- Email: [email protected]
Resources Available and Recommended Research in Nutrition
Resources Available and Recommended Research in Nutrition ELWOOD W. SPECKMANN National Dairy Council 6300 North River Road Rosemont, I L 60016 INTRODUCTION
This article will deal primarily with support of research on h u m a n nutrition as well as on nutritional aspects of milk and milk products. But first, let us examine the importance of nutrition in today's society. During the past two decades there has been growing awareness of relationships between environment and health. Our diet has gained particular importance because it is one aspect of our environment which can be modified to improve the quality of life. Industry, government, medical and allied health, and academia have recognized the role nutrition plays in attainment of optimal health and have committed substantial resources to basic and applied research in nutrition. It is estimated that there is a return of about $1.50 for every dollar invested in research (12). Thus, when confronted with the increasingly large federal expenditures on health care, it is not surprising that careful evaluation is being given to the cost/benefit value of diverting a segment of these funds to nutrition research. Even the food industry has recognized that nutrition is an important consumer consideration for choices of food in the marketplace. The current interest in nutrition did not occur by chance. Note, for example, the attention given to the subject of food, nutrition, and health by the federal government during the past 12 yr. During this time at least 11 major surveys, hearings, programs, and publications have explored and probed America's eating habits and nutritional well-being: A) The 1965 Household Food Consumption Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (31) B) The 1968-1970 Ten State Nutrition Survey of the Department of HEW (7) C) The 1968-1977 Hearings of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs (27)
Received November 21, 1977. 1978 J Dairy Sci 61:632--642
D) The 1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health (32) E) The 1970 Follow-up Meeting to the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health (33) F) The 1973-74 Nutrition Labeling R e g u l a t i o n s of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (13) G) The 1974 National Nutrition Policy Study/ Hearings of the U.S. Senate Select Committee o n N u t r i t i o n and Human Needs (26) H) The 1975 Food Advertising regulations proposed by the Federal Trade Commission (i0) i) The expansion of the Child Nutrition Programs as well as development of the WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) Program by the U.S. Department of Agriculture during the 1970's (14) J) The 1977 "Dietary Goals for the United States" proposed by the U.S. Senate Select C o m m i t t e e on Nutrition and Human N e e d s (28) K) The 1977 Hearings on Nutrition Education to be held by the U.S. House Agriculture Subcommittee on Domestic Marketing, Consumer Relations and Nutrition (9). These efforts of the federal government have generated much information regarding the importance of nutrition in health and nutritional problems in this country that require attention. Many professionals believe that a national nutrition policy is necessary to marshall resources in nutrition and to establish priorities for solving our domestic food, nutrition, and health problems (16, 17, 18, 19, 21). Guidelines for a national nutrition policy have been developed by the National Nutrition Consortium (24). Domestic and international events which contributed to the attention being given to nutrition and the relationship of the dairy industry's Nutrition Research Program to a national nutrition policy were reviewed in 1975 (29). Many resources are available in nutrition: government, foundations, industry, and trade organizations. In 1971, USDA issued the results of a survey of research on human nutrition supported and/or conducted by public research organizations in 1968-69 (11). Approximately $30 million were spent on research in human
632
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
633
TABLE 1. Research in human nutrition. Percent of research funds a
Federal government agencies State government agencies Foundations Industry and other Universities Hospitals
Performing research
Supporting research
19.0 .8 6.2 1.2 63.9 8.8
91.5 5.2 2.8 .4 .1 .0
aRounded figures.
nutrition annually (Table 1). The survey revealed that the federal government is by far the largest sponsor of intramural and extramural research in nutrition. Although the federal government supplied over 90% of the funds allocated to research in human nutrition in 1968-69, about 64% of these funds were expended on research at universities. A number of documents have been published describing the scope and magnitude of this support (4, 8, 11, 25, 30). A workshop in 1973 examined new opportunities for developing more effective programs of education, research, personnel development, and leadership for applied human nutrition through land grant colleges (3). N U T R I T O N RESEARCH BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
A March, 1976, document (8) for the first time summarized in considerable detail what the federal government is doing in research in human nutrition. In fiscal year 1975 federal support of research in human nutrition had increased to $73 million, a 166% increase in 7 yr (from $27.4 to $73 million). By fiscal year 1977 federal support of nutrition research totaled $112 million (25). The major research programs in human nutrition of the federal government are sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW), the Department of Defense (DOD), and the Veterans Administration (VA). Specific amounts spent in fiscal year 1975 by each department in Nutrition Requirements (what is needed); Food Consumption (what is available); Dietary Surveys and Status (what is
consumed); Disease and Diet (what is applied); and Metabolic Defects (what is not utilized) are summarized in Table 2. This funding appears to be insufficient to provide insight in to possible relations between nutrition and some of our leading causes of death - heart disease, cancer, hypertension and stroke, diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and cirrhosis of the liver. Neither is funding sufficient to do anything about those segments of our population not eating wisely enough to reach optimal physical and mental development. Perhaps this is why the U.S. Senate Agriculture Committee has requested $53 million for research in human nutrition by USDA. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Among the federal agencies, only USDA is charged with overseeing the provision of food for the nation. Within USDA 48% of the research projects in human nutrition concentrate on nutrient requirements, 30% on dietary surveys and status, and 15% on food composition. The USDA supports research in human nutrition through the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and the Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS). Activities related to this research, such as creation, publication, and distribution of reports, are done by the Extension Service (ES) and the Economics Research Service (ERS). Within ARS, high priority is given to studies on nutrient requirements of all age groups (61%) and foods needed to attain and maintain a well-nourished, healthy population. Research supported by ARS is primarily broadscope, basic, and applicable as baseline data in other Journal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
Ox
7~
e~
TABLE 2. Human nutrition research supported by four major federal departments, fiscal year 1975. a Dietary surveys and status
~o
Awarding organization < o ox
o
Nutrition requirements
Food composition
Disease and diet
Metabolic defects
Total by category
(Federal funds) Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Cooperative State Research Service Economic Research Service USDA Total
4,148,307 557,979
1,182,092 140,117
4,7;;,286
1,322,209
Department of Defense Air Force Army Navy DOD Total
97,000 1,654,000 242,000 1,993,000
. 2;;,000 .__ . 240,000
Department of Health, Education and Welfare Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Center for Disease Control Food and Drug Administration Health Resources Administration National Institutes of Health DHEW Total Veterans' Administration Intramural Extramural/collaborative VA Total Federal Total
428,362 . . 572,270 25,772,185 28,674,327
10,000 100,000 110,000 35,483,613
.
. . . .___ . 251,236 128,301 379,537
... ... 0 1,941,746
928,822 1,606,743 453,472 2,983,037
"7;,000 .
. 74,000
.
.
.
497,899 201,461 699,360
_ "'1,565 . ";,565
6,757,120 2,501,865 453,472 9,712,457
43,000 142,000 138,000 323,000
... ... . "0
140,000 2,110,000 380,000 2,630,000
45,490 91,529 10,000 26,849,117 27,702,507
3,2;5,710 3,245,710
1,134,733 45,490 1,075,075 10,000 58,388,154 60,653,452
"20,000
60,000 250,000 310,000
... 10,000 10,000
90,000 360,000 450,000
3,728,408
29,034,867
3,257,275
73,445,909
706,371
. 160,000 ;9;,331 651,371
20,000
...
... ...
aAdapted from "The Role of the Federal Government in Human Nutrition Research" prepared by the Congressional Research Service and printed by the Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate, March 1976.
