Retail employee guardianship behaviour: A phenomenological investigation

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102017

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Retail employee guardianship behaviour: A phenomenological investigation Balkrushna Potdar a, *, Tony Garry a, Lisa McNeill a, Juergen Gnoth a, Rakesh Pandey b, Mansi Mansi b, John Guthrie a a b

Department of Marketing, Otago Business School, PO Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand Tasmanian School of Business and Economics, University of Tasmania, Newnham, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Internal and external CSR Organisational attachment Guardianship behaviour Shoplifting prevention

Supermarkets suffer significant losses as a consequence of shoplifting. Amongst the existing electronic and manual surveillance measures for retail crime management, the role of employees in preventing or controlling retail crime has not been systematically addressed within the extant literature. This paper contributes to addressing this gap by examining how employers’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) involvement influences employee proclivity towards guardianship behaviour in shoplifting prevention. A phenomenological approach is adopted comprising semi-structured interviews of twenty-nine shop-floor employees of two national supermarket chains within a cosmopolitan city of New Zealand. Findings strongly support the suggestion that employee perceptions of employer internal and external CSR may shape their feelings of organisational attachment, resulting in employee guardianship behaviour that manifests in in-store shoplifting prevention. Further, from a societal perspective, this study suggests that a reduction in retail crime contributes towards positive relationships among key stakeholders such as supermarkets, their employees, and society at large based on the social, envi­ ronmental, and employee welfare practices of supermarkets.

1. Introduction Shoplifting is a prevalent retail crime (Hirtenlehner and Hardie, 2016) and a type of consumer misbehaviour (Reynolds and Harris, 2009) that results in significant financial, social, and psychological loss for supermarkets (Reynolds and Harris, 2006). According to a 2017 national survey on retail crime in New Zealand, financial losses from shoplifting and burglary within the retail sector were recorded at NZ $836 million, and overall financial losses from retail crime reached 1.3% of annual sales (Guthrie and Mulder, 2017). These retail crime losses have been attributed to the inadequacy of existing tools for crime pre­ vention, including closed-circuit televisions (CCTVs), radio frequency identification (RFID), burglar alarms and graphical information system enabled (GIS) tags. However, retail crime prevention has tended to neglect the role of employees in safeguarding products or deterring criminal incidents. In the context of supermarkets, employees are a key asset that contributes to both the growth and development of the organisation through effective participation in their supermarket’s

organisational activities (Breeze and Wiepking, 2018). Additionally, employees are key internal stakeholders in supermarkets, and as such may anticipate high CSR performance standards from their employers (Brunton et al., 2017). In return, satisfied and engaged employees result in high levels of employee engagement, organisational commitment, and organisational advocacy (Du et al., 2010; Rosati et al., 2018; ter Hoeven and Verhoeven, 2013). For employee engagement to lead to loss prevention advocacy, it is imperative that supermarkets attract and retain staff who develop organisational belongingness perceptions and, consequently, display higher levels of employee support for shoplifting prevention activities (Beck and Borman, 2014; Beck and Hopkins, 2016). Organisational literature notes that elevated employee engagement and reciprocal trust can be achieved by meeting the internal and external CSR expectations of employees (Hansen et al., 2011). To this end, this research explores the relationship between organisational Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives and their effect on employee organisational attachment and resultant retail guardianship behaviour.

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Potdar), [email protected] (T. Garry), [email protected] (L. McNeill), [email protected]. nz (J. Gnoth), [email protected] (R. Pandey), [email protected] (M. Mansi), [email protected] (J. Guthrie). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.102017 Received 29 January 2019; Received in revised form 22 November 2019; Accepted 7 December 2019 Available online 20 December 2019 0969-6989/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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2. Theoretical background

landlords, business owners and direct supervisors of venues where criminal events can take place (Sampson et al., 2010). Guardians are individuals who may happen to watch or willingly lookout for the po­ tential target of a crime (Felson, 2006). These three subtypes are inter­ related and influence criminal behaviours (Hollis-Peel et al., 2011) since an offender invariably “moves away from handlers toward a place without a manager and a target without a guardian” (Hollis and Wilson, 2014, p. 172). The crime event can thus be conceptualized as a triangle, depicting the target of crime, the offender, and the place where a crime takes place (Fig. 1). The outer layer of the crime event triangle shown in Fig. 1 encompasses the elements that may reduce the likelihood of a crime event - the guardian is watching over the target, the manager is watching over the place that is vulnerable to crime, and the handler is watching over the offender. The ‘occasional’ guardian is an individual who unintentionally happens to be near a potential criminal event and intervenes to prevent that event occurring. From a retail perspective, examples of an occa­ sional guardian are a shopper perusing the aisles, or an employee stocking the shelves in the aisle of a supermarket, whose presence may act as a deterrent to crime amongst potential offenders. The guardian may or may not have a formal responsibility to prevent criminal events from happening. In general, they do not have a particular agenda toward crime prevention or purposeful intention to safeguard the vulnerable object (in this case, the supermarket and its stock) (Hollis-Peel et al., 2011; Leclerc and Reynald, 2017; Tilley et al., 2015). That said, effective guardianship requires monitoring and interven­ tion as necessary and hence requires an action-based approach demon­ strating availability, supervision, and intervention that are directly observable (Reynald, 2009, 2010). This is primarily to ensure that an individual is present or ‘available’ around vulnerable objects, to voluntarily supervise and ensure the safety of those vulnerable objects and intervene to protect those objects from theft if and when necessary. Action-based guardianship is thus prevalent in situational crime pre­ vention (Cohen and Felson, 1979; Felson, 2006; Felson and Boba, 2010; Reynald, 2009, 2010). Since the context of this study is supermarkets, shop-floor employees are thus primary stakeholders in action-based ~ o and Lo �pez-Mill� guardianship scenarios (Fern� andez-Guadan an, 2018; Gambeta et al., 2019; S. Lee et al., 2018; Van Buren and Greenwood, 2008).

Extant literature suggests that CSR practices are likely to either detract from or enhance, employee engagement with an organisation. Employee engagement may lead to increased organisational attachment and result in the exhibition of guardianship behaviours. This connection implies a link between employee guardianship behaviour in a retail setting and the extent to which employees perceive CSR practices as meeting their expectations. To fully understand this association, it is imperative to examine the relationship between an organisation’s CSR strategy and how this may manifest in employee attitudes and behav­ iours regarding retail crime prevention. 2.1. Guardianship behaviour Guardianship theory provides insights into what motivates in­ dividuals to safeguard objects in certain situations (Cohen and Felson, 1979). Felson (2006) defines the role of a crime guardian as someone who “… keeps an eye on the potential target of crime. This includes anybody passing by, or anybody assigned to look after people or property. This usually refers to ordinary citizens, not police or private guards” (p. 80). Guardians are available and willing to monitor an object (location, premises, per­ son and so forth) to the extent that their presence may evoke feelings that someone is watching for potential offenders, thus acting as a deterrent to potential criminals. In this sense, a guardian is “someone whose mere presence serves as a gentle reminder that someone [else] is looking” (Yar, 2005, p. 422). Therefore, guardianship may encompass individuals who engage in natural surveillance, such as, “ordinary citi­ zens going about their daily lives but providing by their presence some degree of security” (Hollis et al., 2013, p. 72). However, such individuals are not official law enforcement employees, who are often unlikely to be in the vicinity when a crime occurs (Felson and Boba, 2010). Studies of guardianship behaviour (see a summary of extant review of studies on Guardianship Behaviour in Appendix A) divide individuals into three subtypes: ‘handlers, managers, and guardians (Eck, 1994; Felson, 1995; Felson and Boba, 2010; Sampson et al., 2010; Tillyer and Eck, 2011). Handlers are supervisors of offenders or those with whom the offender has a close personal relationship (such as parents and friends). The goal of handlers is to keep possible offenders out of trouble (Sampson et al., 2010). In contrast, managers are the owners or dele­ gated owner’s representatives, of property or a place. Managers include

Fig. 1. Crime Event Triangle with Controllers to prevent a crime (Sources: Felson and Boba, 2010; Sampson et al., 2010; Tillyer and Eck, 2011). 2

