- Email: [email protected]
Restraint and irrational cognitions
Behm. Res. Thu.
Printed
in Great
Vol. 23. No. 5, pp. 557-561. Bntain. All rights reserved
RESTRAINT
0005-7967/&Z 53.00 + 0.00
1985
CopyrIght C 1985Pergamon Press Ltd
AND IRRATIONAL
COGNITIONS
AUDREY J. RUDERMAN Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, P.O. Box 4348. Chicago, IL 60680, U.S.A. (Received 23 Junuq~
1985)
Summary-This study tested the hypothesis that restrained eaters tend to hold rigid, absolute, ‘irrational’ beliefs. It also examined the relations of the two subscales of the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS), Concern with Dieting (CD) and Weight Fluctuation (WF), with irrational beliefs. Female college students completed the RRS, the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI), which measures (ir)rationality, and the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ) which assesses depressive distortions. The RRS (P = 0.013) and CD (P < 0.001) scale were both significantly correlated with the RBI while the WF scale was not. Neither the RRS, CD or WF scales was significantly related to depressive distortions. These findings indicate that restrained eaters are prone to rigid, absolute beliefs. Their tendency to hold maladaptive cognitions is not pervasive however, as they showed no evidence of depressive distortions. The results also indicate that
the CD factor of restraint is more closely related than the WF factor to responses thought to characterize restrained eaters.
INTRODUCTION Restraint theory (Herman and Polivy, 1980) proposes that eating patterns are influenced by the balance between physiological factors prompting the desire to eat and efforts to resist that desire or ‘restraint’. A lo-item Revised Restraint Scale (RRS) has been developed which assesses concern with dieting and weight fluctuations. High scorers or ‘restrained’ eaters express a great deal of concern with dieting and/or report large weight fluctuations. Conversely, low scorers or ‘unrestrained’ eaters express little concern with dieting and report a stable weight history. One hypothesis of restraint theory is that restrained eaters develop anomalous eating patterns characterized by dieting and periodic overindulgence. The periods of overindulgence are precipitated by events called ‘disinhibitors’ which interfere with restrained eaters’ self-control. When their self-control is disrupted restrained eaters’ physiological needs for food temporarily prevail and they eat large quantities of food. Dietary disinhibitors include milkshake preloads, alcohol and emotional states, such as anxiety and depression. The disinhibitor which has been most thoroughly investigated is the milkshake preload. Consistent with restraint theory, researchers have found that milkshake preloads disinhibit restrained eaters. Restrained eaters eat more after a milkshake than without one, while unrestrained eaters eat less (e.g. Herman and Mack, 1975). Herman and Mack (1975) propose that milkshake preloads disinhibit restrained eaters by leading them to believe that they have violated their diets. The perception that they have violated their diets in turn, leads restrained eaters to think ‘I’ve blown it. I might as well continue to eat’. Research has supported Herman and Mack’s (1975) hypothesis that a critical aspect of the preload is that it causes restrained eaters to believe that they have ‘broken’ their diets. Spencer and Fremouw (1979) found that when all Ss were given identical milkshake preloads. restrained eaters told that the preload was high in calories, subsequently ate significantly more ice cream than those told the preload was low in calories. Implicit in Herman and Mack’s (1975) account of the processes underlying disinhibition is the assumption that restrained eaters believe that dieting is an all-or-nothing endeavor and that one ‘slip’ is tantamount to abandonment of their diets. These thoughts seem similar in nature to the maladaptive beliefs described as ‘irrational’ by Ellis (Ellis and Harper, 1976) in his rational-emotive theor),. According to Ellis. demanding. absolute, imperative assumptions underlie most psychological problems. Ellis proposes that individuals’ irrational beliefs about how they, others and life ‘must’ or ‘should’ be lead them to interpret mildly distressing events as catastrophic and to respond to them with extreme emotional distress. The binge-eating response which follows when restrained eaters perceive that they have eaten a high-calorie substance suggests that they ascribe to such 557