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY research projects in USDA and in other federal agencies. In fiscal year 1975 ARS received 67% of the funds USDA allocated for research in human nutrition. The second major USDA agency involved in research in human nutrition is the Cooperative State Research Service. The CSRS diverts over 63% of its funds for research in human nutrition into dietary surveys and status. The primary function of the Service is to administer agricultural research by state agricultural experiment stations (SAES) and others. Within CSRS, research in human nutrition is applied to problems such as assessment of food assistance programs and dietary needs of specific, nutritionally vulnerable populations. The USDA Economic Research Service projects in human nutrition are related to dietary surveys and status such as economic factors influencing food purchasing, costs, and dietary patterns. Of the total USDA agricultural research budget in fiscal year 1974, the percentage devoted to research in human nutrition was only 2.6% ($10 million). State agriculture expenditures increased the amount to a total of $18 million. By agency, the percent of the USDA agricultural research budget devoted to research in human nutrition was 3.2% in ARS, 2.9% in CSRS, and 2.5% in ERS. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Organizations within HEW which perform research in human nutrition are the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration (ADA-MHA), Center for Disease Control (CDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Health Resources Administration (HRA), and the National Institutes of Health (eleven institutes). Of the $73 million for nutrition studies supported by the four major Federal departments in fiscal year 1975, about $60 million (82%) was spent by HEW. This was primarily for research on nutrition requirements (47% of HEW funds) and disease and diet (45% of HEW funds). About 28% of HEW funds were spent on intramural research and about 72% on extramural. The N1H accounted for 96% of the HEW budget spent on research in human nutrition. The broad purpose of research in human nutrition supported or conducted by HEW is for understanding, prevention, and treatment of
635
diseases. The HEW Policy Statement on Health Aspects of Nutrition mentions five areas: 1) biomedical research, 2) behavioral research, 3) nutritional assessment, 4) determining the nutritional status of the nation, and 5) determining the nutrient composition and presence of potentially hazardous substances in foods. U.S. Department of Defense
The underlying purpose of research in human nutrition in the Department of Defense (DOD) is to provide optimal nutrition and quality food for military populations in various situations. The Army Surgeon General's Office is the DOD executive agency for nutrition. Of the DOD funds spent on research in human nutrition in fiscal year 1975, 80% was spent by the Army, 15% by the Navy, and 5% by the Air Force. Approximately 75% of all DOD support for nutrition research was in nutritional requirements, 12% on disease and diet, and 11% on food consumption and dietary status. Intramural projects represented 80% of the total support of the DOD nutrition research program. Veterans Administration
The VA sponsors nutrition research to increase the quality of patient care and which supports research interests of its professional staff. Of the $450,000 spent by the VA on research in human nutrition in fiscal year 1975, 69% was devoted to disease and diet and 24% to nutritional requirements. Seventy-five percent of the research in human nutrition supported by the VA was collaborative. In summary, of the $73 million allocated by the four major federal departments in fiscal year 1975, 82% went to HEW, 13% to USDA, 4% to DOD, and less than 1% to the VA. These departments spent 48% of these funds on what is needed (nutrition requirements), 40% on what is applied (disease and diet), 5% on what is consumed (dietary surveys and status), 4% on what is not utilized (metabolic defects), and 3% on what is available (food consumption). A recent report by the Nutrition Research Interagency Working Group, Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), Executive Office of the President (25), estimated that in fiscal year 1977, approximately $112 million will be spent for nutrition research. The DeJouiTlal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
636
SPECKMANN
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare will spend $88 million (NIH - $80 million, FDA -- $4 million), the U.S. Department of Agriculture will spend $18 million (ARS - $14 million), and Agency for International Development, DOD, VA, and NSF will spend $6 million. This working group classified human nutrition research into four areas and recommended that the NIH should have primary responsibility for studies of human nutrient needs (with FDA leading in determining the extent of nutrient toxicity), USDA should have the primary responsibility for food sciences and for nutrition education research for the general public, and that responsibility for diet and nutritional status monitoring be shared between ARS, NIH, FDA, and others (The Center for Disease Control, DHEW, and the National Center for Disease Control, DHEW, and the National Center for Health Statistics). This working group further recommended that the Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering and Technology (FCCSET), should coordinate and monitor all federal nutrition research activities and that its Committee on Health and Medicine oversee nutrition research. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT RESEARCH ON D A I R Y FOODS
Some of the research in the federal government pertains to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their relationship to health. For example, studies with protein, lactose, fat, minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iodine, and magnesium, and vitamins such as riboflavin, B1, B6, B12, and niacin are of particular interest to the dairy industry. In addition, research pertaining to the relationship of nutrition to coronary heart disease, cancer, iron-deficiency anemia, obesity, bone health, and optimal physical and mental development and performance are continuing areas of dairy industry interest. The funding of nutrition research related specifically to dairy products is difficult if not impossible to delineate. The Research Awards Index, which contains scientific data on more than 20,000 Public Health Service grants and contracts, reveals, for example, that there are 18 NIH grants for lactose intolerance (23). The USDA Nutrition Institute at Beltsville, Maryland has a Dairy Foods Nutrition Laboratory as one of its nine laboratories. This laboratory Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 19"/8
studies functional and nutritional properties of dairy foods, determines the influence of processing on these properties, and applies this knowledge to produce new and improved products. The USDA Eastern Regional Research Center in Wyndmoor, PA also conducts research on dairy products. Most of this research is for the development of new or improved processes, products, or product uses, but some of it does have nutritional implications. D A I R Y I N D U S T R Y RESEARCH IN N U T R I T I O N
Nutrition research by the dairy industry itself is primarily ancillary to product and process development. Current consumer interest in nutrition and the advent of nutrition labeling has increased the priority given to nutrition by industry. In many companies nutrition is an integral component of corporate policy, and nutrition is considered during product and process development as well as during development of marketing and advertising strategies. Funding of nutrition research by industry is not reviewed easily, inasmuch as most is intramural and the figures are not available. Major dairy companies have excellent technical centers that are conducting research on the nutritional aspects of dairy foods. The USDA estimated that industry spent only $120,000 in support of human nutrition research in 1968-69. In 1970, Jean Mayer stated, "I would suggest that we ought to devote one-tenth of one percent of the nation's food bill to nutrition research" (33). For the $11.4 billion in cash receipts from milk received by farmers in 1976 (5), the dairy industry should be spending $11.4 million in nutrition research. RESEARCH ON D A I R Y FOOD N U T R I T I O N BY FOUNDATIONS
Many in the food industry support organizations which fund or conduct nutrition research which a food company could not afford independently. Organizations such as the Farm Foundation, Kellogg Foundation, Hill Family Foundation, the Agricultural Development Council, Inc., The National Science Foundation, and The Rockefeller Foundation sponsor agricultural research. The Esmark, Inc., Foundation, The Research Corporation, United Brands Foundation, Nutrition Foundation, National Livestock and Meat Board, and National Dairy Council support research in nutrition.