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2.2. Guardianship behaviour and employee perceptions of CSR

Employee awareness and understanding of their organisation’s CSR activities are important (Andreu et al., 2015) so as to prevent misin­ terpretation of its activities. Misinterpretations may lead to employee misunderstandings (Nakpodia et al., 2016), such as how, why and where organisational resources are employed (Stoian and Gilman, 2017). Furthermore, if employees are unaware of CSR activities, these practices may not have a positive influence on employee attitudes and behaviours (de Jong and van der Meer, 2017). However, awareness alone is not sufficient to evoke positive employee responses and engagement (de Jong and van der Meer, 2017). Employees must recognize CSR activities as effective and consistent with the values of the organisation (Valentine and Godkin, 2017). This perceived sincerity, credibility (de Jong and van der Meer, 2017) and fit (E. M. Lee et al., 2013b) all have an influence on employee beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward the organisation (Zhang, 2014). If employees believe that their organisation’s CSR efforts are credible, insofar as they are socially motivated rather than profit-motivated (Min-Seong and Dong-Woo, 2017; Sahelices-Pinto et al., 2018), a positive disposition towards the organisation may emerge together with associated behaviours (Fu et al., 2014; Reklitis et al., 2018), including employee organisational attachment.

The extent to which employees perceive that a company is a good citizen fulfilling its social responsibilities (CSR) has clear implications for guardianship behaviour (E. M. Lee et al., 2013b). A recognised advantage of employees’ positive perceptions of CSR is in enhancing teamwork and improving productivity (Boza et al., 2017; E. M. Lee et al., 2013b). Conversely, employee negative perceptions of CSR may lower morale and productivity (George, 2014). Employees make individual judgments about their organisation’s CSR activities, and these views will consequently have an effect on their attitudes and behaviours toward their employer and within their employment context (E. M. Lee et al., 2013b). Employee perceptions of CSR influence individually-relevant and potentially positive outcomes (Gond et al., 2017), such as - job satisfaction (Reklitis et al., 2018), job performance (Hur et al., 2016), organisational attractiveness (Moon et al., 2014), organisational commitment (Glavas, 2016), employee corporate identification (Asante Boadi et al., 2019), and organisational citizenship behaviour (West et al., 2015; D. Yoon et al., 2016). Organisational citizenship behaviour theory suggests that employees demonstrate concern and support for their organisation (E. M. Lee et al., 2013b). Furthermore, E. M. Lee et al. (2013b), note that if employees experience cohesion between their organisational culture and its CSR practices (Reklitis et al., 2018), they are likely to believe their organi­ sation’s CSR efforts are genuine (Chaudhary, 2017) and favourable (Edwards and Kudret, 2017). These beliefs improve employee perfor­ mance (Gauthier and Wooldridge, 2018; Peters et al., 2018) and lower their intentions to leave an organisation (Buttner and Lowe, 2017). This, in turn, may lead to an increased likelihood of guardianship behaviour within the organisational environment.

2.4. Employee organisational attachment Organisational attachment focuses on the affective component of organisational commitment (J. Yoon and Lee, 2016). While employee attachment is defined as “an individual’s psychological and behavioural involvement in a social group or unit of which he or she is a member” (Swider et al., 2011, p. 160), organisational attachment is affective in nature and is explained by social identity theory (SIT) (Ashforth and Mael, 1989; Hogg and Turner, 1987; Tajfel and Turner, 1986). Therefore, affective organisational attachment is defined as “a sense of emotional connection, a desire to spend time together, and a willingness to support each other” (Bu and Roy, 2015, p. 270) in an organisation. This suggests that individuals are motivated to enhance their self-esteem by belonging to groups or organisations with positive reputations (Tajfel and Turner, 1986; J. Yoon and Lee, 2016). If an organisation’s CSR activity enhances its reputation then its employees tend to reciprocate the increased positive reputation through increased advocacy and attachment towards their employer organisation (Ashforth and Mael, 1989; Wang et al., 2017; J. Yoon and Lee, 2016). Hence, Reimer et al. (2017) argue that organisations should invest in CSR practices that resonate with the beliefs of their employees, as this may help evoke and/or increase employee organisational attachment and hence benefit organisational performance. Extending this concept, this research proposes that the link between CSR and organisational attachment is critical in understanding employee engagement and sub­ sequent voluntary guardianship behaviour, in the context of retail crime prevention. However, the intensification of attachment through social identification processes is only possible if the organisation enhances its reputation in an authentic manner (as perceived by employees). Consequently, the accomplishment of enhanced organisational status through authentic management of CSR practices will increase em­ ployee’s affective organisational attachment. Authenticity may be interpreted as ‘being true to oneself’ (McShane and Cunningham, 2012). In the present context of retail crime, moral authenticity is salient (Carroll and Wheaton, 2009), and characterised by individually built connotations. They are perceived as factual and related to an object or a service, which implies that if an object or a service symbolizes the exclusive moral values of an organisation, it is considered as authentic (J. Yoon and Lee, 2016). For companies to present their voluntary social and environmental disclosures as authentic, legitimacy theory may be used to probe the underlying mo­ tivations. Legitimacy theory uses two approaches – institutional theory and the social-psychological approach. Institutional theory primarily focuses on external stakeholders, whereas social psychology highlights the achievements of moral norms by internal stakeholders (J. Yoon and

2.3. Employee engagement with CSR for positive organisational outcomes CSR strategies may be identified through organisational values, vision, and culture that articulate the social dynamic (Li et al., 2015), the social performance (Saeidi et al., 2015), and the behaviours of em­ ployees within their organisations (Korschun et al., 2014). Similarly, a societal perspective on CSR suggests that organisations should “protect and improve the welfare of the society as a whole” (Mendes, 2018, p. 36). Hence, organisations should consider their culture and values and are expected to communicate CSR policies to their employees (Ingham and Havard, 2017). Although it may be challenging for organisations to engage employees in their CSR activities (Langwell and Heaton, 2016), research suggests that many employees view CSR activities as oppor­ tunities for personal growth (E. M. Lee et al., 2013b). Employees may achieve recognition and respect from their family, friends, and local community for representing a socially responsible organisation (Strand et al., 2015). In turn, employees may show reciprocity through their work, which results in increased job satisfaction (Tuna et al., 2016) and job performance (Korschun et al., 2014). Further, if employees are aware of and engaged with their organisation’s CSR activities, a psy­ chological contract between the employee and their employer may be created (Du et al., 2015). A psychological contract has an important role to play in increasing employee job performance (Singhapakdi et al., 2015). In the context of CSR, a psychological contract is an emotional agreement between an employee and his/her organisation that the organisation continues to work for the overall society, the surrounding environment, and the welfare of the employees. As a consequence, the employee feels satisfied and motivated to perform better work for their employer. Psychological contracts may evoke organisational citizenship behaviour (Priesemuth and Taylor, 2016) and thus benefit the organisation (Panaccio et al., 2015). Additionally, employee wellbeing reciprocally reflects an em­ ployees’ willingness to contribute towards the organisation’s well-being (Cooper et al., 2014) and is linked to job satisfaction (Huo and Boxall, 2018). 3

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Thye, 2011) – connecting employee guardianship behaviour and crime prevention.

