- Email: [email protected]
Researching Online Foreign Language Interaction and Exchange
Book reviews / System 41 (2013) 192e206
201
Researching Online Foreign Language Interaction and Exchange, Melinda Dooly, Robert O’Dowd. Peter Lang, Bern, Berlin, Brussels, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Vienna (2012). 348 pp. Melinda Dooly and Robert O’Dowd provide us with an introduction to the various theoretical frameworks and approaches to data collection which have been employed in the study of online foreign language interaction and exchange, in other words, telecollaboration, Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and interactions in web 2.0 environments, such as social networking platforms and wikis. They introduce the volume with a taxonomy of online interaction, a historical overview of approaches to researching online foreign language interaction and exchange, and a discussion of the challenges researchers face, each of which is taken up and discussed in more detail in later chapters which are organised into three sections focusing on theoretical frameworks, methods of data collection, and research methods, respectively. The first section, focusing on theoretical frameworks, is divided into three chapters. The first, ‘Accommodating divergent frameworks in analysis of technology-mediated L2 interaction’ by Jonathon Reinhart, introduces and discusses the two perspectives on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) which have dominated research on online foreign language interaction and exchange to date, namely interactionist approaches and socio-cognitive approaches including socio-cultural theory. Having introduced each of the perspectives and associated schemes for examining interaction, Reinhart argues for the combination of both perspectives and proposes the adoption of an ecological approach, for example, complexity theory or dynamic systems theory, as a means of achieving this. Combing both perspectives, Reinhart argues, will enable researches to obtain a fuller picture of the range of learning that occurs during online exchanges. While this chapter is informative, it is disappointing that Reinhart makes no attempt to synthesise the interactionist and sociocognitive perspectives on SLA or explain why they are incompatible. In the second chapter, ‘Introducing cultural historical activity theory for researching CMC in foreign language education’, Franc¸oise Blin describes the evolution of activity theory and illustrates how it can be used to examine a range of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) activities. Specifically, Blin demonstrates how Engestro¨m’s (1987) ‘triangles’ can be used to examine the mediational structure of a wiki activity system, a computersupported collaborative writing activity, and a telecollaboration. Particularly useful is Blin’s illustration of the analysis of the early stages of a computer-supported collaborative writing activity. There are many discussions of activity theory in the literature. However, few, if any, really give you an idea of how to carry out a study using activity theory. A greater focus on illustrating how to ‘do’ activity theory would have made this chapter an invaluable resource for students and researchers embarking on an activity theory study for the first time. In the third chapter, ‘Researching classroom integration of online learning projects: Mixed methods approaches’, Paige Ware and Brenna Rivas introduce Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (1998) taxonomy of mixed methods designs and illustrate the different possibilities through the discussion of examples of studies of online foreign language interaction and exchange. This discussion highlights a preference for qualitative designs which might be explained by the fact that online interaction and exchange is highly culturally and socially embedded. Ware and Rivas then go on to discuss the benefits of supplementing the analysis of transcripts of online interaction with survey and interview data to gain deeper insights into participants’ experiences. While, following previous research, Ware and Rivas’ discussion focuses on qualitative approaches, they acknowledge that adding a quantitative element to studies will allow researchers to address the questions of all stakeholders, in particular those who see a need to justify financial investment in technology for language learning. They conclude their contribution by illustrating how transcripts of interactions, surveys, interviews and, writing and culture assessments were combined to answer their research questions in an investigation focusing on and online language exchange between Spanish learners of English and native and non-native speakers of English in the US. While this detailed illustration will be invaluable to CALL researchers embarking on their first mixed methods study, the chapter would benefit from expanding the range of functions of mixing methods discussed from triangulation to the full range including clarification, development, initiation and expansion (see Greene et al., 1989). The second section, as mentioned above, focuses on approaches to data collection. In the first chapter, ‘Researching multimodal communicative competence in video and audio telecollaborative encounters’, Melinda Dooly and Mirjam Hauk highlight the shift in communication and literacy practices from practices dominated by the written mode to multimodal practices, and introduce a variety of tools which can be used to document and study multimodal communications. In the next chapter, ‘The classroom-based action research paradigm in telecollaboration’, Andreas Mu¨ller-Hartman, argues that the combination of case studies, exploratory practice and activity theory is particularly suited to the investigation of telecollaboration and illustrates his proposed methodology through the case of a study investigating the teacher