558
AUDREY
J. RUDERMAN
irrational beliefs. One goal of the present study is to examine the relations between restraint and (ir)rationality as measured by the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI: Shorkey and Whiteman. 1977). This test yields an overall measure of rationality and 11 factor scores each of which taps a different type of rational belief. These factors are described in Table 1. Since the RBI is a measure of rationaIity. it is hypothesized that restraint and RBI scores will be negatively correlated. The relations between restraint and each of the 11 factors of the RBI will also be examined although no specific predictions are being made. While restrained eaters are expected to ascribe to the perfectionistic. absolute. rigid beliefs tapped by the RBI, they are not expected to hold other types of distorted cognitions. Thus, a second type of distorted cognition, depressive distortions, will be assessed using the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ; Krantz and Hammen, 1979). Depressive distortions are thoughts which emphasize negative outcomes and involve an inference that is not valid based upon the information available in a situation. The relations between restraint and the CBQ are not expected to be significant. In addition to examining the relations between (ir)rationality and restraint, this study will examine the relations between (ir)rationality and each of two factors of the RRS, Weight Fluctuation (WF) and Concern with Dieting (CD), identified in factor analyses of the scale (Blanchard and Frost, 1983; Ruderman, 1983). The CD scale consists of six items concerning thoughts and feelings about weight and dieting (e.g. How often are you dieting? Do you have feelings of guilt after overeating?). The WF scale consists of four items concerning the size of typical weight fluctuations (e.g. What is your maximum weight gain in a week? In a typical week how much does your weight fluctuate?). Research comparing the predictive powers of the WF and CD scales has found the CD scale to be a better predictor of the responses thought to characterize restrained eaters. CD scores were more highly correlated than WF scores with the number of bulimic symptoms Ss reported (Ruderman. 1985a), and the amount eaten by Ss in a dysphoric mood (Ruderman. 1985b). Based upon these trends, it is hypothesized that in the present study CD scores will be more highly correlated than WF scores with the irrational beliefs presumed to mediate binge eating.
METHOD
Subjects
and procedures
One hundred and ninety female undergraduates enrolled in Introductory Psychology at the University of Illinois at Chicago completed a battery of questionnaires which included the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS; Herman, Polivy, Pliner, Threlkeld and Munic, 1978), the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI; Shorkey and Whiteman, 1977), the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ; Krantz and Hammen, 19’79) and questions concerning their height and weight. The ratio of Ss self-reported weight to the ideal weight for their self-reported height based upon the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1959) norms was computed. Ss’ weights ranged from 25’,; below to 122”, above ideal weight with a mean of 7”; overweight.
RESULTS The correiations of the RRS and its two subscales, WF and CD, with the RBI, each of its 11 subscales, and the CBQ can be seen in Table 2. Since a large number of significance tests were conducted only those significant at the 0.01 level or less will be discussed. As hypothesized. the correlations of rationality with the RRS (r = -0.18. P = 0.013) and the CD scale (r = -0.319, P < 0.0001) were both negative and significant. The relations of the RRS and CD scale with each of the II factors of the RBI were also examined. Factor I correlated significantly and negatively with both the RRS (r = -0.265. P = 0.0002) and the CD scale (r = -0.359, P = 0.0001). Factor IV correlated significantly with the CD scale (r = -0.218. P = C.003~ but not with the RRS. Factor IX correlated significantly with both the RRS (v = -0.283, P <: 0.0001) and the CD scale (Y = -0.359, P < 0.0001) and Factor XI correlated significantly with the CD scale (r = -0.198, P = 0.006) but not with the RRS. As predicted, the WF factor of the RRS was not significantly correlated with total RBI scores or any of the 11 RBI
Restraint
and irrational
cognitions
559
560
factor scores. Also. the measure RRS. CD or WF scales.