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY The Nutrition Foundation, which is supported by a broad segment of the food industry, has provided approximately $11 million (1941 to 1974) for support of research in nutrition since its founding in 1941 (20). Only a small segment of these funds were of direct benefit to the dairy industry. National Dairy Council (NDC) was founded in 1915 but did not have a viable grant-in-aid program until 1940. For 37 yr NDC has provided almost 500 separate grants-in-aid and approximately $5 million to the scientific and medical community. This research has focused on the nutritional value, components, and the role of dairy foods in the attainment of optimal health (6). NUTRITION RESEARCH PROGRAM OF N A T I O N A L D A I R Y C O U N C I L
National Dairy Council has been a leader for the dairy industry in nutrition for over 60 yr. The NDC Nutrition Research Program is the foundation for the dairy industry's total promotion which is coordinated by the United Dairy Industry Association. The NDC's Nutrition Research Program is unique. Nowhere in the world is there research in nutrition related specifically to human consumption of dairy products. The International Dairy Federation recently eliminated funding research in nutrition. The USDA is not devoting much of its research efforts to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their role in the attainment of optimal health, nor does it plan to in the near future (1, 15, 22). The NIH is oriented to disease, concentrating on specific health conditions, only a few of which are related directly to dairy foods. Therefore, the NDC Nutrition Research Program fills an important void. The NDC's Nutrition Research Program provided grants of approximately $400,000 in 1977. These funds supported 24 studies in six major areas. The work was at colleges and universities by some of the nation's top scientists. Approximately 50% of NDC's efforts involved consumer concerns about health and dairy foods, and the remaining 50% explored areas in nutrition that may be used in marketing and promotion. Research has demonstrated that diet, including saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, is but one aspect of the problem of coronary heart disease. Some of NDC's research have
637
questioned the assumed relationship between diet and heart disease. The furor over whether the milk enzyme xanthine oxidase causes heart disease has been eliminated by research at the University of California. Other NDC-supported researchers are investigating other aspects of heart disease, including the role of fiber, transfatty acids, and milk constituents which decrease blood cholesterol. In all, NDC supports six studies in heart disease, all of which exonerate dairy foods. Another concern of the dairy industry is lactose intolerance. Many have maintained that lactose-intolerant individuals cannot and should not drink milk, but lactose intolerance does not equate with milk tolerance. Only through continued research in this area can the dairy industry defend itself against those who discourage consumption of milk. Other areas of concern to the dairy industry which are being explored through NDC grants include the alleged role of milk in iron-deficiency anemia in children, the implications that dairy foods are correlated positively with various forms of cancer, and claims that milk should be avoided by athletes. Work at Ball State University may eliminate such myths as "milk gives you cotton mouth," "milk takes away your wind," and "milk gives you cramps when drunk before competition." This study also will explore how much milk and other dairy foods should be consumed by athletes to meet their nutritional needs. With the increased interest in sports, such results should add sales for the dairy industry. But what about older people, especially women, who for a number of reasons do not drink recommended amounts of milk? According to one NDC-sponsored researcher, such women increase their risk of losing bone tissue. His work has shown loss of bone tissue can be stopped and possibly reversed by taking in adequate calcium through dairy foods (2). Inasmuch as dairy foods supply 75% of the calcium in our food supply, this kind of research can provide the dairy industry with an important and effective marketing edge. There always has been a favorable consumer attitude toward cultured dairy foods. But now there are strong implications that the bacteria in dairy foods (cultured and culture-containing) serve an important role in human health by their influence on gut ecology. Think of the poJournal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
638
SPECKMANN
tendal market if such implications are substantiated through research supported by NDC grants. While we know a great deal about milk and its nutrients, there is so much more to be learned. Three studies currently supported by NDC are investigating milk's unique nutrient package and how its nutrients work together in a way no fabricated product can match. And emphasis is being placed on the effects of processing and providing the consumer with one of the finest, safest, most nutritionally complete foods on the market. The proteins in dairy foods are of extremely good quality, and dairy foods are a significant source of protein in the American diet. To demonstrate why milk protein should be used as the international standard of protein quality, NDC has placed a grant with one of the nation's most highly respected nutrition scientists, Nevin Scrimshaw of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While milk is an excellent source of many nutrients, it is lacking in iron. The NDC is currently investigating, through a grant at the University of California, the possibility of fortifying milk with iron in a way which would make the iron biologically available and would not affect the organoleptic qualities of milk. Again, 24 specific research projects are being conducted on behalf of the dairy industry in 1977 all of which have direct implications for the dairy industry. The complete listing of these grants is in Table 3. Little, if any, other research in these areas is in government, industry, or academia. Therefore, National Dairy Council is the dairy industry's major resource in nutrition. I feel strongly that the professional attitudes of today will become the consumer attitudes of tomorrow. More than ever before the professional community now is questioning the nutritional and health value of dairy foods. It is essential that we continually bring before the professional community scientific evidence documenting the role of dairy foods in the diet. Our program is the dairy industry's first line of defense. Our program can supply answers to concerns that may arise and put them in proper perspective. Solid data is the best way to correct misinformation or give perspective to unfounded opinions in the media. While we may have the means and insight into research directions which the dairy industry should pursue, Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
those in the dairy industry have a particular expertise. This expertise can help us pursue and resolve concerns as well as uncover unknown nutritional opportunities which will provide a competitive edge for dairy foods. So knowing the resources available in nutrition at NDC, please keep us in mind if you feel your research and our program have mutual interests. RECOMMENDED NUTRITION RESEARCH PROGRAM
Americans are increasingly cognizant of the relationship between diet and health. Our dietary pattern is receiving attention because it is a component of our environment which can be modified to improve the quality of life. Coinciding with this national interest in food, nutrition, and health a variety of concerns have arisen about the consumption of dairy foods. Research is needed to put these issues into perspective. Research is needed also to establish a nutritional data base which can be used by the dairy industry to take the offensive in a promotion effort. The highest priority nutrition research needs of the dairy industry are as follows: 1) Dairy foods and health concerns. During the past few decades dairy foods have been associated with such health problems as cardiovascular disease, cancer, lactose intolerance, iron-deficiency anemia, allergy, urinary stone or gallstone formation, obesity, hypertension, and dental caries. Most such associations have been based on epidemiological data with little or no other evidence to confirm or refute them. Thorough clinical studies need to be initiated to understand better the etiologies of these problems and how dairy foods are involved in their initiation, progression, and prevention. 2) Role of calcium in bone bealtb. Dairy foods supply 75% of the calcium in the U.S. food supply, so clarification of the need for calcium in the diet has marked implications for dairy food consumption. Loss of bone mineral with age is a major public health problem. Decreasing alveolar bone density may result from or be a predisposing factor in periodontal disease, and decreasing density in other skeletal bones (osteoporosis) results in fractures. Both conditions involve nutrition, including calcium consumption. Improved calcium consumption may arrest or reverse decreases in bone density related to age. In fact, bone density may be a
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
639
TABLE 3. National Dairy Council 1977 Nutrition Research Grant-ln-Aid Program. Nutrition importance of milk sugar Nevin S. Scrinshaw, Ph.D., M.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. "Milk Tolerance and Preference in Persons of Differing Ethnic Backgrounds (Part A - Adolescents, Part B - Adults and Elderly)". Robert H. Wasserman, Ph.D., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. "Enhanced Absorption of Calcium by Lactose, Specific Amino Acids and Phosphopeptides: Mechanisms of Action". Coronary heart disease Andrew J. Clifford, Ph.D., University of Ca/ifornia, Davis, CA. "The Role of Xanthine Oxidase in Cow's Milk". David Kritchevsky, Ph.D., Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA. "Influence of Changing 'Western' Diets on Lipid Metabolism". Fred A. Kummerow, Ph.D., The Harlan E. Moore Heart Research Foundation, Champaign, IL. "The Biological Effects of Consuming Unnatural Fatty Acids". George V. Mann, Sc.D., M.D., Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN. "Milk Factor in the Control of Cholesteremia". Richard W. St. Clair, Ph.D., The Bowman Gray School of Medicine of Wake Forest University, WinstonSalem, NC. "Influence of Dietary Fats on Lipoprotein Metabolism and Gallstone Disease in Squirrel Monkeys". Kenneth D. Wiggers, Ph.D., Iowa State University, Ames, IA. "How Does the Type of Dietary Fat Affect Blood and Tissue Cholesterol in the Young?". Nutritional importance of milk's minerals Anthony Albanese, Ph.D., The Burke Rehabilitation Center, White Plains, NY. "Nutritional Aspects of Skeletal and Alveolar Bone Loss". Anthony Albanese, Ph.D., The Burke Rehabilitation Center, White Plains, NY. "Effects of Calcium and Diet on Osteoporosis" (Scientific-Medical Exhibit). Robert Neer, M.D., Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA. "Evaluation of Normal Adult Vitamin D and Calcium Requirements and Their Interactions". Relationship of dietary cultures to gut ecology Sherwood L. Gorbach, M.S., Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, MA. "The Effect of Lactobacillus Feeding on Intestinal Bacterial Enzymes". Dwayne Savage, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "Mechanisms of Microbial Interference Exerted by Lactobacilli in the Gastrointestinal Ecosystem". Marvin L. Speck, Ph.D., North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. "Roles of Lactobacillus acidopbilus in Human Nutrition and Health". Interaction of milk's nutrients George M. Briggs, Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley, CA."Interaction Between Certain Components of Milk and Tissue Ascorbic Acid and Their Effect on Bone". Robert T. Marshall, Ph.D., University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. "Nutrient Interactions Existing within Dairy Foods". *Paul Salt:man Ph.D., University of California, San Diego, CA. "The Nutritional Evaluation of Supplemental Iron and Copper in Milk". Dairy foods and health *Jo Anne Brasel, M.D., The Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY. "Nutritional Status and Early Detection of Obesity". Samuel J. Fomon, M.D., University of Iowa Medical School, Iowa City, IA. "A Comparison of Whole Cow's Milk vs Proprietary Formulas in Infant Feeding". David L. Costill, Ph.D., Ball State University, Muncie, IN. "Requirements and Misconceptions in Sports Nutrition". Alfred E. Harper, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. "Investigation of the Efficiency of Conversion of Tryptophan to Niacin". Bruce Larson, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "Origin, Occurrence and Significance of the High Orotic Acid Content in Bovine Milk". Nevin S. Scrimshaw, Ph.D., M.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. "Milk Protein Requirements of Young Adults". Joseph Tobias, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "The Micronutrients and Micro-Constituents of Milk--Their Role in Nutrition and Their Influence on Milk Properties". * Funding provided by tripartite agreement with Dairy Council of Metropolitan New York, Inc. Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
640
SPECKMANN
sensitive biological index of daily calcium needs. Research of this nature may lead to re-evaluation and increases in the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowance for calcium.