202
Book reviews / System 41 (2013) 192e206
development in the competencies necessary to teach task-based CMC. Mu¨ller-Hartmann’s argument for his methodology is as follows: Telecollaboration is complex and would therefore benefit from case study research which triangulates multiple perspectives and prioritises ecological validity. Given that most research in this area is conducted by researcherpractitioners with a view to improving their practice, an approach like action research or exploratory practice which puts teachers at the centre is appropriate. Exploratory practice as opposed to action research is more appropriate because it focuses on understanding current practice. Activity theory is adopted because it provides a useful structure to help researchers analyse rich contextualised data. Mu¨ller-Hartman concludes the chapter with an example case study which is illustrated through ample transcriptions and provides the reader with a real insight into how to ‘do’ activity theory. In the third chapter of this section, ‘Language learning in virtual worlds e Research issues and methods’, Luisa Panichi and Mats Deutschmann examine the affordances of virtual worlds for language learning and then discuss possible approaches to and challenges that might be encountered when investigating language learning within virtual worlds. The possibility of engaging in non-verbal communication is identified as a unique affordance. Approaches to data collection discussed include retrieving chat logs and using a dummy avatar to record verbal and non-verbal communication using screen capture software. Challenges highlighted are similar to those encountered when observing face-to-face classrooms, namely capturing behaviour in the three dimensional nature of the environment, recording break-out groups, observer avatar paradox. A number of interesting ethical questions are also raised including: What is public and what is private? Who should you obtain consent from, the avatar or the user? Where should you obtain consent, in world or out of world? Is it necessary to anonymise pictures of avatars in the same way that you would anonymise photos taken in the classroom? The next chapter, ‘Intercultural competence in computer-mediated-communication: An analysis of research methods’ by Martina Mo¨llering and Mike Levy, discusses a number of studies which have sought to investigate the impact of CMC on the development of intercultural competence. Particularly interesting is their discussion of five perspectives on culture: culture as elemental, culture as relative, culture as group membership, culture as contested, and culture as individual. The last section of the book introduces two methods for investigating online exchanges. In the first chapter in this section, ‘Applying the methodology of learner corpus analysis to telecollaborative discourse’, Nina Vyatkina introduces Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA), a corpus approach to the study of second language acquisition in which non-native discourse is compared with native discourse to identify misuse, and under- and over-use of target language features. Vyatkina then explains how the collection of corpora of the discourse generated through telecollaborations may help to overcome the limitations of CIA research to date, namely the lack of longitudinal learner corpora and comparable native speaker data, and illustrates the use of corpus analysis techniques for carry out CIA using Telekorp, a Telecollaborative Corpus of Learner English and German (Belz, 2005). The latter illustration of the use of corpus analysis techniques to carry out CIA is essential reading for anyone new to CIA whether planning to analyse telecollaborative discourse or data from any other medium. Finally, in ‘Using eye-tracking to investigate gaze behaviour in synchronous computer-mediated communication for language learning’, Breffni O’Rourke introduces a variety of techniques including retrospective user reports, keystroke logs, screen capture, and video recording that can be used to get a fuller picture of participants experiences’ of computer-mediated dialogue than transcripts alone. In particular, Breffni focuses on eye-tracking and the insights that it can provide into the cognitive processes that individual learners engage in during computer-mediated chat, namely what they notice and attend to when they read their partner’s turns and compose and monitor their own productions. The introduction to eye-tracking technology and the illustrative analyses of tandem CMC sessions that Breffni presents are essential reading for anyone interested in using this technique. In conclusion, in providing detailed illustrations of the application of a range of different theories and a range of different methods of data collection, ‘Researching online foreign language interaction and exchange’, has the potential to engage early career researchers in the field of CALL in research methods, an extremely important topic which, in my experience, students find it difficult to engage with if presented out of context or in a context which they do not feel is relevant to them. As such, this collection is essential reading for all students in the field of CALL. Reference Greene, J.C., Caracelli, V.J., Graham, W.F., 1989. Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11 (3), 255e274. Tashakkori, A., Teddlie, C., 1998. Mixed methodology: Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Book reviews / System 41 (2013) 192e206
