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formed during chlorination of drinking water is unknown yet. Similarly, more than 50% of the assimilable organic carbon (AOC) formed during ozonation of drinking water has not been identified. The identification of unknown DBPs can hardly perform without the help of powerful detection instruments and optimized methods. Therefore, in the future, the first emergent task is to develop effective separation and sample pretreatment methods, sensitive and rapid methods for DBPs analysis. Second, the components in China's water source are quite complex, hundreds and thousands of natural and anthropogenic chemicals have been found, which would be the potential precursors of DBPs. Revealing the transformation mechanisms of various precursors become a hard but important work. Third, the DBPs exposure including internal and external exposure and adverse toxicological consequences are very complex, it needs to be disclosed by longterm systematic toxicological study, even epidemiological survey. Fourth, the control and management countermeasures on DBPs are still weak in China, some practically effective degradation techniques for DBPs and precursors should be developed and extended widely, and the framework of efficient assessment and management measures should be proposed as soon as possible. Fifth, the toxicity effects are the most important characteristic of DBPs, so toxicity-directed method can string together all DBPs related studies including identification of DBPs with high risk, their formation mechanisms, choice and assessment of elimination techniques, and management. The toxicity-directed DBPs studies would be an innovative and efficient method (Chen et al., 2018a). All in all, the study on DBPs is multi-disciplinary, involving chemistry, toxicology, epidemiology, engineering and technology. The close communication and cooperation between the scientists and engineers from different disciplines must be an effective way for preventing the outbreak of water-borne diseases, and reducing the potential health risk of DBPs.
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