3) Role of cultured and culture-containing dairy foods in bealtb. A variety of bacterial cultures is used in the manufacture of dairy foods. More recently it has become possible to add live cultures to fluid milk after pasteurization without affecting the organoleptic properties of milk or the viability of the culture. Research is needed to delineate the biological effects of different strains of a given bacterium as well as the potential modification of bacterial function possible through plasmid manipulation. Understanding the effect of various dietary cultures on the gut environment (metabolic potential) may increase our understanding of human health. Cultured or culture-containing dairy foods may alter the gut environment favorably to provide a microbial population consistent with optimal health. These foods also may provide benefit to individuals with milk intolerance, increased risk of colon cancer, or cardiovascular disease involving bile acid excretion. 4) Nutrient interactions of dairy foods. Nutrient interactions within dairy foods as well as between dairy foods and other foods (as well as drugs) are important. As fabricated foods are developed which resemble traditional dairy foods and purport to be nutritionally equivalent to them, it is essential to examine interactions in milk and its products which favor nutrient utilization. These include the effect of lactose on calcium absorption and the reduction in heat destruction of thiamin and riboflavin caused by lactose, casein, and lysine. Modifying the portion of fat or increasing whey proteins relative to casein may offer nutritional dividends useful in promoting dairy foods. Finally, the role of dairy foods in upgrading the nutritional value of plant foods has many applications as world population grows relative to food availability. The nutrient profile and quality of dairy foods and their interaction with plant nutrients have value in feeding the world population.
5) Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of milk's nutrients. As fabricated and highly refined foods with a limited variety and content of nutrients make up an increasingly large portion of the U.S. diet, it is essential to know the contribution of traditional, universally-conJournal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 19"78
sumed foods, such as dairy foods, to macroand micro-nutrients and bioavailability of these nutrients. Bioavailability of iron and copper in a form which will not affect the organoleptic quality of milk, addition of the active metabolite of vitamin D to milk, nutritional value of lactose-hydrolyzed milk, conversion of milk's tryptophan to niacin, and the nutrient profile of milk-derived ingredients (such as caseinate, demineralized and modified whey, lactalbumin, and nonfat milk solids) are promising areas of research. SUMMARY
Resources available for support of research in nutrition are government, foundations, industry, and trade organizations. The federal government spent $73 million on human nutrition research in fiscal year 1975. About 82% of the funds were allocated to HEW, 13% to USDA, 4% to DOD, and less than 1% to the VA. Of the total funds, 48% was spent on what is needed (nutrition requirements), 40% on what is applied (disease and diet), 5% on what is consumed (dietary surveys and status), 4% on what is not utilized (metabolic defects), and 3% on what is available (food composition). It appears that HEW is responsible for the health aspects of nutrition, USDA for the food aspects of nutrition, DOD for the nutritional wellbeing of military personnel, and VA for the nutritional well-being of patients under their care. A number of foundations are known for their combined financial support of research in agriculture and in nutrition. Nutrition research by the food industry is primarily ancillary to product and process development. The food industry should be spending .1% of total sales on nutrition research. This would amount to $11.4 million for dairy industry nutrition research in 1977 based on cash receipts from milk by farmers in 1976. Few projects in nutrition research now funded by the federal government, industry-supported organizations, or other foundations relate directly to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their role in the attainment of optimal health. Of the trade organizations sponsoring research in nutrition, National Dairy Council has represented the dairy industry's commitment to nutrition research for the past 63 yrs. Today, the resources available ($400,000) do not reach those recom-
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
mended ($11,400,000) to develop a Nutrition Research Program commensurate with the problems and opportunities before the dairy industry. Recommendations are provided in areas where intensification of nutrition research would benefit the dairy industry. One area is the health concerns consumers have about dairy foods. The second area is to identify those attributes of dairy foods that show promise in contributing to the nutritional wellbeing of consumers and providing sound nutrition information effective in promoting dairy foods.
REFERENCES
1 Agriculture Research Policy Advisory Committee. 1976. FY 1975 data base of food and food-related research. U. S. Department of Agriculture and National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, Washington, DC. 2 Albanese, A. A. 1977. Calcium. Page 201 in Current topics in nutrition and disease. Vol. 1. Bone loss: Causes, detection and therapy. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York. 3 Anonymous. 1973. Workshop on the role of land grant institutions in applied human nutrition. Nutrition Foundation, Inc., Washington, DC. 4 Anonymous. 1976. Inventory" of Agricultural Research FY 1975. Vol. I. Table I. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 5 Anonymous, 1977. 1977 milk fats. Milk Industry Foundation, Washington, DC. 6 Brink, M. F. 1968. Nutrition research program of the National Dairy Council. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 21:1211. 7 Center for Disease Control, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1972. Ten State Nutrition Survey, 1968-1970. Pub. No. 72-8134. Atlanta, GA. 8 Congressional Research Service. 1976. The role of the federal government in human nutrition research. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate, U.S. Government Printing Of. flee, Washington, DC. 9 Congressional Research Service. 1977. The role of the federal government in nutrition education. Subcommittee on Domestic Marketing, Consumer Relations and Nutrition, Committee on Agriculture, U. S. House of Representatives. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 10 Federal Trade Commission. 1974. Trade regulation rule on food advertising. Fed. Regist. 39:39842. 11 Fishel, W. L., C. E. Weir, and H. M. Fox. 1971. An evaluation of research in the United States on human nutrition. Report No. 1. A survey of research on human nutrition supported and/or conducted by public research organizations prepared by a joint task group of USDA, the state universities and land grant colleges. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
641
12 Flatt, W. P. 1976. Unity through diversity in nutrition research. Presented at the National Dairy Council Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA. 13 Food and Drug Administration, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1973-1974. Food labeling. Fed. Regist. 38:2124, 6950, 20702; 39:20878. 14 Food and Nutrition Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1972-1977. National Advisory Council on Child Nutrition annual reports for 1971-1976. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 15 Food Program Staff. 1977. Organizing and financing basic research to increase food production. Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Washington, DC. 16 Goldsmith, G. A. 1973. A national nutrition policy and program. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 26:901. 17 Goldsmith, G. A. 1973. For a national nutrition policy. Nutr. Today 8: 32. 18 Hegsted, D. M. 1973. The development of a national nutrition policy. J. Amer. Dietet. Ass. 62: 394. 19 Hegsted, D. M. 1974. Food and nutrition policynow and in the future. J. Amer. Dieter. Ass. 64: 367. 20 King, C. G. 1976. A Good Idea. The history of the nutrition foundation. The Nutrition Foundation, New York and Washington, DC. 21 Mayer, J. 1972. Toward a national nutrition policy. Science 176:237. 22 National and Regional Planning CommitteesAgricultural Research Policy Advisory Committee. 1976. 1974-79 Cycle for projecting and analyzing research program adjustments. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges Cooperating, Washington, DC. 23 National Institutes of Health, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1977. Research awards index, 16th ed. US DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 77-200, Washington, DC. 24 National Nutrition Consortium. 1974. Guidelines for a national nutrition policy. Prepared for the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 25 Nutrition Research lnteragency Working Group. 1977. Findings and recommendations on federally supported human nutrition research. Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, Washington, DC. 26 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, US Senate. 1974. National nutrition policy study/ hearings. US Government Printing office, Washington, DC. 27 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate. 1977. Index to publications on nutrition and human needs. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 28 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate. 1977. Dietary goals for the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 29 Speckmann, E. W. 1975. The National Dairy Council's nutrition research program and its relationship Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
642
SPECKMANN