qualify as guardianship behaviour. Thus, a phenomenological approach allowed for personal discussion and consideration of factors relevant to individuals. A survey approach was deemed inappropriate in this context, as nuances and subjective perceptions by individuals would be obscured by pre-determined response categories. Further, as the focus of this study is on interpretation and inductive reasoning, specific obser­ vations of individual staff members can be utilised to form analytical generalisations in a broader theoretical fashion, contributing to the development of an overarching conceptual framework for employee guardianship behaviour in the retail setting. A purposive sampling approach was used to ensure diversity amongst operational level supermarket staff across various attributes such as gender, age, employment status, and years of association with the supermarket. The participants were selected based on at least one year’s continuous service in their respective supermarkets. This was based on the assumption that a period of one year is deemed sufficient to develop an understanding of the work culture and atmosphere of the supermarket. One additional criterion was that the participants had experience with at least one shoplifting incident in that period. Following the principle of sample size adequacy and saturation for both the pilot and main interviews (M. J. Gill, 2014; Goulding, 2005; M. Mason, 2010; Saunders et al., 2018), the interview protocol was trialled with three supermarket employees, in order to test the adequacy of the question probes in allowing depth and range of discussion. The final number of interviews was not predetermined, with the principle of saturation of themes used to inform researchers as to completeness of the data set (S. Kim et al., 2014). On average, each interview lasted for around 60 min. All interviews were audio-recorded, and written observations were made to enhance audio transcriptions and identify points for further examination. All recordings were transcribed and individual transcripts reviewed by the relevant participant for accuracy. After completion of the twenty-ninth interview, data saturation was judged to have been attained, as no new information was forthcoming. A total of twenty male and nine female employees participated in our study.2 This gender split, whilst uneven, was representative of the employee make-up of the stores in question, thus, it was deemed to represent the real-world situation of the supermarket and staff experience within it. Qualitative research analysis software (Nvivo 11) was used to code (three-level) and analyse interview transcripts. Based on Engberink et al. (2016), the analysis of interview transcripts used a semio-pragmatic data interpretation pro­ cedure. Using this method, the contextual and linguistic elements of the text were considered. The analysis design followed the Consolidated criteria for Reporting Qualitative research viz. COREQ (Herron, 2018).

2.5. Organisational attachment and guardianship behaviour Del Bosco and Misani (2011) identify three potential outcomes of CSR in the prevention of crimes against an organisation, the legitimacy of CSR policy and practices and their effect on social processes, the satisfaction of stakeholders, including employees, and the cumulative effect these have on perceptions of fairness. These help structure and assume a potential behavioural sequence of opportunity – motivation – justification (Stachowicz-Stanusch and Simha, 2013; Voliotis, 2011) for employees’ guardianship behaviour. The legitimacy of CSR policy and practices and their effect on social processes provides an opportunity for employees to identify themselves with the company because it refers to an outcome of the organisation that conforms to the normative expectations of its social environment (Palazzo and Scherer, 2006). The satisfaction of stakeholders, including employees, motivates support for the organisation’s CSR activities (Preston and Donaldson, 1999), while the cumulative effect and per­ ceptions of fairness justify organisational citizenship behaviour (Fassina et al., 2008; Organ, 1997). Legitimate CSR activities may thus affect potential attitudes and behaviours of employees as well as the safe­ guarding by stakeholders of the organisation (Del Bosco and Misani, 2011). Prior research confirms a strong link between CSR and organisational attachment. Engaged employees are self-motivated (Glavas, 2012; Maha and Saoud, 2014), proactively promote their organisation’s products and services (Men, 2014; Smith et al., 2017) and may earn social recognition for their organisation (R. Gill, 2015). These actions also exhibit extra-role performance behaviours of employees (Albrecht et al., 2015; Demerouti et al., 2015). Extant literature demonstrates the sig­ nificant correlation between CSR and organisational attachment (Mayo et al., 2016), especially that of organisational commitment (Brammer et al., 2007; Turker, 2009). Consequently, the aim of this study is to determine how operational level staff of supermarkets perceive the CSR activities of their respective employers, and what impact this perception has on their motivation to prevent shoplifting. The overarching objec­ tive of this research is to develop a conceptual framework for employee guardianship behaviour, as guided by the following research questions (RQs): � RQ1: How do organisational internal and external CSR activities affect employee organisational attachment? � RQ2: Does organisational attachment lead to guardianship behaviour?

4. Findings

3. Research methodology

The findings are structured around two key themes that emerged during the analysis. The first theme that relates to employee perceptions of CSR and their guardianship behaviour; while, the second theme re­ lates to organisational attachment and employee guardianship behav­ iour. ‘Appendix B’ presents two tables. ‘Table 1’ contains a series of counts for each observation and ‘Table 2’ contains extra quotes for the themes identified in this research to demonstrate theoretical saturation.

Given the nature of the research questions, a phenomenological approach was adopted, and semi-structured depth interviews with twenty-nine operational level staff were conducted within two national supermarket chains in a cosmopolitan city of New Zealand.1 A phenomenological approach was deemed appropriate for the purposes of this research as phenomenology is a philosophical construct relevant to the lived experience of people (Gray, 2013). Hope (2017) defines phenomenology as “… a philosophical construct in which an idea or concept is defined through subjects and relationships with the subject” (p. 37) focusing on understanding phenomena rather than explaining them (Sadala and Adorno, 2002). The aim of this study was centred on understanding employee per­ ceptions of the organisation and their attitude towards actions that

4.1. Theme 1: employee perceptions of CSR practices and employee guardianship behaviour A number of responses provide evidence of an association between employee perceptions of organisational CSR practices and employee attitudes towards shoplifting prevention. These responses demonstrate that employees not only perceive but also acknowledge that their respective store actively participates in both internal and external CSR

1 Pseudonyms are used to protect franchisor anonymity based on a confi­ dentiality agreement between the authors and the respective national food supplier company.

2

4

Pseudonyms are used to protect participant anonymity.

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activities and acknowledge the genuine effort made by their employers towards both employee welfare and societal welfare. There is a recog­ nition that for such activities to continue, employees are even prepared to intervene if they consider that their stores’ internal and external CSR efforts may be eroded by the behaviour of others. However, it is inter­ esting to note that different CSR activities and causes resonate differ­ ently with different employees. For example: Boston recognises and compliments donations made by his store to local farmers and animal shelters. These particular CSR activities reso­ nate with him personally and he sees a direct link between the behaviour of deviant customers and the store’s CSR activities and believes that by stopping people from shoplifting he is also helping towards his em­ ployer’s CSR initiatives. He shares

shows this in the form of guardianship behaviour. Echoing Ivan’s belief, Jackson, Hendrik, Garrison, Udo, etc. from Store-X and Pablo, Ryker, Zara, Zayne, etc. from Store-Y suggest their self-concern and self-interest as the instrumental motivation of their guardianship behaviour. Interestingly, Weston recognises his employer’s initiatives towards reducing carbon emission and noise pollution. For him, his employer’s environmental initiatives within the store are particularly pertinent. He states: “… It was very thoughtful of the owners that they invested in the replacement of all existing and traditional diesel-based forklift engines to new electrically run engines … it helps to combat not just air but noise pollution as well … it is helpful for employees, customers, and overall nature …” (Weston, X). Extant literature shows the link between employees’ individual concerns for the environment and their organizational citizenship behaviour (Boiral et al., 2019; Graves et al., 2013). These are considered as moral drivers for CSR (Gond et al., 2017). Weston, as a supermarket employee suggests one such CSR moral driver for his guardianship behaviour. In the same light, Frankfurt, Maria, and Titus from Store-X, as well as Quincy, Santiago, and Zander from Store-Y suggest their concerns for environment as the moral driver of motivation of their guardianship behaviour. Additionally, Orion’s attitude illustrates how the incentives used in its store made him feel offended by thieves and take on a guardianship role for his store:

“… often, we have to credit products mainly because they pass the sale-by dates … our store recognizes that these products are not safe for human consumption, however, instead of throwing these products into landfills [rubbish dumps], these are donated to shelters for street animals … some local farmers also visit our store to pick up these products for free [dairy, sheep, poultry, venison, etc.] … I myself am an animal lover … These novel donations are genuinely touchy … it extremely offends me when I see people grazing [in-store consumption of an edible product before paying for it] and shoplifting at this truly responsible supermarket to its society and the environment …” (Boston, X).3 As suggested in their study, Gond et al. (2017), propose that moral drivers of employees act as their motivation to perform positive discretionary behaviour in the organization. Moral drivers typically reflect an individual’s care-based concerns (Deborah E. Rupp and Mal­ lory, 2015). In organisations, such discretionary extra-role behaviour of employees is termed as organizational citizenship behaviour (Kleine et al., 2019). With respect to the present research, along with Boston, who has mentioned his love for animals and then related his motivation to perform guardianship behaviour to stop retail crime; various re­ spondents from both Store-X and Store-Y, presented similar motivations for their guardianship behaviour. These include, Alpine, Douglas, and Yvonne (please refer Table 2 of Appendix B) from Store-X as well as Caroline and Zenith from Store-Y, who respectively suggest that their motivation for performing guardianship behaviour is the moral drivers of Alpine, Caroline, Douglas, Yvonne, and Zenith with respect to good acts of their stores for animals and birds. Moreover, for Ivan, the ability of the store to fund its CSR is linked to its social thoughtfulness. Shoplifting erodes profit margins and hence potential CSR activities. Consequently, Ivan sees it as the employees ‘responsibility’ to address such behaviours:

“… I remember when I was in grade eleven, I participated in an interschool rugby tournament that our team won and personally I received a sports scholarship [from the supermarket] … this [the scholarship] covered my expenses of rugby training for one full-year … in-exchange [I did] an in-store plastic pollution awareness campaign for just four weekends …I freak out when I see someone shoplifting from our store that is such nice and helpful to the community …” (Orion, Y). Orion suggests that his store’s quality of positive embeddedness in the local community through a sports sponsorship that he has been a beneficiary of, acts as a relational driver that guides his moral obligation for demonstrating his guardianship behaviour (Gond et al., 2017). During interviews, respondents shared their emotional engagement with relevant gestures, facial connotations, and empathetic postures to relate how much they supported their shop or how offensive they find shop­ lifting. In other words, various respondents’ facial gestures and postures noted while being interviewed indicate that they take pride in working at a store that does good acts for the community. This finding confirms, especially in the external CSR context that employees who have been personal beneficiaries of external CSR activities are likely to develop stronger positive perceptions towards the store since they feel privileged to be a part of an organization that cares for its society, community, and environment (O. Farooq et al., 2017). Various employees from both the store acknowledged the benefits they received from their present employer. For example, Leila, Niamh, and Vance from Store-X and Xavier from Store-Y specified that the benefits they received as a part of the general community in the past positively affect their participation in the guardianship of the store from shoplifters. Implicit within these examples is an acknowledgment of these stores’ involvement in CSR activities focused on local community, society, and the environment, and the implication that employee perceptions of external CSR directly influence their decision to participate in guard­ ianship behaviour. This evokes a strong emotional response and behavioural intervention to prevent shoplifting. Such responses suggest that employees may intervene in events of shoplifting and attempt to deter shoplifting incidents when they are witnessed. Overall, these re­ sponses suggest the external CSR practices positively affect employee propensity towards shoplifting prevention particularly when they reso­ nate with the employee.

“… people should understand that the store owners have a very small profit margin and despite this, they run noble activities for the society … such as, blood-donation camps; breast-cancer, cervical cancer, bowel cancer awareness camps; donations of food to orphanages, etc …. these are helpful for not just our customers but also to the employees … to be aware regarding chronic diseases … and take relative precautionary steps … if someone tries to be a threat to this [societal welfare activities] through stealing at our supermarket, then it is our [the employees’] re­ sponsibility to combat this type of nuisance behaviour towards our store …” (Ivan, X). The ability of employees to relate the social thoughtfulness of their employer (supermarket) to reflect their self-recognition for individual self-concern or self-interest (Aguilera et al., 2007; Deborah E. Rupp et al., 2006; Deborah E Rupp et al., 2011) and eventually, these deemed to act as an instrumental driver for employees to demonstrate their extra-role behaviour (Gond et al., 2017). In the present context, Ivan

3

(Pseudonym of the participant, Pseudonym of the supermarket). 5

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Additionally, regarding internal CSR practices and employee wel­ fare, there are also explicit indications that many of these internal CSR activities are recognised by employees as being exceeding the fulfillment of any legitimate or legislative requirements of the employer’s re­ sponsibilities. As such, this was interpreted by the respondents as a genuine commitment by the business to its employees which drives them to help the store to deter shoplifting incidents. Kennis and Hendrik acknowledge their store’s helping attitude and believe their store will always help them during their difficult times. This sense of personal touch, and, moreover, a notion of security from the store during tough times motivates them to take personal interest in interfering and confronting shoplifters. Kennis shares the following example to illustrate this point:

of the store from shoplifters and grazing customers. Moreover, Jackson articulates: “… physical and mental fitness is an important part of my daily routine … our store gives vouchers for subsidised gym memberships … I am a true admirer of our store as they are thoughtful about employee expectations … and so do I am keen to shield our store from shoplifters …” (Jackson, X). Quincy and Santiago from Supermarket-Y (please refer to Table 2 in Appendix B) echoed Jackson’s emotions with respect to their personal physical and mental fitness consciousness and importance of subsidised gym-memberships where often meditation classes are offered for mental relaxation. They positively share that the subsidised memberships to the gym help them for saving on their financial resources. Overall, the re­ sponses of Jackson, Quincy and Santiago etc. indicate an association between their personal beliefs with respect to the physical-wellbeing (H. Kim, 2018; Liu et al., 2010) and mental-wellbeing (Su and Swanson, 2019) and the facilities provided to the employees as a part of stores’ internal CSR activities (Gupta and Sharma, 2016). Further, they artic­ ulate that this drives them to exhibit guardianship behaviour, again a manifestation of organizational citizenship behaviour (McKee et al., 2011) for safeguarding their respective stores from shoplifters. Interestingly, Eddie shares:

“… I completely believe in our store in case we happen to be in a need of any possible help … may be … due to our deteriorating health issues etc …. I am sure the store will always help us … therefore, I always provide any possible help to our security … in order to … catch shoplifters and confront them …” (Kennis, X). Extant studies on employee perceptions of internal CSR suggest that employees who avail benefits of internal CSR activities of their organi­ zation (De Roeck et al., 2014; M. Farooq et al., 2014; Hameed et al., 2016; Story et al., 2016) are likely to practice positive organizational citizenship behaviour (Farid et al., 2019; Houghton et al., 2009; Rasool and Rajput, 2017). This further motivates employees to practice guardianship behaviour – a manifestation of organizational citizenship behaviour. Hendrik states:

“… we are encouraged for advancing specialised knowledge about retail operations … myself, I have successfully completed a three-month-long online course on it … and obviously, the store has sponsored my fees … I feel not just good but also confident about learning something better from the course that I can implement practically at work … I feel privileged about this … my store is truly amazing … I am always ready to safeguard my store from shoplifters and grazers …” (Eddie, X).

“… it’s unusual [Store-X’s gesture of helping an old critically ill em­ ployee’s family with some financial and emotional help] and so much appreciated that our store considers and helps the employees in their critical times, such as, accidents, some illness, unforeseen events, such as, death in the family and so on, it indicates our store’s genuine care for us [the employees] … whenever I would see someone stealing [a shop­ lifter,] … with the help of my superior or the store-detective … I get that person to pay for the product …” (Hendrik, X).

In the same light, Frankfurt (from Store-X) as well as Ryker and Zayne (from Store-Y) mention their gratefulness for the store and further express their positive willingness and contribution in order to deter instore shoplifting incidents while at work. Hence, it is deemed possible that employees who benefit from the organization’s continuing educa­ tion scheme are likely to exhibit more productive behaviour (Cowper-­ Smith and de Grosbois, 2011). Extant literature on formal reward systems suggests that a lack of formal rewards for voluntary or extra-role behaviour is likely to influ­ ence employee guardianship responsibilities (Van Buren et al., 2011). In contrast, significantly, Udo and Titus (from Store-X) and Santiago and Zara (from Store-Y) who have helped their respective stores for more than ten times in one year for mitigating shoplifting incidents and saving resources, suggest that they appreciate and love their respective store’s encouragement for doing good job. In their case, with respect to helping the in-store security for catching shoplifters they get some nice rewards. They feel worth helping the store as they receive a token of appreciation for their help in shoplifting prevention in the form of complimentary gifts, special coffee vouchers, tickets to local events, sports, swimming pool, cinema, plays, etc. Holistically, these responses suggest that employees not only perceive their employer’s internal CSR as genuine employee welfare practices, they also reflect the positive emotions these evoke. This mo­ tivates employees to intervene when necessary to prevent shoplifting. In summary, these findings suggest that employee perceptions of a super­ market’s CSR activities evoke employee shoplifting behaviours. According to Romani et al. (2013) and Andersson et al. (2007), gratitude is an important consequence of CSR and impacts employees’ organisational trust (C.-K. Lee et al., 2013a), and their organisational commitment (Duarte, 2010; Rodrigo and Arenas, 2008). It also acts as an antecedent of organisational attachment (Ployhart and Vandenberg, 2010). Overall, from the responses discussed above, it can be concluded that employers’ both internal and external CSR initiatives are acknowledged and play a positive and dominant role in motivating