AUDREY J. RUDERMAN
of depressive
distortions
from the CBQ did not correlate
with the
DISCUSSION
As hypothesized, the correlations of both the RRS and the CD scale with rationality were significant and negative. These correlations indicate that the tendency to place extreme importance upon weight loss and dieting may be part of a person’s more general tendency to ascribe to rigid. perfectionistic, irrational beliefs. As predicted, the CD scale was more strongly related to rationality than the WF scale was. It also was more strongly related to rationality than the total RRS. The correlation between the WF scale and rationahty was close to zero and not significant. The CD scale may have been more strongly refated to the RBI than were the WF scale or total RRS because the CD scale and the RBI both measure beliefs. However, it seems likely that the correlation of the CD scale with the RBI and its strength relative to the correlations of the total RRS and WF scale with the RBI are due to more than a shared focus on beliefs. This pattern of correlations is consistent with results of past studies which found that the CD scale was more strongly related to responses thought to characterize restrained eaters (overeating in a dysphoric mood, reporting bulimic symptoms) (Ruderman, 1985a,b) than was the WF scale or total RRS. Based upon both the present findings and those of past research, it seems that the WF and CD scales of restraint are worth distinguishing. and that the CD scale may be the more valid of the two. This study also found that while restrained eaters are prone to irrational cognitions of a rigid. absolute nature they do not seem to have a general predisposition to distort information. Depressive distortions as measured by the CBQ were not related to the total RRS, CD or WF scales. In addition to total RBI scores, the correlations of each of the 11 factor scores of the RBI with the RRS, WF and CD scales were examined. In general, the relations of the CD scale and total RRS with the 1 I irrational beliefs were similar. with the CD scale being more strongly related. The CD scale was significantly related to four of the irrational beliefs and the RRS to two. WF scores were not significantly related to any of the RBI factors. The total RRS and CD scale were significantly and negatively correlated with Factor I scores which assess reactions to frustrating situations. Individuals high on the RRS and CD scale tend to escalate the seriousness of frustrating situations rather than evaluate them objectively. The extreme response of restrained eaters to the relatively minor dietary violation of the milkshake preioad is consistent with such tendencies. The CD scale was signi~cantly and negatively correlated with Factor IV scores which assess the extent to which one looks to others for a frame of reference from which to judge his own attributes, ideas and behaviors. Individuals high on the CD scale tend to rely upon external standards (the opinions of others), rather than internal standards for guiding their behavior. Perhaps the excessive concern with dieting expressed by women who score high on the CD scale reflects a desire to meet societal standards for looking good rather than their own inner needs. RRS and CD scores were both significantly correlated with Factor IX which assesses the tendency to negatively evaluate and become upset with one’s appearance. occupation or social life. This is consistent with the common sense notion that dissatisfaction with appearance is a precursor of dieting. Finally, CD scores were significantly correlated with Factor XI scores which assess the tendency to feel governed by ones’ emotions. Perhaps this reflects the tendency of individuals high on the CD scale to overeat when emotionally upset (Ruderman, 1984b). Overall, the findings of this study indicate that restrained eaters are prone to distorted cognitions of a rigid, perfection&tic and demanding nature. The tendency of these individuals to maintain ‘irrational’ beliefs does not seem pervasive however, as there was no relation between RRS or CD scores and depressive distortions in thinking as measured by the CBQ. The strongest predictor of irrational beliefs was obsessive concern with weight and dieting, as assessed by the CD factor on the RRS. Individuals who scored high on the CD scale tended to escalate the seriousness of frustrating situations, to look to others for a frame of reference, to become unduly upset by