203
Zoe Handley Department of Education, The University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.009
Fremdsprachen lehren und lernen: Ru¨ck- und Ausblick, Karl-Richard Bausch, Eva Burwitz-Melzer, Frank G. Ko¨nigs, Hans-Ju¨rgen Krumm (Eds.). Narr Verlag, Tu¨bingen (2011), p. 253. A thirtieth anniversary usually marks a milestone and Fremdsprachen lehren und lernen: Ru¨ck- und Ausblick (Learning and teaching foreign languages: review and outlook) edited by Bausch, Burwitz-Melzer, Ko¨nigs and Krumm pays due homage to the 2010 Jubilee conference organised by the Justus-Liebig University in Gießen: the anthology features a variety of contributions by distinguished German scholars, who present their personal take on the past and future of research into foreign language teaching. So as to avoid unpleasant surprises by any non-native speaker of German venturing to purchase it, let me say from the outset that this book might test the motivation of even the most hardened reader. This is due not only to the editing (e.g. densely printed pages and small font size) but also to the contributions themselves: in many cases the (over-) indulgence in convoluted and long-winded sentences seems somewhat disproportionate to the subject matter at hand. Patient readers, however, will be rewarded by making it through its twenty-three chapters, and find some genuinely interesting discussions surrounding conceptual and empirical issues. On the scale of popularity, learner orientation in foreign language teaching appears to rank at the top, although the exploration of methodological aspects of research in applied linguistics is similarly well-liked. The book is divided into three main sections differing in length and number of chapters, plus a foreword and a closing chapter. Section 1 is by far the largest; it features ten personal evaluations of 30 years of Spring conferences. In their function as discussion forums, the authors argue, the Spring conferences have served as valuable tools to critically assess different research approaches and their ontological underpinnings. Section 2 is fairly short; it consists of five chapters and presents current research strands. Let me hasten to add, if only parenthetically, that this section looks somewhat forlorn in the middle of the book. Given that the last section returns to empirical issues, it is striking that less space is dedicated to the “what” of research into foreign language teaching, than to the “why” and “how”. More chapters would have added weight to this section; it is, for instance, surprising, that CLIL is only mentioned in passing in this anthology, although it appears to become increasingly popular in German-speaking countries just like in Europe on the whole (e.g. Dalton-Puffer et al., 2010). Section 3 comprises seven chapters, in which the current state of empirical research in Germany is scrutinized. In general, it is fair to say that the German research scene appears to remain fairly sceptical about quantitative research approaches; noticeably, great care is taken to avoid any possible suspicion of positivism. It is also striking that the limitations of qualitative studies are discussed with much less ardour than those of quantitative studies and that mixed methods studies do not seem to enjoy the same popularity as in other countries (e.g. Do¨rnyei, 2007). However, a comparison of the different contributions suggests that despite those who dismiss quantitative research as ‘Fliegenbeinza¨hlerei’ (literally: counting the legs of flies), support for quantitative and mixed-methods research is growing. As all chapters cannot be covered here, the e admittedly partial e focus in this review will be on issues and contributions that struck me as particularly interesting from an outside perspective. As a short introductory reading, I would like to recommend the second chapter in Section 1, where Claus Gnutzmann summarises the genesis and development of the Spring conferences. Concepts developed are sounded out as to their relevance, and future challenges are outlined. A useful tabular overview listing the main topics of the conferences is provided in the appendix. I also enjoyed Wolfgang Hallet’s contribution (Chapter 3) and his plea for larger guiding goals in foreign language teaching. He points towards the neglect of foreign literature in FL classrooms, one of the oddities of teaching practice which, the author argues, has never been justified on scientific reasons or aligned to an overarching didactic goal. It is also worth looking at Karin Kleppin’s critical scrutiny of the quality of foreign language teaching in higher education (Chapter 5). Some of the didactical woes described may well resonate with problems faced by other European countries. It appears, for instance, that maintaining, let alone improving, language competence within the framework of a language degree at university proves a considerable