Hendrik considers that the store’s financial and emotional support to the family of an ill employee is a positive and adorable act. His reference to “genuine care” also indicates a sense of respect for the organization (de Grosbois, 2012). Such respect for the shop’s internal CSR activities is an important motivator for employees’ organizational citizenship behav­ iour (O. Farooq et al., 2017). In an identical setting, similar to Kennis and Hendrik, Niamh also admires her store for helping employees during their difficult times. Additionally, she also acknowledges the facilities given by her store to employees such as car park and gym membership. These facilities and her store’s attitude towards employees impel her to protect her store from shoplifting. She states: “… we have a well-presented staffroom with a great layout and ambiance, free Wi-Fi facility, a computer with printing facility, a nice coffee ma­ chine, access to subsidised gym memberships, and free car-park … also, we get free vaccinations [flu, measles, etc.] … I am a true admirer of our store as they give priority to our health and well-being … and so do I am committed to shield our store from shoplifters …” (Niamh, X). Pablo and Zander from Supermarket-Y echo emotions of Kennis, Hendrik, and Niamh with respect to their store’s health-related employee welfare practices and relevant to this, their attitude, beliefs, and behaviour for guardianship of their store from shoplifters. Overall, the responses of Niamh, Pablo and Zander etc. indicate an association between employee perceptions of the facilities provided to the em­ ployees as a part of stores’ internal CSR activities and their resultant citizenship behaviour (Hameed et al., 2016) in the form of guardianship 6

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employees to participate in shoplifting prevention.

shoplifting prevention along with the earlier responses. These re­ spondents appear to perform an extra role, that of unofficial guardian or protector (Ashkan, 2017; Joo and Jo, 2017; Newman et al., 2017); in­ sofar as if they perceive it to be their supermarket they are attached to whose contents are also under threat, then they may like to intervene to prevent deviant behaviour causing loss or damage.

4.2. Theme 2: employee organisational attachment affects employee guardianship behaviour A number of employee responses suggest an emotional attachment to their respective stores and that this may affect their motivation to intervene to prevent shoplifting. For example, Garrison shares:

5. Discussion Taken holistically, these findings suggest a strong link between the employee perceptions of CSR practices, their organizational attachment, and guardianship behaviours. They also suggest that employees’ past personal experiences of CSR activities have a role in determining their perceptions of CSR. The nature of the relationship between these sug­ gests internal and external CSR activities by employers that resonate with employees will intensify employee organizational attachment and will evoke feelings of guardianship behaviour. Del Bosco and Misani (2011) identify that the perceived legitimacy of an organization’s internal and external CSR activities influences its so­ cial processes both within and outside the organisation. In this instance, den Hond et al. (2014) propose that legitimacy refers to a) the outcomes of the organisation’s CSR activities and the consequential normative expectations within their social environment that are set; b) stakeholder satisfaction that motivates them to support their organisation’s CSR activities (Zheng et al., 2014) and c) employees perceptions of employer fairness that leads to organisational justice. These affirm employee at­ titudes towards job satisfaction, organisational trust, and organisational commitment hence determine the levels of organizational attachment (C. Mason and Simmons, 2014). Related to this, employees attached to their organisations are selfmotivated (Alfes et al., 2013) and consequently are prepared to pro-actively promote their organisation’s products and services (Smith et al., 2017). They are also prepared to participate in extra-role per­ formance behaviour related to external CSR activities that the firm ini­ tiates and that contribute to a more generalised societal wellbeing (Demerouti et al., 2015; R. Gill, 2015). Indeed, employee organizational attachment as a result of internal and external CSR may have a positive effect on organisational performance through organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) as well as the health and psychological wellbeing of employees (Gupta and Sharma, 2016). These findings also suggest that OCBs may manifest themselves in ways specifically related to guard­ ianship behaviours motivated by a willingness to prevent retail crime. This has implications for the way that crime prevention may be managed in-store. Historically, retail crime prevention has tended to focus on the use of electronic surveillance. These findings suggest ‘softer’ employee-centred approaches encompassing CSR initiatives may result in increased employee organizational attachment evoking feelings of guardianship and a preparedness by employees to intervene in an attempt to minimise in-store retail crime. At an organisational level, the management literature has long rec­ ognised the importance of the conditions of service and organisational culture in having an influencing on the interpretations and perceptions of organisational values, behaviours and decision-making (Das and Varshneya, 2017; Turner Parish et al., 2008) and how these may influ­ ence the nature of the relationship between the employee and the employer. At the shop-floor level, the leader-member exchange theory suggests that managers may significantly influence the atmosphere in which social exchange takes place between employees and their man­ agers and how this influences the attitudes and performance of the employees (Tojib and Khajehzadeh, 2017). A number of studies identify how a supportive organizational approach toward employees coupled with interactions at both the organisational and interpersonal levels may have an affective impact as well as a cognitive impact on employees (Michel et al., 2017). This, in turn may, manifest in the evocation of satisfaction, trust and commitment amongst the employees and results in their attachment for the organization (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2002;

“… thus far, I witnessed shoplifting at least a dozen times … I have been working here since my teenage years and I consider it is my supermarket … Of course, I don’t mean that I personally own it … [but] as you know now that I have worked here for so many years [more than 10 years] … I have a special bond with our store that encourages me to handle deviant situations like shoplifting, rare incidences of vandalism, abusive cus­ tomers, etc.” (Garrison, X). Referring to Garrison’s response, affective organizational commit­ ment is a type of emotional attachment that employees possess towards their organization (Olckers and van Zyl, 2017; Pathak and Srivastava, 2017). Individual employees with affective commitment are dedicated to their organization (van Zyl et al., 2017) and are likely to endeavour to keep up an association with their organization based on this sense of belonging (Dawkins et al., 2017). Generally, individuals are more committed to things they feel ownership over (Chirico et al., 2018). Typically, affective commitment is associated with a sense of re­ sponsibility and ownership for the organization (Ng and Allen, 2018). Additionally, Leila states: “… I am proud to be a part of it [the store] and love to be growing here professionally … thieves that I witnessed were here in a group … arrogant, mean, and snobbish … we had to seek help from the police to catch them before we even confront them … …” (Leila, X). Leila’s high-level emotion regarding feeling love or benevolence for her store suggests a relational driver that guides her moral obligation for demonstrating her guardianship behaviour (Gond et al., 2017). Espe­ cially, her recognition of her organization as a great workplace is evident through the term ‘proud’ that she uses while describing her further emotions and one of the relational drivers for her guardianship behaviour. Further, Zenith suggests: “… I have been working here for a decade and I feel respect, care, and sense of responsibility towards our store and therefore I follow the store protocol to deal with these nuisance makers and shoplifters …” (Zenith, Y). As discussed earlier, moral drivers typically reflect an individual’s care-based concerns (Gond et al., 2017) highly likely to result in positive employee behaviours (Deborah E. Rupp and Mallory, 2015). With respect to responses of Zenith and various respondents from both Store-X and Store-Y, it is evident that employees are committed to their stores since they share special bond and attachment with their organi­ sations, which acts as their moral driver for deterring in-store shoplifting incidents. More specifically, a deeper analysis of these responses suggests that participants’ organisational attachment is a result of their affective attachment and organisational commitment. The indicative terminol­ ogies from the above responses suggest their emotional attachment for their respective stores. Specifically, participants expressed their higherorder feelings for the store with the help of rich, determining responses. These include - ‘a special bond with the store’, ‘proud to be a part of’, ‘love to be growing here professionally’, ‘I love it’, ‘I feel respect, care, and sense of responsibility’, and ‘our store’ etc. Reflective of organisational citizenship behaviour, these responses are instrumental in determining further employees as motivations for 7