Restraint
and irrational
cognitions
561
negative evaluations of their appearance or other personal attributes and to feel governed by their emotions. Weight fluctuations, as measured by the WF factor of the RRS, were not related to irrational beliefs. The results of this study corroborate those of other investigations (Drewnowski, Riskey and Deser, 1982; Ruderman, 1985a, b) indicating that the CD scale is a good predictor of responses characterizing restrained eaters while the WF scale is not. REFERENCES Blanchard F. A. and Frost R. 0. (1983) Two factors of restraint: Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuation. Behar. Res. Ther. 21, 259-267. Drewnowski A., Riskey D. and Deser J. A. (1982) Feeling fat yet unconcerned: self-reported overweight and the restraint scale. Appetite.. J. Intake Res. 3, 273-279. Ellis A. and Harper R. (1976) A Neu, Guide fo Rarional Living. Wilshire Book Co., Hollywood, Calif. Herman C. P. and Mack D. (1975) Restrained and unrestrained eating. J. Person. 43, 657-660. Herman C. P. and Polivy J. (1980) Restrained eating. In Obesirj, (Edited by Stunkard A. B.). Saunders, Philadelphia, Penn. Herman C. P.. Polivy J.. Phner P., Threlkeld J. and Munic D. (1978) Distractibility in dieters and non-dieters: an alternative vieu of “externality”. J. Person. WC. PsychoI. 36, 536-548. Krantz s’. and Hammen C. (1979) Assessment of cognitive bias in depression. J. abnorm. Psycho/. 88, 61 l-619. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1959) New weight standards for men and women. Statist. Bull. 40, l-4. Ruderman A. J (1983) The Restraint Scale: a psychometric investigation. Behat. Res. Ther. 21, 253-258. Ruderman A. J. (1985a) Restraint. obesity and bulimia. Behac. Res. Ther. 23, 151-156. Ruderman A. J. (1985b) Dysphoric mood and overeating: a test of restraint theory’s disinhibition hypothesis. J. ahnorm. P.s~rhol. In press. Shorkey C. T. and Whiteman V. L. (1977) Development of the rational behavior inventory: initial validation and reliability. Educ. psyhol. Meusur. 37, 527-534. Spencer J. A. and Fremouw W. J. (1979) Binge eating as a function of restraint and weight classification. J. abnorm. Ps.vchol. 88, 262-267.
Printed
in Great
Vol. 23. No. 5, pp. 557-561. Bntain. All rights reserved
RESTRAINT
0005-7967/&Z 53.00 + 0.00
1985
CopyrIght C 1985Pergamon Press Ltd
AND IRRATIONAL
COGNITIONS
AUDREY J. RUDERMAN Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago, P.O. Box 4348. Chicago, IL 60680, U.S.A. (Received 23 Junuq~
1985)
Summary-This study tested the hypothesis that restrained eaters tend to hold rigid, absolute, ‘irrational’ beliefs. It also examined the relations of the two subscales of the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS), Concern with Dieting (CD) and Weight Fluctuation (WF), with irrational beliefs. Female college students completed the RRS, the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI), which measures (ir)rationality, and the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ) which assesses depressive distortions. The RRS (P = 0.013) and CD (P < 0.001) scale were both significantly correlated with the RBI while the WF scale was not. Neither the RRS, CD or WF scales was significantly related to depressive distortions. These findings indicate that restrained eaters are prone to rigid, absolute beliefs. Their tendency to hold maladaptive cognitions is not pervasive however, as they showed no evidence of depressive distortions. The results also indicate that
the CD factor of restraint is more closely related than the WF factor to responses thought to characterize restrained eaters.