201
Researching Online Foreign Language Interaction and Exchange, Melinda Dooly, Robert O’Dowd. Peter Lang, Bern, Berlin, Brussels, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Oxford, Vienna (2012). 348 pp. Melinda Dooly and Robert O’Dowd provide us with an introduction to the various theoretical frameworks and approaches to data collection which have been employed in the study of online foreign language interaction and exchange, in other words, telecollaboration, Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and interactions in web 2.0 environments, such as social networking platforms and wikis. They introduce the volume with a taxonomy of online interaction, a historical overview of approaches to researching online foreign language interaction and exchange, and a discussion of the challenges researchers face, each of which is taken up and discussed in more detail in later chapters which are organised into three sections focusing on theoretical frameworks, methods of data collection, and research methods, respectively. The first section, focusing on theoretical frameworks, is divided into three chapters. The first, ‘Accommodating divergent frameworks in analysis of technology-mediated L2 interaction’ by Jonathon Reinhart, introduces and discusses the two perspectives on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) which have dominated research on online foreign language interaction and exchange to date, namely interactionist approaches and socio-cognitive approaches including socio-cultural theory. Having introduced each of the perspectives and associated schemes for examining interaction, Reinhart argues for the combination of both perspectives and proposes the adoption of an ecological approach, for example, complexity theory or dynamic systems theory, as a means of achieving this. Combing both perspectives, Reinhart argues, will enable researches to obtain a fuller picture of the range of learning that occurs during online exchanges. While this chapter is informative, it is disappointing that Reinhart makes no attempt to synthesise the interactionist and sociocognitive perspectives on SLA or explain why they are incompatible. In the second chapter, ‘Introducing cultural historical activity theory for researching CMC in foreign language education’, Franc¸oise Blin describes the evolution of activity theory and illustrates how it can be used to examine a range of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) activities. Specifically, Blin demonstrates how Engestro¨m’s (1987) ‘triangles’ can be used to examine the mediational structure of a wiki activity system, a computersupported collaborative writing activity, and a telecollaboration. Particularly useful is Blin’s illustration of the analysis of the early stages of a computer-supported collaborative writing activity. There are many discussions of activity theory in the literature. However, few, if any, really give you an idea of how to carry out a study using activity theory. A greater focus on illustrating how to ‘do’ activity theory would have made this chapter an invaluable resource for students and researchers embarking on an activity theory study for the first time. In the third chapter, ‘Researching classroom integration of online learning projects: Mixed methods approaches’, Paige Ware and Brenna Rivas introduce Tashakkori and Teddlie’s (1998) taxonomy of mixed methods designs and illustrate the different possibilities through the discussion of examples of studies of online foreign language interaction and exchange. This discussion highlights a preference for qualitative designs which might be explained by the fact that online interaction and exchange is highly culturally and socially embedded. Ware and Rivas then go on to discuss the benefits of supplementing the analysis of transcripts of online interaction with survey and interview data to gain deeper insights into participants’ experiences. While, following previous research, Ware and Rivas’ discussion focuses on qualitative approaches, they acknowledge that adding a quantitative element to studies will allow researchers to address the questions of all stakeholders, in particular those who see a need to justify financial investment in technology for language learning. They conclude their contribution by illustrating how transcripts of interactions, surveys, interviews and, writing and culture assessments were combined to answer their research questions in an investigation focusing on and online language exchange between Spanish learners of English and native and non-native speakers of English in the US. While this detailed illustration will be invaluable to CALL researchers embarking on their first mixed methods study, the chapter would benefit from expanding the range of functions of mixing methods discussed from triangulation to the full range including clarification, development, initiation and expansion (see Greene et al., 1989). The second section, as mentioned above, focuses on approaches to data collection. In the first chapter, ‘Researching multimodal communicative competence in video and audio telecollaborative encounters’, Melinda Dooly and Mirjam Hauk highlight the shift in communication and literacy practices from practices dominated by the written mode to multimodal practices, and introduce a variety of tools which can be used to document and study multimodal communications. In the next chapter, ‘The classroom-based action research paradigm in telecollaboration’, Andreas Mu¨ller-Hartman, argues that the combination of case studies, exploratory practice and activity theory is particularly suited to the investigation of telecollaboration and illustrates his proposed methodology through the case of a study investigating the teacher