to a national nutrition policy. J. Milk Food Technol. 38:166. 30 Staats, E. B. 1977. Federal Human Nutrition Research. Prepared for the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning, Analysis and Cooperation of the House Committee on Science and Technology by the U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington, DC. 31 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1968. Food con-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
sumption of households in the United States. Household Food Consumption Survey 1965-66. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 32 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health. 1970. Final report. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 33 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health. 1971. Report of follow-up conference. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
This article will deal primarily with support of research on h u m a n nutrition as well as on nutritional aspects of milk and milk products. But first, let us examine the importance of nutrition in today's society. During the past two decades there has been growing awareness of relationships between environment and health. Our diet has gained particular importance because it is one aspect of our environment which can be modified to improve the quality of life. Industry, government, medical and allied health, and academia have recognized the role nutrition plays in attainment of optimal health and have committed substantial resources to basic and applied research in nutrition. It is estimated that there is a return of about $1.50 for every dollar invested in research (12). Thus, when confronted with the increasingly large federal expenditures on health care, it is not surprising that careful evaluation is being given to the cost/benefit value of diverting a segment of these funds to nutrition research. Even the food industry has recognized that nutrition is an important consumer consideration for choices of food in the marketplace. The current interest in nutrition did not occur by chance. Note, for example, the attention given to the subject of food, nutrition, and health by the federal government during the past 12 yr. During this time at least 11 major surveys, hearings, programs, and publications have explored and probed America's eating habits and nutritional well-being: A) The 1965 Household Food Consumption Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (31) B) The 1968-1970 Ten State Nutrition Survey of the Department of HEW (7) C) The 1968-1977 Hearings of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs (27)
Received November 21, 1977. 1978 J Dairy Sci 61:632--642
D) The 1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health (32) E) The 1970 Follow-up Meeting to the White House Conference on Food, Nutrition, and Health (33) F) The 1973-74 Nutrition Labeling R e g u l a t i o n s of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (13) G) The 1974 National Nutrition Policy Study/ Hearings of the U.S. Senate Select Committee o n N u t r i t i o n and Human Needs (26) H) The 1975 Food Advertising regulations proposed by the Federal Trade Commission (i0) i) The expansion of the Child Nutrition Programs as well as development of the WIC (Women, Infants, and Children) Program by the U.S. Department of Agriculture during the 1970's (14) J) The 1977 "Dietary Goals for the United States" proposed by the U.S. Senate Select C o m m i t t e e on Nutrition and Human N e e d s (28) K) The 1977 Hearings on Nutrition Education to be held by the U.S. House Agriculture Subcommittee on Domestic Marketing, Consumer Relations and Nutrition (9). These efforts of the federal government have generated much information regarding the importance of nutrition in health and nutritional problems in this country that require attention. Many professionals believe that a national nutrition policy is necessary to marshall resources in nutrition and to establish priorities for solving our domestic food, nutrition, and health problems (16, 17, 18, 19, 21). Guidelines for a national nutrition policy have been developed by the National Nutrition Consortium (24). Domestic and international events which contributed to the attention being given to nutrition and the relationship of the dairy industry's Nutrition Research Program to a national nutrition policy were reviewed in 1975 (29). Many resources are available in nutrition: government, foundations, industry, and trade organizations. In 1971, USDA issued the results of a survey of research on human nutrition supported and/or conducted by public research organizations in 1968-69 (11). Approximately $30 million were spent on research in human
632
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
633
TABLE 1. Research in human nutrition. Percent of research funds a
Federal government agencies State government agencies Foundations Industry and other Universities Hospitals
Performing research
Supporting research
19.0 .8 6.2 1.2 63.9 8.8
91.5 5.2 2.8 .4 .1 .0
aRounded figures.
nutrition annually (Table 1). The survey revealed that the federal government is by far the largest sponsor of intramural and extramural research in nutrition. Although the federal government supplied over 90% of the funds allocated to research in human nutrition in 1968-69, about 64% of these funds were expended on research at universities. A number of documents have been published describing the scope and magnitude of this support (4, 8, 11, 25, 30). A workshop in 1973 examined new opportunities for developing more effective programs of education, research, personnel development, and leadership for applied human nutrition through land grant colleges (3). N U T R I T O N RESEARCH BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
A March, 1976, document (8) for the first time summarized in considerable detail what the federal government is doing in research in human nutrition. In fiscal year 1975 federal support of research in human nutrition had increased to $73 million, a 166% increase in 7 yr (from $27.4 to $73 million). By fiscal year 1977 federal support of nutrition research totaled $112 million (25). The major research programs in human nutrition of the federal government are sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW), the Department of Defense (DOD), and the Veterans Administration (VA). Specific amounts spent in fiscal year 1975 by each department in Nutrition Requirements (what is needed); Food Consumption (what is available); Dietary Surveys and Status (what is
consumed); Disease and Diet (what is applied); and Metabolic Defects (what is not utilized) are summarized in Table 2. This funding appears to be insufficient to provide insight in to possible relations between nutrition and some of our leading causes of death - heart disease, cancer, hypertension and stroke, diabetes, arteriosclerosis, and cirrhosis of the liver. Neither is funding sufficient to do anything about those segments of our population not eating wisely enough to reach optimal physical and mental development. Perhaps this is why the U.S. Senate Agriculture Committee has requested $53 million for research in human nutrition by USDA. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Among the federal agencies, only USDA is charged with overseeing the provision of food for the nation. Within USDA 48% of the research projects in human nutrition concentrate on nutrient requirements, 30% on dietary surveys and status, and 15% on food composition. The USDA supports research in human nutrition through the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and the Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS). Activities related to this research, such as creation, publication, and distribution of reports, are done by the Extension Service (ES) and the Economics Research Service (ERS). Within ARS, high priority is given to studies on nutrient requirements of all age groups (61%) and foods needed to attain and maintain a well-nourished, healthy population. Research supported by ARS is primarily broadscope, basic, and applicable as baseline data in other Journal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
Ox
7~
e~
TABLE 2. Human nutrition research supported by four major federal departments, fiscal year 1975. a Dietary surveys and status
~o
Awarding organization < o ox
o
Nutrition requirements
Food composition
Disease and diet
Metabolic defects
Total by category
(Federal funds) Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Cooperative State Research Service Economic Research Service USDA Total
4,148,307 557,979
1,182,092 140,117
4,7;;,286
1,322,209
Department of Defense Air Force Army Navy DOD Total
97,000 1,654,000 242,000 1,993,000
. 2;;,000 .__ . 240,000
Department of Health, Education and Welfare Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Center for Disease Control Food and Drug Administration Health Resources Administration National Institutes of Health DHEW Total Veterans' Administration Intramural Extramural/collaborative VA Total Federal Total
428,362 . . 572,270 25,772,185 28,674,327
10,000 100,000 110,000 35,483,613
.
. . . .___ . 251,236 128,301 379,537
... ... 0 1,941,746
928,822 1,606,743 453,472 2,983,037
"7;,000 .
. 74,000
.
.
.
497,899 201,461 699,360
_ "'1,565 . ";,565
6,757,120 2,501,865 453,472 9,712,457
43,000 142,000 138,000 323,000
... ... . "0
140,000 2,110,000 380,000 2,630,000
45,490 91,529 10,000 26,849,117 27,702,507
3,2;5,710 3,245,710
1,134,733 45,490 1,075,075 10,000 58,388,154 60,653,452
"20,000
60,000 250,000 310,000
... 10,000 10,000
90,000 360,000 450,000
3,728,408
29,034,867
3,257,275
73,445,909
706,371
. 160,000 ;9;,331 651,371
20,000
...
... ...
aAdapted from "The Role of the Federal Government in Human Nutrition Research" prepared by the Congressional Research Service and printed by the Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate, March 1976.