INTRODUCTION Restraint theory (Herman and Polivy, 1980) proposes that eating patterns are influenced by the balance between physiological factors prompting the desire to eat and efforts to resist that desire or ‘restraint’. A lo-item Revised Restraint Scale (RRS) has been developed which assesses concern with dieting and weight fluctuations. High scorers or ‘restrained’ eaters express a great deal of concern with dieting and/or report large weight fluctuations. Conversely, low scorers or ‘unrestrained’ eaters express little concern with dieting and report a stable weight history. One hypothesis of restraint theory is that restrained eaters develop anomalous eating patterns characterized by dieting and periodic overindulgence. The periods of overindulgence are precipitated by events called ‘disinhibitors’ which interfere with restrained eaters’ self-control. When their self-control is disrupted restrained eaters’ physiological needs for food temporarily prevail and they eat large quantities of food. Dietary disinhibitors include milkshake preloads, alcohol and emotional states, such as anxiety and depression. The disinhibitor which has been most thoroughly investigated is the milkshake preload. Consistent with restraint theory, researchers have found that milkshake preloads disinhibit restrained eaters. Restrained eaters eat more after a milkshake than without one, while unrestrained eaters eat less (e.g. Herman and Mack, 1975). Herman and Mack (1975) propose that milkshake preloads disinhibit restrained eaters by leading them to believe that they have violated their diets. The perception that they have violated their diets in turn, leads restrained eaters to think ‘I’ve blown it. I might as well continue to eat’. Research has supported Herman and Mack’s (1975) hypothesis that a critical aspect of the preload is that it causes restrained eaters to believe that they have ‘broken’ their diets. Spencer and Fremouw (1979) found that when all Ss were given identical milkshake preloads. restrained eaters told that the preload was high in calories, subsequently ate significantly more ice cream than those told the preload was low in calories. Implicit in Herman and Mack’s (1975) account of the processes underlying disinhibition is the assumption that restrained eaters believe that dieting is an all-or-nothing endeavor and that one ‘slip’ is tantamount to abandonment of their diets. These thoughts seem similar in nature to the maladaptive beliefs described as ‘irrational’ by Ellis (Ellis and Harper, 1976) in his rational-emotive theor),. According to Ellis. demanding. absolute, imperative assumptions underlie most psychological problems. Ellis proposes that individuals’ irrational beliefs about how they, others and life ‘must’ or ‘should’ be lead them to interpret mildly distressing events as catastrophic and to respond to them with extreme emotional distress. The binge-eating response which follows when restrained eaters perceive that they have eaten a high-calorie substance suggests that they ascribe to such 557
558
AUDREY
J. RUDERMAN
irrational beliefs. One goal of the present study is to examine the relations between restraint and (ir)rationality as measured by the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI: Shorkey and Whiteman. 1977). This test yields an overall measure of rationality and 11 factor scores each of which taps a different type of rational belief. These factors are described in Table 1. Since the RBI is a measure of rationaIity. it is hypothesized that restraint and RBI scores will be negatively correlated. The relations between restraint and each of the 11 factors of the RBI will also be examined although no specific predictions are being made. While restrained eaters are expected to ascribe to the perfectionistic. absolute. rigid beliefs tapped by the RBI, they are not expected to hold other types of distorted cognitions. Thus, a second type of distorted cognition, depressive distortions, will be assessed using the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ; Krantz and Hammen, 1979). Depressive distortions are thoughts which emphasize negative outcomes and involve an inference that is not valid based upon the information available in a situation. The relations between restraint and the CBQ are not expected to be significant. In addition to examining the relations between (ir)rationality and restraint, this study will examine the relations between (ir)rationality and each of two factors of the RRS, Weight Fluctuation (WF) and Concern with Dieting (CD), identified in factor analyses of the scale (Blanchard and Frost, 1983; Ruderman, 1983). The CD scale consists of six items concerning thoughts and feelings about weight and dieting (e.g. How often are you dieting? Do you have feelings of guilt after overeating?). The WF scale consists of four items concerning the size of typical weight fluctuations (e.g. What is your maximum weight gain in a week? In a typical week how much does your weight fluctuate?). Research comparing the predictive powers of the WF and CD scales has found the CD scale to be a better predictor of the responses thought to characterize restrained eaters. CD scores were more highly correlated than WF scores with the number of bulimic symptoms Ss reported (Ruderman. 1985a), and the amount eaten by Ss in a dysphoric mood (Ruderman. 1985b). Based upon these trends, it is hypothesized that in the present study CD scores will be more highly correlated than WF scores with the irrational beliefs presumed to mediate binge eating.