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Johnston et al., 1990). A consequence of this is increased OCB. Ac­ cording to Lau et al. (2016), OCB is defined as, “… a personal preference for performing additional work so as to gain motivational rewards and social acceptance in the community, (p. 573). As such, it comprises “… any form of behaviour that is not formally described as being on the job and no reward is provided” (p. 572). Organizational attachment reflects the quality of the work-life of the employee, including job satisfaction, well-being, and performance (Scrima et al., 2017). Employees tend to be more attached towards their organization and therefore, affective organizational attachment is considered as a predictor of affective organizational commitment (Minibas-Poussard et al., 2017). Various attachment styles (Scrima et al., 2015) and leader-member exchanges (Maslyn et al., 2017) positively influence the efforts to build high-quality relationships with employees that result in organizational attachment as well as organizational commitment. Such organizational attachment (including attachment of physical or tangible elements of the workplace) may lead to psycho­ logical or intangible feelings of a stronger connection with the organisation. For a number of the respondents who participated in this research, a higher-level dimension to the organizational attachment of employees was identified. Whilst reflecting on many of the attributes of commit­ ment and OCB, there was evidence to suggest a level of responsibility based on a sense of personal experience of the employees that was evoked among some of the respondents with their respective organiza­ tion’s external CSR activities. Affective organizational commitment merely suggests a willingness on behalf of the employees to have an amicable long-term relationship with their employer. However, employee organizational attachment encompasses emotions and per­ sonal meanings that evoke a sense of benevolence for the organization (Cullen et al., 2003). The feelings related to employee organizational attachment may emerge over a period of time (Jussila et al., 2015) and if they are intense, drive individuals to “use possessions, think of them, observe them, care for them, and when required … defend and protect [them]” (p. 125). These supermarkets, as places of work, do appear to provide both structure and ‘psychic security’ for many of the respondents as a place to go, interact, and socialise on a regular basis. Moreover, the atmosphere and organisational culture that exists within the stores appears to evoke a sense of both efficacy and effectance among the employees (Pierce et al., 2003). This, in turn, may lead to a sense of responsibility and attachment for the organization. Employment provides status and an opportunity for inclusiveness and may act as an ‘anchor’ that assists with the stabilisation of identity within a new socio-cultural context (Joy and Dholakia, 1991; Mehta and Belk, 1991). As such, according to Pierce et al. (2001), employees attach meaning to their workplace insofar as they regard it as a symbolic component of their evolving self-identity and extended self within a new context (Belk, 1988). Social identity theory (Ashforth and Mael, 1989; Hogg and Turner, 1987; Tajfel and Turner, 1986) suggests that employees’ values may resonate with those of the organisation and they identify with their organization through the authentic CSR activities it practices. Attribu­ tion theory (J. Yoon and Lee, 2016) supports employees’ willingness to be associated with the employer as a result of the positive reputational outcomes CSR activities may engender within society, in general. This, in turn, may facilitate and encourage extra-role behaviour. Within the present context, this extra-role behaviour may manifest itself in the form of guardianship or shoplifting prevention. Overall, positive employee perceptions of organisational CSR activ­ ities are reflected in the ways employees acknowledge, approve, and support the CSR efforts of their employer. This is particularly the case when a CSR cause may resonate at a personal level with an employee. Employees view deviant customer behaviour as potentially jeopardizing the ability of the organisation to sustain their support for CSR activities. This is primarily the result of a perception by employees that the erosion of the firm’s financial surpluses or profits will have a direct effect on the

amount donated by the firm to CSR causes. In some instances, it may relate to the store’s products being directly donated to a CSR cause such as the ‘Foodshare’ programs or animal welfare. In such cases, the pro­ posed framework (see Fig. 2) depicts how employee perceptions of CSR may lead directly to employee guardianship behaviours manifesting in shoplifting prevention. This suggests a link between a store’s CSR ac­ tivities and social identity theory. Social identity theory (Ashforth and Mael, 1989; Hogg and Turner, 1987; Tajfel and Turner, 1986) proposes that where employees’ values resonate with those of the organisation; they identify with their organisation through the CSR activities that it practices. Additionally, positive employee perceptions of organisational CSR activities may lead to organisational attachment. If emotions related to employee organisational attachment are strong, a sense of protection towards the store and its contents is evoked. When employees perceive the store or its contents to be under threat through deviant customer behaviour, they are motivated to adopt guardianship roles and intervene to prevent such behaviours. Additionally, emotional (i.e. organisational attachment) can also pave the way to organisational commitment (Michaelson et al., 2014), which reflects a better cognitive resolve involving attitudes and beliefs (Ellis, 2008). Based on the above discussion, a conceptual framework for effective guardianship behaviour is proposed that depicts its foundations within the context of supermarkets. Drawing on the relevant literature and the qualitative research findings related to CSR, employee organizational attachment and guardianship behaviour, this framework offers insights into the potential roles and relationships between these concepts. Fig. 2 proposes the holistic framework encompassing the key concepts and the relationships between them. This framework sits within the boundary of a shop or supermarket where organizational culture and atmosphere may play pivotal roles in influencing employee behaviours. It includes two types of CSR practices operated by the store, internal CSR and external CSR. External CSR practices are mainly focused on the welfare of society that is beneficial to external stakeholders, whereas the inter­ nal CSR practices are related to the welfare of the internal stakeholders who are primarily employees. Employee perceptions of the overall CSR activities have an influence on the nature of the relationships the em­ ployees share with their employer (the supermarket). Where positive, this relationship may culminate in significant levels of employee orga­ nizational attachment. Furthermore, the higher levels of employee organizational attachment may evoke guardianship behaviours related to the supermarket manifesting in interventions that prevent shoplifting incidents. In addition, prior experiences of employees regarding the store’s external CSR practices moderate the effect of their perceptions of external CSR and their further practice of guardianship. 6. Limitations and scope for future research The current study has a number of limitations. The nature of organisational attachment is such that it may evolve over time. A lon­ gitudinal study may identify how perceptions of CSR change. The interview data for this study were collected in a single, Westernised, country. Therefore, results may not be applicable in other cultural or economic contexts. CSR priorities and activities will vary significantly between such contexts. The present study focuses on two large national supermarket chains. Smaller supermarkets may be significantly different in terms of their culture, and consequently, their internal and external CSR strategies and employee perceptions of these. Finally, this study primarily focused on the relationship between supermarkets and their employees as internal stakeholders. Future studies should consider external stakeholders, such as customers, suppliers, merchandisers, etc. 7. Research implications and contributions The findings of this study suggest that successful management of CSR activities may evoke organisational attachment among employees that 8

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102017

s

Fig. 2. A conceptual framework for employee guardianship behaviour.

may have implications on the nature and extent of retail crime within stores given an increased propensity for employees to intervene. Crucially, however, social and employee welfare activities incumbent within an organisation’s CSR strategy need to be accurately and comprehensively communicated to employees. Communicating welfare policies to employees is an iterative process since it needs consistent adaptation of guidelines to suit the changing needs of employees. Moreover, comprehensive communication of the welfare policies is key for employee satisfaction (Teti and Andriotto, 2013). Ideally, this should be carried out through an ongoing systematic and coherent internal communications strategy. Considering the importance regarding the clear communication of CSR policies in motivating positive responses from employees as they relate to the guardianship behaviour and the effective prevention of shoplifting incidents, devising appropriate de­ livery of internal CSR policies, activities, and facilities relevant to overall employee needs is deemed to be a significant step forward for retail managers to consider. The theoretical contribution of this study confirms answering the research questions (RQ1 and RQ2) which were identified in the meth­ odology section of this study. Specifically, the research gap that this paper addresses is ‘How do organisational internal and external CSR activities affect employee organisational attachment which further culminates employee guardianship behaviour?’. The final findings of this research provide detailed insights on this to identify and suggest a causal relationship between employee guardianship behaviour and its potential motivators, such as employee perceptions of CSR (internal and external) based on their past experiences, employee organizational attachment, and guardianship behaviour. Also, from a contextual

perspective, the findings demonstrate how the presence of these po­ tential motivators may manifest in the intention of shop-floor retail employees to intervene to prevent a shoplifting incident from occurring. Moreover, from a managerial perspective, the findings provide some interesting insights into how employees may be motivated, to the extent that they are prepared to intervene to prevent shoplifting incidents from occurring. Overall, this research has made a significant contribution to the extant literature on retail crime prevention by not just identifying possible motivating factors for retail employee guardianship behaviour it has also provided established empirical evidence about the causal relationships as they relate to the motivating factors and the guardian­ ship behaviour of retail employees. 8. Conclusion This study investigated the relationship between an organisation’s CSR strategy and employee organisational attachment that could be leveraged to prevent and/or combat retail crime events through the elicitation of employee guardianship behaviour. The synthesis of find­ ings of this research study and the extant literature on employee per­ ceptions of CSR and organisational attachment provides valuable insights into the present context of shoplifting prevention with the additional assistance of employees. Crucially, it is employees’ perceived authenticity of and resonance with organisational CSR practices and how these may engender and nurture feelings of attachment towards a supermarket that is key. Hence, a coherent internal communications strategy is essential in order to communicate CSR to employees.