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY research projects in USDA and in other federal agencies. In fiscal year 1975 ARS received 67% of the funds USDA allocated for research in human nutrition. The second major USDA agency involved in research in human nutrition is the Cooperative State Research Service. The CSRS diverts over 63% of its funds for research in human nutrition into dietary surveys and status. The primary function of the Service is to administer agricultural research by state agricultural experiment stations (SAES) and others. Within CSRS, research in human nutrition is applied to problems such as assessment of food assistance programs and dietary needs of specific, nutritionally vulnerable populations. The USDA Economic Research Service projects in human nutrition are related to dietary surveys and status such as economic factors influencing food purchasing, costs, and dietary patterns. Of the total USDA agricultural research budget in fiscal year 1974, the percentage devoted to research in human nutrition was only 2.6% ($10 million). State agriculture expenditures increased the amount to a total of $18 million. By agency, the percent of the USDA agricultural research budget devoted to research in human nutrition was 3.2% in ARS, 2.9% in CSRS, and 2.5% in ERS. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Organizations within HEW which perform research in human nutrition are the Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration (ADA-MHA), Center for Disease Control (CDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Health Resources Administration (HRA), and the National Institutes of Health (eleven institutes). Of the $73 million for nutrition studies supported by the four major Federal departments in fiscal year 1975, about $60 million (82%) was spent by HEW. This was primarily for research on nutrition requirements (47% of HEW funds) and disease and diet (45% of HEW funds). About 28% of HEW funds were spent on intramural research and about 72% on extramural. The N1H accounted for 96% of the HEW budget spent on research in human nutrition. The broad purpose of research in human nutrition supported or conducted by HEW is for understanding, prevention, and treatment of
635
diseases. The HEW Policy Statement on Health Aspects of Nutrition mentions five areas: 1) biomedical research, 2) behavioral research, 3) nutritional assessment, 4) determining the nutritional status of the nation, and 5) determining the nutrient composition and presence of potentially hazardous substances in foods. U.S. Department of Defense
The underlying purpose of research in human nutrition in the Department of Defense (DOD) is to provide optimal nutrition and quality food for military populations in various situations. The Army Surgeon General's Office is the DOD executive agency for nutrition. Of the DOD funds spent on research in human nutrition in fiscal year 1975, 80% was spent by the Army, 15% by the Navy, and 5% by the Air Force. Approximately 75% of all DOD support for nutrition research was in nutritional requirements, 12% on disease and diet, and 11% on food consumption and dietary status. Intramural projects represented 80% of the total support of the DOD nutrition research program. Veterans Administration
The VA sponsors nutrition research to increase the quality of patient care and which supports research interests of its professional staff. Of the $450,000 spent by the VA on research in human nutrition in fiscal year 1975, 69% was devoted to disease and diet and 24% to nutritional requirements. Seventy-five percent of the research in human nutrition supported by the VA was collaborative. In summary, of the $73 million allocated by the four major federal departments in fiscal year 1975, 82% went to HEW, 13% to USDA, 4% to DOD, and less than 1% to the VA. These departments spent 48% of these funds on what is needed (nutrition requirements), 40% on what is applied (disease and diet), 5% on what is consumed (dietary surveys and status), 4% on what is not utilized (metabolic defects), and 3% on what is available (food consumption). A recent report by the Nutrition Research Interagency Working Group, Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), Executive Office of the President (25), estimated that in fiscal year 1977, approximately $112 million will be spent for nutrition research. The DeJouiTlal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
636
SPECKMANN
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare will spend $88 million (NIH - $80 million, FDA -- $4 million), the U.S. Department of Agriculture will spend $18 million (ARS - $14 million), and Agency for International Development, DOD, VA, and NSF will spend $6 million. This working group classified human nutrition research into four areas and recommended that the NIH should have primary responsibility for studies of human nutrient needs (with FDA leading in determining the extent of nutrient toxicity), USDA should have the primary responsibility for food sciences and for nutrition education research for the general public, and that responsibility for diet and nutritional status monitoring be shared between ARS, NIH, FDA, and others (The Center for Disease Control, DHEW, and the National Center for Disease Control, DHEW, and the National Center for Health Statistics). This working group further recommended that the Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering and Technology (FCCSET), should coordinate and monitor all federal nutrition research activities and that its Committee on Health and Medicine oversee nutrition research. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT RESEARCH ON D A I R Y FOODS
Some of the research in the federal government pertains to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their relationship to health. For example, studies with protein, lactose, fat, minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, zinc, iodine, and magnesium, and vitamins such as riboflavin, B1, B6, B12, and niacin are of particular interest to the dairy industry. In addition, research pertaining to the relationship of nutrition to coronary heart disease, cancer, iron-deficiency anemia, obesity, bone health, and optimal physical and mental development and performance are continuing areas of dairy industry interest. The funding of nutrition research related specifically to dairy products is difficult if not impossible to delineate. The Research Awards Index, which contains scientific data on more than 20,000 Public Health Service grants and contracts, reveals, for example, that there are 18 NIH grants for lactose intolerance (23). The USDA Nutrition Institute at Beltsville, Maryland has a Dairy Foods Nutrition Laboratory as one of its nine laboratories. This laboratory Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 19"/8
studies functional and nutritional properties of dairy foods, determines the influence of processing on these properties, and applies this knowledge to produce new and improved products. The USDA Eastern Regional Research Center in Wyndmoor, PA also conducts research on dairy products. Most of this research is for the development of new or improved processes, products, or product uses, but some of it does have nutritional implications. D A I R Y I N D U S T R Y RESEARCH IN N U T R I T I O N
Nutrition research by the dairy industry itself is primarily ancillary to product and process development. Current consumer interest in nutrition and the advent of nutrition labeling has increased the priority given to nutrition by industry. In many companies nutrition is an integral component of corporate policy, and nutrition is considered during product and process development as well as during development of marketing and advertising strategies. Funding of nutrition research by industry is not reviewed easily, inasmuch as most is intramural and the figures are not available. Major dairy companies have excellent technical centers that are conducting research on the nutritional aspects of dairy foods. The USDA estimated that industry spent only $120,000 in support of human nutrition research in 1968-69. In 1970, Jean Mayer stated, "I would suggest that we ought to devote one-tenth of one percent of the nation's food bill to nutrition research" (33). For the $11.4 billion in cash receipts from milk received by farmers in 1976 (5), the dairy industry should be spending $11.4 million in nutrition research. RESEARCH ON D A I R Y FOOD N U T R I T I O N BY FOUNDATIONS
Many in the food industry support organizations which fund or conduct nutrition research which a food company could not afford independently. Organizations such as the Farm Foundation, Kellogg Foundation, Hill Family Foundation, the Agricultural Development Council, Inc., The National Science Foundation, and The Rockefeller Foundation sponsor agricultural research. The Esmark, Inc., Foundation, The Research Corporation, United Brands Foundation, Nutrition Foundation, National Livestock and Meat Board, and National Dairy Council support research in nutrition.
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY The Nutrition Foundation, which is supported by a broad segment of the food industry, has provided approximately $11 million (1941 to 1974) for support of research in nutrition since its founding in 1941 (20). Only a small segment of these funds were of direct benefit to the dairy industry. National Dairy Council (NDC) was founded in 1915 but did not have a viable grant-in-aid program until 1940. For 37 yr NDC has provided almost 500 separate grants-in-aid and approximately $5 million to the scientific and medical community. This research has focused on the nutritional value, components, and the role of dairy foods in the attainment of optimal health (6). NUTRITION RESEARCH PROGRAM OF N A T I O N A L D A I R Y C O U N C I L
National Dairy Council has been a leader for the dairy industry in nutrition for over 60 yr. The NDC Nutrition Research Program is the foundation for the dairy industry's total promotion which is coordinated by the United Dairy Industry Association. The NDC's Nutrition Research Program is unique. Nowhere in the world is there research in nutrition related specifically to human consumption of dairy products. The International Dairy Federation recently eliminated funding research in nutrition. The USDA is not devoting much of its research efforts to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their role in the attainment of optimal health, nor does it plan to in the near future (1, 15, 22). The NIH is oriented to disease, concentrating on specific health conditions, only a few of which are related directly to dairy foods. Therefore, the NDC Nutrition Research Program fills an important void. The NDC's Nutrition Research Program provided grants of approximately $400,000 in 1977. These funds supported 24 studies in six major areas. The work was at colleges and universities by some of the nation's top scientists. Approximately 50% of NDC's efforts involved consumer concerns about health and dairy foods, and the remaining 50% explored areas in nutrition that may be used in marketing and promotion. Research has demonstrated that diet, including saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, is but one aspect of the problem of coronary heart disease. Some of NDC's research have