METHOD
Subjects
and procedures
One hundred and ninety female undergraduates enrolled in Introductory Psychology at the University of Illinois at Chicago completed a battery of questionnaires which included the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS; Herman, Polivy, Pliner, Threlkeld and Munic, 1978), the Rational Beliefs Inventory (RBI; Shorkey and Whiteman, 1977), the Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (CBQ; Krantz and Hammen, 19’79) and questions concerning their height and weight. The ratio of Ss self-reported weight to the ideal weight for their self-reported height based upon the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1959) norms was computed. Ss’ weights ranged from 25’,; below to 122”, above ideal weight with a mean of 7”; overweight.
RESULTS The correiations of the RRS and its two subscales, WF and CD, with the RBI, each of its 11 subscales, and the CBQ can be seen in Table 2. Since a large number of significance tests were conducted only those significant at the 0.01 level or less will be discussed. As hypothesized. the correlations of rationality with the RRS (r = -0.18. P = 0.013) and the CD scale (r = -0.319, P < 0.0001) were both negative and significant. The relations of the RRS and CD scale with each of the II factors of the RBI were also examined. Factor I correlated significantly and negatively with both the RRS (r = -0.265. P = 0.0002) and the CD scale (r = -0.359, P = 0.0001). Factor IV correlated significantly with the CD scale (r = -0.218. P = C.003~ but not with the RRS. Factor IX correlated significantly with both the RRS (v = -0.283, P <: 0.0001) and the CD scale (Y = -0.359, P < 0.0001) and Factor XI correlated significantly with the CD scale (r = -0.198, P = 0.006) but not with the RRS. As predicted, the WF factor of the RRS was not significantly correlated with total RBI scores or any of the 11 RBI
Restraint
and irrational
cognitions
559
560
factor scores. Also. the measure RRS. CD or WF scales.
AUDREY J. RUDERMAN
of depressive
distortions
from the CBQ did not correlate
with the
DISCUSSION
As hypothesized, the correlations of both the RRS and the CD scale with rationality were significant and negative. These correlations indicate that the tendency to place extreme importance upon weight loss and dieting may be part of a person’s more general tendency to ascribe to rigid. perfectionistic, irrational beliefs. As predicted, the CD scale was more strongly related to rationality than the WF scale was. It also was more strongly related to rationality than the total RRS. The correlation between the WF scale and rationahty was close to zero and not significant. The CD scale may have been more strongly refated to the RBI than were the WF scale or total RRS because the CD scale and the RBI both measure beliefs. However, it seems likely that the correlation of the CD scale with the RBI and its strength relative to the correlations of the total RRS and WF scale with the RBI are due to more than a shared focus on beliefs. This pattern of correlations is consistent with results of past studies which found that the CD scale was more strongly related to responses thought to characterize restrained eaters (overeating in a dysphoric mood, reporting bulimic symptoms) (Ruderman, 1985a,b) than was the WF scale or total RRS. Based upon both the present findings and those of past research, it seems that the WF and CD scales of restraint are worth distinguishing. and that the CD scale may be the more valid of the two. This study also found that while restrained eaters are prone to irrational cognitions of a rigid. absolute nature they do not seem to have a general predisposition to distort information. Depressive distortions as measured by the CBQ were not related to the total RRS, CD or WF scales. In addition to total RBI scores, the correlations of each of the 11 factor scores of the RBI with the RRS, WF and CD scales were examined. In general, the relations of the CD scale and total RRS with the 1 I irrational beliefs were similar. with the CD scale being more strongly related. The CD scale was significantly related to four of the irrational beliefs and the RRS to two. WF scores were not significantly related to any of the RBI factors. The total RRS and CD scale were significantly and negatively correlated