202
Book reviews / System 41 (2013) 192e206
development in the competencies necessary to teach task-based CMC. Mu¨ller-Hartmann’s argument for his methodology is as follows: Telecollaboration is complex and would therefore benefit from case study research which triangulates multiple perspectives and prioritises ecological validity. Given that most research in this area is conducted by researcherpractitioners with a view to improving their practice, an approach like action research or exploratory practice which puts teachers at the centre is appropriate. Exploratory practice as opposed to action research is more appropriate because it focuses on understanding current practice. Activity theory is adopted because it provides a useful structure to help researchers analyse rich contextualised data. Mu¨ller-Hartman concludes the chapter with an example case study which is illustrated through ample transcriptions and provides the reader with a real insight into how to ‘do’ activity theory. In the third chapter of this section, ‘Language learning in virtual worlds e Research issues and methods’, Luisa Panichi and Mats Deutschmann examine the affordances of virtual worlds for language learning and then discuss possible approaches to and challenges that might be encountered when investigating language learning within virtual worlds. The possibility of engaging in non-verbal communication is identified as a unique affordance. Approaches to data collection discussed include retrieving chat logs and using a dummy avatar to record verbal and non-verbal communication using screen capture software. Challenges highlighted are similar to those encountered when observing face-to-face classrooms, namely capturing behaviour in the three dimensional nature of the environment, recording break-out groups, observer avatar paradox. A number of interesting ethical questions are also raised including: What is public and what is private? Who should you obtain consent from, the avatar or the user? Where should you obtain consent, in world or out of world? Is it necessary to anonymise pictures of avatars in the same way that you would anonymise photos taken in the classroom? The next chapter, ‘Intercultural competence in computer-mediated-communication: An analysis of research methods’ by Martina Mo¨llering and Mike Levy, discusses a number of studies which have sought to investigate the impact of CMC on the development of intercultural competence. Particularly interesting is their discussion of five perspectives on culture: culture as elemental, culture as relative, culture as group membership, culture as contested, and culture as individual. The last section of the book introduces two methods for investigating online exchanges. In the first chapter in this section, ‘Applying the methodology of learner corpus analysis to telecollaborative discourse’, Nina Vyatkina introduces Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA), a corpus approach to the study of second language acquisition in which non-native discourse is compared with native discourse to identify misuse, and under- and over-use of target language features. Vyatkina then explains how the collection of corpora of the discourse generated through telecollaborations may help to overcome the limitations of CIA research to date, namely the lack of longitudinal learner corpora and comparable native speaker data, and illustrates the use of corpus analysis techniques for carry out CIA using Telekorp, a Telecollaborative Corpus of Learner English and German (Belz, 2005). The latter illustration of the use of corpus analysis techniques to carry out CIA is essential reading for anyone new to CIA whether planning to analyse telecollaborative discourse or data from any other medium. Finally, in ‘Using eye-tracking to investigate gaze behaviour in synchronous computer-mediated communication for language learning’, Breffni O’Rourke introduces a variety of techniques including retrospective user reports, keystroke logs, screen capture, and video recording that can be used to get a fuller picture of participants experiences’ of computer-mediated dialogue than transcripts alone. In particular, Breffni focuses on eye-tracking and the insights that it can provide into the cognitive processes that individual learners engage in during computer-mediated chat, namely what they notice and attend to when they read their partner’s turns and compose and monitor their own productions. The introduction to eye-tracking technology and the illustrative analyses of tandem CMC sessions that Breffni presents are essential reading for anyone interested in using this technique. In conclusion, in providing detailed illustrations of the application of a range of different theories and a range of different methods of data collection, ‘Researching online foreign language interaction and exchange’, has the potential to engage early career researchers in the field of CALL in research methods, an extremely important topic which, in my experience, students find it difficult to engage with if presented out of context or in a context which they do not feel is relevant to them. As such, this collection is essential reading for all students in the field of CALL. Reference Greene, J.C., Caracelli, V.J., Graham, W.F., 1989. Toward a conceptual framework for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 11 (3), 255e274. Tashakkori, A., Teddlie, C., 1998. Mixed methodology: Combining quantitative and qualitative approaches. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Book reviews / System 41 (2013) 192e206