637
questioned the assumed relationship between diet and heart disease. The furor over whether the milk enzyme xanthine oxidase causes heart disease has been eliminated by research at the University of California. Other NDC-supported researchers are investigating other aspects of heart disease, including the role of fiber, transfatty acids, and milk constituents which decrease blood cholesterol. In all, NDC supports six studies in heart disease, all of which exonerate dairy foods. Another concern of the dairy industry is lactose intolerance. Many have maintained that lactose-intolerant individuals cannot and should not drink milk, but lactose intolerance does not equate with milk tolerance. Only through continued research in this area can the dairy industry defend itself against those who discourage consumption of milk. Other areas of concern to the dairy industry which are being explored through NDC grants include the alleged role of milk in iron-deficiency anemia in children, the implications that dairy foods are correlated positively with various forms of cancer, and claims that milk should be avoided by athletes. Work at Ball State University may eliminate such myths as "milk gives you cotton mouth," "milk takes away your wind," and "milk gives you cramps when drunk before competition." This study also will explore how much milk and other dairy foods should be consumed by athletes to meet their nutritional needs. With the increased interest in sports, such results should add sales for the dairy industry. But what about older people, especially women, who for a number of reasons do not drink recommended amounts of milk? According to one NDC-sponsored researcher, such women increase their risk of losing bone tissue. His work has shown loss of bone tissue can be stopped and possibly reversed by taking in adequate calcium through dairy foods (2). Inasmuch as dairy foods supply 75% of the calcium in our food supply, this kind of research can provide the dairy industry with an important and effective marketing edge. There always has been a favorable consumer attitude toward cultured dairy foods. But now there are strong implications that the bacteria in dairy foods (cultured and culture-containing) serve an important role in human health by their influence on gut ecology. Think of the poJournal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 5, 1978
638
SPECKMANN
tendal market if such implications are substantiated through research supported by NDC grants. While we know a great deal about milk and its nutrients, there is so much more to be learned. Three studies currently supported by NDC are investigating milk's unique nutrient package and how its nutrients work together in a way no fabricated product can match. And emphasis is being placed on the effects of processing and providing the consumer with one of the finest, safest, most nutritionally complete foods on the market. The proteins in dairy foods are of extremely good quality, and dairy foods are a significant source of protein in the American diet. To demonstrate why milk protein should be used as the international standard of protein quality, NDC has placed a grant with one of the nation's most highly respected nutrition scientists, Nevin Scrimshaw of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While milk is an excellent source of many nutrients, it is lacking in iron. The NDC is currently investigating, through a grant at the University of California, the possibility of fortifying milk with iron in a way which would make the iron biologically available and would not affect the organoleptic qualities of milk. Again, 24 specific research projects are being conducted on behalf of the dairy industry in 1977 all of which have direct implications for the dairy industry. The complete listing of these grants is in Table 3. Little, if any, other research in these areas is in government, industry, or academia. Therefore, National Dairy Council is the dairy industry's major resource in nutrition. I feel strongly that the professional attitudes of today will become the consumer attitudes of tomorrow. More than ever before the professional community now is questioning the nutritional and health value of dairy foods. It is essential that we continually bring before the professional community scientific evidence documenting the role of dairy foods in the diet. Our program is the dairy industry's first line of defense. Our program can supply answers to concerns that may arise and put them in proper perspective. Solid data is the best way to correct misinformation or give perspective to unfounded opinions in the media. While we may have the means and insight into research directions which the dairy industry should pursue, Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
those in the dairy industry have a particular expertise. This expertise can help us pursue and resolve concerns as well as uncover unknown nutritional opportunities which will provide a competitive edge for dairy foods. So knowing the resources available in nutrition at NDC, please keep us in mind if you feel your research and our program have mutual interests. RECOMMENDED NUTRITION RESEARCH PROGRAM
Americans are increasingly cognizant of the relationship between diet and health. Our dietary pattern is receiving attention because it is a component of our environment which can be modified to improve the quality of life. Coinciding with this national interest in food, nutrition, and health a variety of concerns have arisen about the consumption of dairy foods. Research is needed to put these issues into perspective. Research is needed also to establish a nutritional data base which can be used by the dairy industry to take the offensive in a promotion effort. The highest priority nutrition research needs of the dairy industry are as follows: 1) Dairy foods and health concerns. During the past few decades dairy foods have been associated with such health problems as cardiovascular disease, cancer, lactose intolerance, iron-deficiency anemia, allergy, urinary stone or gallstone formation, obesity, hypertension, and dental caries. Most such associations have been based on epidemiological data with little or no other evidence to confirm or refute them. Thorough clinical studies need to be initiated to understand better the etiologies of these problems and how dairy foods are involved in their initiation, progression, and prevention. 2) Role of calcium in bone bealtb. Dairy foods supply 75% of the calcium in the U.S. food supply, so clarification of the need for calcium in the diet has marked implications for dairy food consumption. Loss of bone mineral with age is a major public health problem. Decreasing alveolar bone density may result from or be a predisposing factor in periodontal disease, and decreasing density in other skeletal bones (osteoporosis) results in fractures. Both conditions involve nutrition, including calcium consumption. Improved calcium consumption may arrest or reverse decreases in bone density related to age. In fact, bone density may be a
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
639
TABLE 3. National Dairy Council 1977 Nutrition Research Grant-ln-Aid Program. Nutrition importance of milk sugar Nevin S. Scrinshaw, Ph.D., M.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. "Milk Tolerance and Preference in Persons of Differing Ethnic Backgrounds (Part A - Adolescents, Part B - Adults and Elderly)". Robert H. Wasserman, Ph.D., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. "Enhanced Absorption of Calcium by Lactose, Specific Amino Acids and Phosphopeptides: Mechanisms of Action". Coronary heart disease Andrew J. Clifford, Ph.D., University of Ca/ifornia, Davis, CA. "The Role of Xanthine Oxidase in Cow's Milk". David Kritchevsky, Ph.D., Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia, PA. "Influence of Changing 'Western' Diets on Lipid Metabolism". Fred A. Kummerow, Ph.D., The Harlan E. Moore Heart Research Foundation, Champaign, IL. "The Biological Effects of Consuming Unnatural Fatty Acids". George V. Mann, Sc.D., M.D., Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN. "Milk Factor in the Control of Cholesteremia". Richard W. St. Clair, Ph.D., The Bowman Gray School of Medicine of Wake Forest University, WinstonSalem, NC. "Influence of Dietary Fats on Lipoprotein Metabolism and Gallstone Disease in Squirrel Monkeys". Kenneth D. Wiggers, Ph.D., Iowa State University, Ames, IA. "How Does the Type of Dietary Fat Affect Blood and Tissue Cholesterol in the Young?". Nutritional importance of milk's minerals Anthony Albanese, Ph.D., The Burke Rehabilitation Center, White Plains, NY. "Nutritional Aspects of Skeletal and Alveolar Bone Loss". Anthony Albanese, Ph.D., The Burke Rehabilitation Center, White Plains, NY. "Effects of Calcium and Diet on Osteoporosis" (Scientific-Medical Exhibit). Robert Neer, M.D., Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA. "Evaluation of Normal Adult Vitamin D and Calcium Requirements and Their Interactions". Relationship of dietary cultures to gut ecology Sherwood L. Gorbach, M.S., Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, MA. "The Effect of Lactobacillus Feeding on Intestinal Bacterial Enzymes". Dwayne Savage, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "Mechanisms of Microbial Interference Exerted by Lactobacilli in the Gastrointestinal Ecosystem". Marvin L. Speck, Ph.D., North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. "Roles of Lactobacillus acidopbilus in Human Nutrition and Health". Interaction of milk's nutrients George M. Briggs, Ph.D., University of California, Berkeley, CA."Interaction Between Certain Components of Milk and Tissue Ascorbic Acid and Their Effect on Bone". Robert T. Marshall, Ph.D., University of Missouri, Columbia, MO. "Nutrient Interactions Existing within Dairy Foods". *Paul Salt:man Ph.D., University of California, San Diego, CA. "The Nutritional Evaluation of Supplemental Iron and Copper in Milk". Dairy foods and health *Jo Anne Brasel, M.D., The Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY. "Nutritional Status and Early Detection of Obesity". Samuel J. Fomon, M.D., University of Iowa Medical School, Iowa City, IA. "A Comparison of Whole Cow's Milk vs Proprietary Formulas in Infant Feeding". David L. Costill, Ph.D., Ball State University, Muncie, IN. "Requirements and Misconceptions in Sports Nutrition". Alfred E. Harper, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI. "Investigation of the Efficiency of Conversion of Tryptophan to Niacin". Bruce Larson, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "Origin, Occurrence and Significance of the High Orotic Acid Content in Bovine Milk". Nevin S. Scrimshaw, Ph.D., M.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. "Milk Protein Requirements of Young Adults". Joseph Tobias, Ph.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. "The Micronutrients and Micro-Constituents of Milk--Their Role in Nutrition and Their Influence on Milk Properties". * Funding provided by tripartite agreement with Dairy Council of Metropolitan New York, Inc. Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
640
SPECKMANN
sensitive biological index of daily calcium needs. Research of this nature may lead to re-evaluation and increases in the Recommended Daily Dietary Allowance for calcium.