with Factor I scores which assess reactions to frustrating situations. Individuals high on the RRS and CD scale tend to escalate the seriousness of frustrating situations rather than evaluate them objectively. The extreme response of restrained eaters to the relatively minor dietary violation of the milkshake preioad is consistent with such tendencies. The CD scale was signi~cantly and negatively correlated with Factor IV scores which assess the extent to which one looks to others for a frame of reference from which to judge his own attributes, ideas and behaviors. Individuals high on the CD scale tend to rely upon external standards (the opinions of others), rather than internal standards for guiding their behavior. Perhaps the excessive concern with dieting expressed by women who score high on the CD scale reflects a desire to meet societal standards for looking good rather than their own inner needs. RRS and CD scores were both significantly correlated with Factor IX which assesses the tendency to negatively evaluate and become upset with one’s appearance. occupation or social life. This is consistent with the common sense notion that dissatisfaction with appearance is a precursor of dieting. Finally, CD scores were significantly correlated with Factor XI scores which assess the tendency to feel governed by ones’ emotions. Perhaps this reflects the tendency of individuals high on the CD scale to overeat when emotionally upset (Ruderman, 1984b). Overall, the findings of this study indicate that restrained eaters are prone to distorted cognitions of a rigid, perfection&tic and demanding nature. The tendency of these individuals to maintain ‘irrational’ beliefs does not seem pervasive however, as there was no relation between RRS or CD scores and depressive distortions in thinking as measured by the CBQ. The strongest predictor of irrational beliefs was obsessive concern with weight and dieting, as assessed by the CD factor on the RRS. Individuals who scored high on the CD scale tended to escalate the seriousness of frustrating situations, to look to others for a frame of reference, to become unduly upset by
Restraint
and irrational
cognitions
561
negative evaluations of their appearance or other personal attributes and to feel governed by their emotions. Weight fluctuations, as measured by the WF factor of the RRS, were not related to irrational beliefs. The results of this study corroborate those of other investigations (Drewnowski, Riskey and Deser, 1982; Ruderman, 1985a, b) indicating that the CD scale is a good predictor of responses characterizing restrained eaters while the WF scale is not. REFERENCES Blanchard F. A. and Frost R. 0. (1983) Two factors of restraint: Concern for Dieting and Weight Fluctuation. Behar. Res. Ther. 21, 259-267. Drewnowski A., Riskey D. and Deser J. A. (1982) Feeling fat yet unconcerned: self-reported overweight and the restraint scale. Appetite.. J. Intake Res. 3, 273-279. Ellis A. and Harper R. (1976) A Neu, Guide fo Rarional Living. Wilshire Book Co., Hollywood, Calif. Herman C. P. and Mack D. (1975) Restrained and unrestrained eating. J. Person. 43, 657-660. Herman C. P. and Polivy J. (1980) Restrained eating. In Obesirj, (Edited by Stunkard A. B.). Saunders, Philadelphia, Penn. Herman C. P.. Polivy J.. Phner P., Threlkeld J. and Munic D. (1978) Distractibility in dieters and non-dieters: an alternative vieu of “externality”. J. Person. WC. PsychoI. 36, 536-548. Krantz s’. and Hammen C. (1979) Assessment of cognitive bias in depression. J. abnorm. Psycho/. 88, 61 l-619. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company (1959) New weight standards for men and women. Statist. Bull. 40, l-4. Ruderman A. J (1983) The Restraint Scale: a psychometric investigation. Behat. Res. Ther. 21, 253-258. Ruderman A. J. (1985a) Restraint. obesity and bulimia. Behac. Res. Ther. 23, 151-156. Ruderman A. J. (1985b) Dysphoric mood and overeating: a test of restraint theory’s disinhibition hypothesis. J. ahnorm. P.s~rhol. In press. Shorkey C. T. and Whiteman V. L. (1977) Development of the rational behavior inventory: initial validation and reliability. Educ. psyhol. Meusur. 37, 527-534. Spencer J. A. and Fremouw W. J. (1979) Binge eating as a function of restraint and weight classification. J. abnorm. Ps.vchol. 88, 262-267.