Appendix A. Salient Studies on Guardianship Behaviour (Between, 1979 and 2018)

9

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Sr. No.

Author (Year of Publication)

Guardianship Measurement

Research Method

Primary Finding(s) of Guardianship

1

Beck (2016)

Target hardening, control access, deflect offenders

2

Carmel-Gilfilen (2013) Cashmore (2014) Cohen and Felson (1979) Coupe and Blake (2006)

Formal surveillance

Maryland Scale of Scientific Methods Verbal protocol analysis

Formal surveillance significantly effects on crime reduction Significant effect on crime deterrence

Impact of media Labour force and single adult

British Crime Survey Macro-structural

Significant effect on crime prevention Positive effect on crime reduction

Security devices, detection of burglar, occupancy of dwelling at the time of burglary

Daylight and darkness effect on guardianship

3 4

Garofalo and Clark (1992) Kepple and Freisthler (2012) Lynch and Cantor (1992)

Householder member at home, presence of a dog or alarm system Doormen, video surveillance

McCord and Houser (2017) Miethe et al. (1990)

Park environs (park and its adjacent street)

Surveys of police officers, victims, and incident sites, and police records Cross-sectional household survey Ecological Cross-sectional design National Crime Victimisation Survey and victim risk supplement Systematic surveys

Household occupancy over the age of 12

Survey

11

Mustaine and Tewksbury (1998)

Self-protective behaviours

12 13 14

Reynald (2009) Reynald (2010) Reynald (2011)

15

Reynald and Moir (2018)

Presence and interventions Presence and interventions Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) Individual factors among residential guardians

Cross-sectional, selfadministered survey of collegegoing students Field observations Field observations Cross-sectional neighbourhood survey Survey

16

Salmi et al. (2015)

17

Stahura and Sloan (1988) Tewksbury and Mustaine (2003)

5 6 7 8 9 10

18

Time spent at home during day and evening, neighbour intervention

Work hours, customer footfall, potentially vulnerable location Police employment, police expenditure, female labour force non-participation Self-protective behaviours

19

Tseloni et al. (2004)

Household composition and occupancy, neighbour intervention, self-protection tools, etc.

20

Wilcox et al. (2007)

Individual-level target hardening, place management, surveillance; neighbourhood-level target hardening, informal social control, natural surveillance

Finnish Business Victimisation Surveys Macro-structural, crosssectional, aggregated data Cross-sectional, selfadministered survey of collegegoing students National Crime Victimisation Survey, British Crime Survey, Police Monitor Cross-sectional neighbourhood survey

Appendix B

Table 1 Series of counts for some prevalent set of codes Code

Count

Affective Attachment Altruistic beliefs Employee Social Concern Attitude towards Shoplifting Employee Welfare Employee Welfare Perceptions Environmental Welfare Guardianship Behaviour Past experience Reward for Guardianship Shoplifting Behaviour Social Welfare Perceptions Social Welfare Environmental Welfare

89 92 81 120 117 97 96 124 84 29 129 134 109 94

10

Effects on residential burglary prevention Significant effect on crime prevention House block-level guardianship, occupancy during day suggest big effect on burglary risk Significant effect on crime prevention Proximity and exposure are stronger predictors than guardianship and design attractiveness Significant effect on crime prevention Significant effect on crime deterrence Significant effect on pilferage prevention Encouragement for informal surveillance may effect on crime reduction Manipulating individual factors such as attitudes are more important at predicting supervision than comparatively static factors such as personality Work hours and customer footfall affect guardianship Significant effect on crime deterrence Self-protection is important in crime prevention Significant effect on crime inhibition Individual-level target hardening along with Neighbourhood-level target hardening, informal social control, natural surveillance are effective in crime prevention and reduction

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Table 2 Extra prevalent references from quotes presented in the ‘Findings’ section for contextual clarity Sr. No.

Quote

1

“… I go straight away to the person who is grazing … politely but firmly ask him or her to pay for the product that was consumed … generally, they recognize their fault, apologize, and also pay for the product they consumed but when it comes to those who lie or refuse to pay … it is nothing but shoplifting … I ensure that I inform the store detective as quickly as I can and also offer my help if further confrontation of the shoplifter is required … it is really unbelievable that some people always attempt to steal from the wonderful and noble store where I work …” (Boston, X) “… a couple of times I witnessed shoplifting by customers … incidentally, every time the shoplifter was drunk and wasted so they were aggressive for that obvious reason … we had to ring the police to seek help in cases like these … when I saw them stealing I freaked out but as per the protocol I controlled my anger and informed about it to the customer care and the in-store security …” (Ivan, X) “… when I used to work at a different supermarket in another city, I, unfortunately, did not see this kind of thoughtfulness there … I believe whenever someone tries to harm our supermarket by stealing or behaving in a deviant manner … the respect for my supermarket due to its thoughtful gestures … drives me to stop the person with the help of in-store security …” (Weston, X) “… I remember the times when various birds would enter our store through ventilation and back-store shutters … they would obviously make a mess around the store … when a feasible solution for this was discussed … it was learned that other stores make use of poisonous food for birds … they tie a pot full of the poisonous bird-food at the top side of the entrances of the store to avoid their invasion inside the store … our store owner and managers unanimously dropped this inhumane method and instead of this easier method, they decided to install soft fiber fences to catch birds and then safely free them in a garden little away from the city … isn’t this fantastic?!..I adore their lovely solution!..once, I saw someone opening a packet of toothpaste at the corner of an aisle and then flipping it inside the wrist of his jacket … this was a similar act that a lady customer did few months before this incident wherein she attempted to steal an anti-aging high-value beauty product … I caught her with the help of the store detective … so, I had that experience … it made me angry that these thieves chose our store for shoplifting … our store, that is so much thoughtful and nice with everyone … I provided required help to the police that arrived after the shoplifters were confronted …” (Yvonne, X). “… we donate one to one contributions of food products customers donate to the Foodshare [a community food donation service] … for example, if a customer donates 1 kg of a brand of rice then we donate exactly the same quantity and brand of rice to Foodshare … Also, we provide free fruits for children who visit our store for shopping with their guardians … I was surprised to witness a middle-aged man picking a banana from our ‘Free fruits basket for kids’ peeling out that banana and eating it. I immediately went to him and politely informed that what he was doing was wrong as the fruits in the basket are meant for kids and he is supposed to pay for the approximate weight of the banana that he has just eaten from the basket. The man started arguing with me and tried to justify that he didn’t do anything wrong as he couldn’t see the label on the basket … but then I had to call the store detective and then they made him pay for the banana and issued a warning notice to him … Isn’t it ironic that some people try to take advantage of our store’s good gesture?.. I would never approve such non-sense behaviour …” (Xavier, Y). “… our store gives us free fruits, milk, tea, coffee, Milo [health drink] in the staff room … Sometimes chips packets and food from the bakery are also provided … I have been recruited here as an intern through Store-X’s internship scheme … I am delighted as I could do my project here … after completion of my course I got the permanent position … a nurse comes to do basic check-up every fortnight to ensure quicker advice if an employee has any minor medical condition, such as a muscle injury, back pain, shoulder pain, etc … As you might be aware that visiting a medical professional is so costly in New Zealand, I genuinely like and respect that our store helps us to seek correct and free basic medical advice … I genuinely wish to work here permanently … and extend whatever help I can to progress our store … I would also love to participate in combating stealing by customers [shoplifting]” (Vance, X). “… We all employees get subsidised gym membership, digital lockers, and free bean coffee from coffee machine spacious staff room etc … a comfortable workplace automatically attracts respect … so I respect what this store provides us – its employees … I believe that stealing is a sin and crime … on the top of that when someone or something tries to harm the person or something that you respect … that pisses me off … however angry I am I always follow the process explained to us in the loss prevention training … to follow the perpetrators [shoplifters] … observe their movements … help the security to catch and confront them [the shoplifters] … our boss [the store owner] appreciates my extra efforts … in the monthly e-newsletter he specifically appreciated my work and asked help from other women employees … to keep our store safe from shoplifters … I also got various free vouchers for coffee and movie tickets … for my help [in the deterrence of shoplifting] … it feels really good …” (Quincy, Y). “… I was fascinated to join this store as it subsidises our gym membership fees … I believe in physical fitness … it has been a few years that I have been working here … trust me, buying the subsidised gym membership helps me to save on my extra-expenses that I am able to utilise for buying healthy food … I am very happy and grateful that I work here … I am thankful that our store takes care of its employees … I have mostly witnessed shoplifting incidents in the meat section of the store … through the reflection mirrors … every time I informed immediately to the store security and detective … also helped them catching the thieves … this store has an integral part of my life … it gives me financial security, access to fitness facilities, a secure workplace, nice free beverages, and hygienic ambiances [etc.] … I was given free coffee vouchers for deterring theft … this was encouraging … encouraged me to extend my similar support … it also helped me to get extra-recognition … I am happy that I helped my store from shoplifters … at various occasions …” (Santiago, Y).