3) Role of cultured and culture-containing dairy foods in bealtb. A variety of bacterial cultures is used in the manufacture of dairy foods. More recently it has become possible to add live cultures to fluid milk after pasteurization without affecting the organoleptic properties of milk or the viability of the culture. Research is needed to delineate the biological effects of different strains of a given bacterium as well as the potential modification of bacterial function possible through plasmid manipulation. Understanding the effect of various dietary cultures on the gut environment (metabolic potential) may increase our understanding of human health. Cultured or culture-containing dairy foods may alter the gut environment favorably to provide a microbial population consistent with optimal health. These foods also may provide benefit to individuals with milk intolerance, increased risk of colon cancer, or cardiovascular disease involving bile acid excretion. 4) Nutrient interactions of dairy foods. Nutrient interactions within dairy foods as well as between dairy foods and other foods (as well as drugs) are important. As fabricated foods are developed which resemble traditional dairy foods and purport to be nutritionally equivalent to them, it is essential to examine interactions in milk and its products which favor nutrient utilization. These include the effect of lactose on calcium absorption and the reduction in heat destruction of thiamin and riboflavin caused by lactose, casein, and lysine. Modifying the portion of fat or increasing whey proteins relative to casein may offer nutritional dividends useful in promoting dairy foods. Finally, the role of dairy foods in upgrading the nutritional value of plant foods has many applications as world population grows relative to food availability. The nutrient profile and quality of dairy foods and their interaction with plant nutrients have value in feeding the world population.
5) Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of milk's nutrients. As fabricated and highly refined foods with a limited variety and content of nutrients make up an increasingly large portion of the U.S. diet, it is essential to know the contribution of traditional, universally-conJournal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 19"78
sumed foods, such as dairy foods, to macroand micro-nutrients and bioavailability of these nutrients. Bioavailability of iron and copper in a form which will not affect the organoleptic quality of milk, addition of the active metabolite of vitamin D to milk, nutritional value of lactose-hydrolyzed milk, conversion of milk's tryptophan to niacin, and the nutrient profile of milk-derived ingredients (such as caseinate, demineralized and modified whey, lactalbumin, and nonfat milk solids) are promising areas of research. SUMMARY
Resources available for support of research in nutrition are government, foundations, industry, and trade organizations. The federal government spent $73 million on human nutrition research in fiscal year 1975. About 82% of the funds were allocated to HEW, 13% to USDA, 4% to DOD, and less than 1% to the VA. Of the total funds, 48% was spent on what is needed (nutrition requirements), 40% on what is applied (disease and diet), 5% on what is consumed (dietary surveys and status), 4% on what is not utilized (metabolic defects), and 3% on what is available (food composition). It appears that HEW is responsible for the health aspects of nutrition, USDA for the food aspects of nutrition, DOD for the nutritional wellbeing of military personnel, and VA for the nutritional well-being of patients under their care. A number of foundations are known for their combined financial support of research in agriculture and in nutrition. Nutrition research by the food industry is primarily ancillary to product and process development. The food industry should be spending .1% of total sales on nutrition research. This would amount to $11.4 million for dairy industry nutrition research in 1977 based on cash receipts from milk by farmers in 1976. Few projects in nutrition research now funded by the federal government, industry-supported organizations, or other foundations relate directly to the nutritional value of dairy foods and their role in the attainment of optimal health. Of the trade organizations sponsoring research in nutrition, National Dairy Council has represented the dairy industry's commitment to nutrition research for the past 63 yrs. Today, the resources available ($400,000) do not reach those recom-
SYMPOSIUM: RESEARCH NEEDS OF THE DAIRY FOODS INDUSTRY
mended ($11,400,000) to develop a Nutrition Research Program commensurate with the problems and opportunities before the dairy industry. Recommendations are provided in areas where intensification of nutrition research would benefit the dairy industry. One area is the health concerns consumers have about dairy foods. The second area is to identify those attributes of dairy foods that show promise in contributing to the nutritional wellbeing of consumers and providing sound nutrition information effective in promoting dairy foods.
REFERENCES
1 Agriculture Research Policy Advisory Committee. 1976. FY 1975 data base of food and food-related research. U. S. Department of Agriculture and National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, Washington, DC. 2 Albanese, A. A. 1977. Calcium. Page 201 in Current topics in nutrition and disease. Vol. 1. Bone loss: Causes, detection and therapy. Alan R. Liss, Inc., New York. 3 Anonymous. 1973. Workshop on the role of land grant institutions in applied human nutrition. Nutrition Foundation, Inc., Washington, DC. 4 Anonymous. 1976. Inventory" of Agricultural Research FY 1975. Vol. I. Table I. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 5 Anonymous, 1977. 1977 milk fats. Milk Industry Foundation, Washington, DC. 6 Brink, M. F. 1968. Nutrition research program of the National Dairy Council. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 21:1211. 7 Center for Disease Control, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1972. Ten State Nutrition Survey, 1968-1970. Pub. No. 72-8134. Atlanta, GA. 8 Congressional Research Service. 1976. The role of the federal government in human nutrition research. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate, U.S. Government Printing Of. flee, Washington, DC. 9 Congressional Research Service. 1977. The role of the federal government in nutrition education. Subcommittee on Domestic Marketing, Consumer Relations and Nutrition, Committee on Agriculture, U. S. House of Representatives. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 10 Federal Trade Commission. 1974. Trade regulation rule on food advertising. Fed. Regist. 39:39842. 11 Fishel, W. L., C. E. Weir, and H. M. Fox. 1971. An evaluation of research in the United States on human nutrition. Report No. 1. A survey of research on human nutrition supported and/or conducted by public research organizations prepared by a joint task group of USDA, the state universities and land grant colleges. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.
641
12 Flatt, W. P. 1976. Unity through diversity in nutrition research. Presented at the National Dairy Council Annual Meeting, Philadelphia, PA. 13 Food and Drug Administration, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1973-1974. Food labeling. Fed. Regist. 38:2124, 6950, 20702; 39:20878. 14 Food and Nutrition Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1972-1977. National Advisory Council on Child Nutrition annual reports for 1971-1976. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 15 Food Program Staff. 1977. Organizing and financing basic research to increase food production. Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Washington, DC. 16 Goldsmith, G. A. 1973. A national nutrition policy and program. Amer. J. Clin. Nutr. 26:901. 17 Goldsmith, G. A. 1973. For a national nutrition policy. Nutr. Today 8: 32. 18 Hegsted, D. M. 1973. The development of a national nutrition policy. J. Amer. Dietet. Ass. 62: 394. 19 Hegsted, D. M. 1974. Food and nutrition policynow and in the future. J. Amer. Dieter. Ass. 64: 367. 20 King, C. G. 1976. A Good Idea. The history of the nutrition foundation. The Nutrition Foundation, New York and Washington, DC. 21 Mayer, J. 1972. Toward a national nutrition policy. Science 176:237. 22 National and Regional Planning CommitteesAgricultural Research Policy Advisory Committee. 1976. 1974-79 Cycle for projecting and analyzing research program adjustments. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges Cooperating, Washington, DC. 23 National Institutes of Health, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 1977. Research awards index, 16th ed. US DHEW Pub. No. (NIH) 77-200, Washington, DC. 24 National Nutrition Consortium. 1974. Guidelines for a national nutrition policy. Prepared for the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 25 Nutrition Research lnteragency Working Group. 1977. Findings and recommendations on federally supported human nutrition research. Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, Washington, DC. 26 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, US Senate. 1974. National nutrition policy study/ hearings. US Government Printing office, Washington, DC. 27 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate. 1977. Index to publications on nutrition and human needs. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 28 Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, U.S. Senate. 1977. Dietary goals for the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 29 Speckmann, E. W. 1975. The National Dairy Council's nutrition research program and its relationship Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
642
SPECKMANN
to a national nutrition policy. J. Milk Food Technol. 38:166. 30 Staats, E. B. 1977. Federal Human Nutrition Research. Prepared for the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning, Analysis and Cooperation of the House Committee on Science and Technology by the U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington, DC. 31 U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1968. Food con-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 5, 1978
sumption of households in the United States. Household Food Consumption Survey 1965-66. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 32 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health. 1970. Final report. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 33 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health. 1971. Report of follow-up conference. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.