203
Zoe Handley Department of Education, The University of York, York YO10 5DD, United Kingdom E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.009
Fremdsprachen lehren und lernen: Ru¨ck- und Ausblick, Karl-Richard Bausch, Eva Burwitz-Melzer, Frank G. Ko¨nigs, Hans-Ju¨rgen Krumm (Eds.). Narr Verlag, Tu¨bingen (2011), p. 253. A thirtieth anniversary usually marks a milestone and Fremdsprachen lehren und lernen: Ru¨ck- und Ausblick (Learning and teaching foreign languages: review and outlook) edited by Bausch, Burwitz-Melzer, Ko¨nigs and Krumm pays due homage to the 2010 Jubilee conference organised by the Justus-Liebig University in Gießen: the anthology features a variety of contributions by distinguished German scholars, who present their personal take on the past and future of research into foreign language teaching. So as to avoid unpleasant surprises by any non-native speaker of German venturing to purchase it, let me say from the outset that this book might test the motivation of even the most hardened reader. This is due not only to the editing (e.g. densely printed pages and small font size) but also to the contributions themselves: in many cases the (over-) indulgence in convoluted and long-winded sentences seems somewhat disproportionate to the subject matter at hand. Patient readers, however, will be rewarded by making it through its twenty-three chapters, and find some genuinely interesting discussions surrounding conceptual and empirical issues. On the scale of popularity, learner orientation in foreign language teaching appears to rank at the top, although the exploration of methodological aspects of research in applied linguistics is similarly well-liked. The book is divided into three main sections differing in length and number of chapters, plus a foreword and a closing chapter. Section 1 is by far the largest; it features ten personal evaluations of 30 years of Spring conferences. In their function as discussion forums, the authors argue, the Spring conferences have served as valuable tools to critically assess different research approaches and their ontological underpinnings. Section 2 is fairly short; it consists of five chapters and presents current research strands. Let me hasten to add, if only parenthetically, that this section looks somewhat forlorn in the middle of the book. Given that the last section returns to empirical issues, it is striking that less space is dedicated to the “what” of research into foreign language teaching, than to the “why” and “how”. More chapters would have added weight to this section; it is, for instance, surprising, that CLIL is only mentioned in passing in this anthology, although it appears to become increasingly popular in German-speaking countries just like in Europe on the whole (e.g. Dalton-Puffer et al., 2010). Section 3 comprises seven chapters, in which the current state of empirical research in Germany is scrutinized. In general, it is fair to say that the German research scene appears to remain fairly sceptical about quantitative research approaches; noticeably, great care is taken to avoid any possible suspicion of positivism. It is also striking that the limitations of qualitative studies are discussed with much less ardour than those of quantitative studies and that mixed methods studies do not seem to enjoy the same popularity as in other countries (e.g. Do¨rnyei, 2007). However, a comparison of the different contributions suggests that despite those who dismiss quantitative research as ‘Fliegenbeinza¨hlerei’ (literally: counting the legs of flies), support for quantitative and mixed-methods research is growing. As all chapters cannot be covered here, the e admittedly partial e focus in this review will be on issues and contributions that struck me as particularly interesting from an outside perspective. As a short introductory reading, I would like to recommend the second chapter in Section 1, where Claus Gnutzmann summarises the genesis and development of the Spring conferences. Concepts developed are sounded out as to their relevance, and future challenges are outlined. A useful tabular overview listing the main topics of the conferences is provided in the appendix. I also enjoyed Wolfgang Hallet’s contribution (Chapter 3) and his plea for larger guiding goals in foreign language teaching. He points towards the neglect of foreign literature in FL classrooms, one of the oddities of teaching practice which, the author argues, has never been justified on scientific reasons or aligned to an overarching didactic goal. It is also worth looking at Karin Kleppin’s critical scrutiny of the quality of foreign language teaching in higher education (Chapter 5). Some of the didactical woes described may well resonate with problems faced by other European countries. It appears, for instance, that maintaining, let alone improving, language competence within the framework of a language degree at university proves a considerable