2 3 4

5

6

7

8

Appendix C. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.102017.

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102017 Dr. Lisa McNeill is an Associate Professor in the Department of Marketing at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Lisa’s research focuses on consumer behaviour & youth consumption, retailing & brand management, international & Asian market­ ing, innovation and new product development, and research methods. Her research outputs have been published in reputed international journals such as the International Journal of Consumer Studies, Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Australasian Marketing Journal, Young Consumers, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Journal of Services Marketing, Industrial Mar­ keting Management, International Review of Retail, Distribu­ tion & Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Behaviour etc.

Van Buren, H.J., Greenwood, M., Sheehan, C., 2011. Strategic human resource management and the decline of employee focus. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 21 (3), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2011.02.004. van Zyl, L., Olckers, C., van der Vaart, L., 2017. Future perspectives on psychological ownership in multi-cultural contexts. In: Olckers, C., van Zyl, L., van der Vaart, L. (Eds.), Theoretical Orientations and Practical Applications of Psychological Ownership. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 315–332. Voliotis, S., 2011. Abuse of ministerial authority, systemic perjury, and obstruction of justice: corruption in the shadows of organizational practice. J. Bus. Ethics 102 (4), 537–562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0826-9. Wang, Y., Ki, E.-J., Kim, Y., 2017. Exploring the perceptual and behavioral outcomes of public engagement on mobile phones and social media. Int. J. Strateg. Commun. 11 (2), 133–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2017.1280497. West, B., Hillenbrand, C., Money, K., 2015. Building employee relationships through corporate social responsibility:the moderating role of social cynicism and reward for application. Group Organ. Manag. 40 (3), 295–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1059601114560062. Wilcox, P., Madensen, T.D., Tillyer, M.S., 2007. Guardianship in context: implications for burglary victimization risk and prevention. Criminology 45 (4), 771–803. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00094.x. Yar, M., 2005. The novelty of ‘cybercrime’:an assessment in light of routine activity theory. Eur. J. Criminol. 2 (4), 407–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 147737080556056. Yoon, D., Jang, J., Lee, J., 2016. Environmental management strategy and organizational citizenship behaviors in the hotel industry: the mediating role of organizational trust and commitment. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 28 (8), 1577–1597. https://doi. org/10.1108/IJCHM-10-2014-0498. Yoon, J., Lee, S., 2016. What makes employees zealous supporters of their firm’s CSR initiative? The role of employees’ perceptions of their firm’s CSR authenticity. In: Advances in Group Processes, pp. 93–126. Yoon, J., Thye, S., 2011. A theoretical model and new test of managerial legitimacy in work teams. Soc. Forces 90 (2), 639–659. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sor016. Zhang, L., 2014. How effective are your CSR messages? The moderating role of processing fluency and construal level. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 41, 56–62. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.04.005. Zheng, Q., Luo, Y., Wang, S.L., 2014. Moral degradation, business ethics, and corporate social responsibility in a transitional economy. J. Bus. Ethics 120 (3), 405–421.

Dr. Juergen Gnoth is a Professor of Marketing at University of Otago, New Zealand. His research interests are with consumer behaviour, where he studies consumption experiences, reflex­ ivity and well-being. His area of application is tourism and destination management for which he has developed a research agenda to improve sustainable value-co-creation between ser­ vice providers, host communities and tourists. With his stu­ dents, Juergen continues to explore new topics and applications, such as text mining where he advances both psy­ cholinguistic theory and techniques. Juergen is editor and associate editor of several journals, including the highestranked journals in Tourism.

Dr. Rakesh Pandey is a Senior Lecturer at the Tasmanian School of Business and Economics, University of Tasmania, Australia. His research interests include how organisations demonstrate and report their accountability towards society and the environment. Rakesh’s research also explores the role of powerful actors such as regulators, global organisations such as the United Nations and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) in preparing guidelines that help organisations in meeting their accountabilities towards society and the envi­ ronment. Dr Pandey’s research has published in leading jour­ nals such as Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal (AAAJ), Accounting and Finance (A&F), International Journal of Human Resource Management (IJHRM).

Dr. Balkrushna Potdar is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Marketing at the University of Otago, New Zealand. His current postdoctoral project is on understanding consumers’ recycling behaviour of fashion apparels. His research interests broadly cover areas of pro-environmental consumer behaviour, sustainable consumption of food, water, and non-renewable energy, and retail crime prevention. Balk­ rushna has been working for more than 12 years in the aca­ demic and research fields. He has quality research articles to his credit published in reputed international journals including the Journal of Retailing & Consumer Services, and the International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. At present, Dr. Potdar is actively involved in four international research col­ laborations with the University of Bradford, United Kingdom; University of Tasmania, Australia; Macquarie University, Australia; and the Korea University, South Korea.

Dr. Mansi Mansi is currently working as a Senior Lecturer at the Tasmanian School of Business and Economics. Before joining the University of Tasmania, Mansi was a lecturer at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Her scholarly work spans corporate sustainability, leadership, organisational diversity, corporate social responsibility, business ethics and human rights. She has taught undergraduate and post-graduate cour­ ses, in Australia and New Zealand. Her work is published in topranked journals including the International Journal of Human Resource Management, Accounting and Finance and Account­ ing, Auditing & Accountability Journal.

Dr. Tony Garry is an Associate Professor in the Department of Marketing at the University of Otago, New Zealand. His research interests include consumption communities and tribes within both offline and online contexts, services marketing, and relationship and network marketing. His research outputs have been published in reputed international journals such as the Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Services Mar­ keting, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Journal of Service Management, International Journal of Retail and Dis­ tribution Management, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Sus­ tainable Tourism, the Journal of Consumer Behaviour etc.

Dr. John Guthrie is a retired Senior Lecturer of Marketing from University of Otago Business School, New Zealand. Presently, he works as a freelance International Marketing Consultant. He is an award-winning educator and researcher. In 2018, he has been awarded New Zealand’s one of the most respected civil awards ‘MNZM’ for his lifetime excellent contribution in the field of Sports Education in New Zealand. He is a renowned retail crime prevention studies expert in New Zealand and he has several research publications in reputed international journals to his credit.

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