RETRACTED: Biologically active components and nutraceuticals in sesame and related products: a review and prospect

Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608

Review

Philip John Kanua,b, Kerui Zhua, Jestina Baby Kanub, Huiming Zhoua,*, Haifeng Qiana and Kexue Zhua a

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and nutraceuticals in sesame that could be used in the prevention, controlling and even the management of illnesses such as cancer, oxidative stress, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. This paper also briefly discusses the biological activity of anti-nutritional factors in sesame.

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Biologically active components and nutraceuticals in sesame and related products: a review and prospect

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State Key Laboratory of School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi 214122, PR China (Tel.: D86 510 85913539; fax: D86 510 85329037; e-mails: [email protected], [email protected]) b Milton Margai College of Education and TechnologydAffiliated to the University of Sierra Leone, Goderich Campus, Freetown, Sierra Leone

Sesame is one of the oldest oilseed in the world that also contains very good nutritional value that has been reported. They contain unique oil which is very easily digested and is stable to oxidative stress and for these reasons they are useful and healthy for consumption. Sesame not only contained an oil that has the ‘‘good’’ fat (monounsaturated fat), but they are also high in a variety of helpful antioxidants or chemicals that protects the human being from the damaging effects of free radicals when sesame oil is consumed because of the presence of sesamin and sesamolin in sesame seed. Sesame is also a source of helpful biologically active components found in plant foods, such as phytochemicals and it is a functional food. This article discusses bioactive compounds * Corresponding author.

0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.06.002

Introduction Sesame is a plant specie of Sesamum indicum L., and herbaceous annual plant belonging to the Pedaliaceae family (Sugano & Akinmoto, 1993). Sesame seed is one of the world’s important and oldest oilseed crops known to man (Sontag, 1981). Sesame has different names according to the region of production, in some areas it is known as Sesamum (China, Mexico, South and Central America), gingelly (South India, Burma), benniseed (Sierra Leone, Guinea in West Africa), sim-sim (Middle East) and till (East and North Africa). It has been cultivated for centuries, particularly in Asia and Africa, for its high content of edible oil and protein (Salunkhe, Chavan, Adsule, & Kadam, 1991). China, India, Sudan, Mexico and Burma are the major producers of sesame seeds in the world by contributing to approximately 60% of its total world production. In Burma, it is the major source of edible oil for local consumption (USDA, 2004). Sesame is an important source of food worldwide and constitutes an inexpensive source of protein, fat, minerals and vitamins in the diets of rural populations, especially children (El-Shafei, 1990; Namiki, 1995). The chemical composition of sesame shows that the seed is an important source of oil (44e52.5%), protein (18e 23.5%). It was also reported to have carbohydrate (13.5%) and ash (5.3%) moisture (5.2%) (Johnson, Suleiman, & Lucas, 1979; Kahyaoglu & Kaya, 2006). The edible parts of sesame seeds consist of the embryo. The embryo of the sesame seeds are used to make sesame butter-like that is called ‘‘tehineh’’ (a popular food in the Middle East), ‘‘Ogerie’’ in Sierra Leone West Africa, used in bakeries, confectionaries, in the formulation of baby food, and sesame oil (Basim, Kamal, & Hesham, 2002). Literatures have reported many health benefits associated with the consumption of sesame including, weight gain control (Budowski, 1964; Kang, Kawai, Naito, & Osawa, 1999), prevention against cardiovascular diseases (Fremont, 2000; Hsu & Liu, 2002), protection against ageing, smoothing of the skin and Alzheimer disease and cancer inhibition (Bhide,

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Ethyl protocatechuate Chang, Yen, Huang, and Duh (2002) isolated and identified an antioxidant, ethyl protocatechuate (EP) from the sesame seed coat. Hsieh, Yen, Yen, and Lau (2001) noted that EP was a major source of the inhibitory effect against human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidative modification induced by Cu2þ ions. Previously, EP has been demonstrated to be an effective antioxidizing agent in different tissues, for example in the liver against diethylnitrosamine (Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, Yoshimi, & Mori, 1993), in the oral cavity against 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (Tanaka et al., 1994), in the colon against azoxymethane (Kawamori et al., 1994), in the glandular stomach tissue against N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, & Mori, 1995), and in the bladder against N-butyl-N(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (Hirose, Tanaka, Kaeamori, Ohnishi, & Mori, 1995). Hence, EP protects these organs against the damaging effect of free radicals. In addition, EP may be utilized in food preservation particularly foods with high fatty content, it protects lipids against oxidation. However, an overdose of EP (500 mg/kg) enhanced tumorigenesis, induced contact hypersensitivity in mouse skin and disturbed the detoxification of ultimate carcinogens (Nakamura, Torikai, & Ohigashi, 2001). Therefore, if EP is to be used as a food additive or phytochemical in any food formulation, the safety and toxicology of EP have to be distinguished in detail and extensively studied, but it can be utilized from sesame at an approved dose for it benefits. In fact, natural phytochemicals present in our diet have been shown to protect LDL oxidation and atherosclerosis progression (Campbell, Efendy, Smith, & Campbell, 2001). For example, sesame, an important edible oil source in the world, has been suggested to decrease blood pressure (Sankar, Sambandam, Ramakrishna, & Pugalendi, 2005) and lower the cholesterol level in blood (Sankar et al., 2005). Numerous studies have indicated that vitamin E present in sesame contributes to these healthy benefits as tocopherols derivatives of vitamin E has been found to be present in sesame EP, these tocopherols are lipid-soluble natural antioxidants which have been reported to possess the ability to bring most of the above health benefits mentioned above (Kajimoto, Kanomi, Kawakami, & Hamtani, 1992; Liebler, 1993; Yamashita, Nohara, Katayama, & Namiki, 1992).

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Azuine, Lahiri, & Telang, 1994). Sesamin from sesame seeds has also been reported to possess in vivo hypocholesterolemic activity and suppressive attributes activity against chemically induced cancer, lipopolysaccharide (Kee, Jenga, Rolis, Hou, & Ling, 2005) and human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (Kee et al., 2005). Studies have also shown that including sesame in the diet can reduce the risk of heart disease (Kang et al., 1999; Sugano et al., 1990). Studies have shown that sesamol in sesame is an inhibitor of several steps in the generation of neoplasia. This is so because sesamol has been shown to inhibit the excessive production of nitric oxide in the lipopolysaccharide/ gamma-interferon stimulated C6 astrocyte cells (Soliman & Mazzio, 1998). It was also reported to inhibit the formation of mutagenic/carcinogenic imidazoquinoxaline type heterocyclic amines through the unstable free radical maillard intermediates (Kato, Harashima, Moriya, Kikugawa, & Hiramoto, 1996). Furthermore, sesamol has also been shown to be a classical inhibitor of lipid peroxidation (Uchida, Nakajin, Toyoshima, & Shinoda, 1996), all of which are involved in the initiation stage of carcinogenesis. Its anti-tumor promoting potentials have been demonstrated in which sesamol inhibited the development of pre-neoplastic hepatocytic foci formation in rats (Hagiwara et al., 1996). These benefits are mainly attributed to the fact that some natural agricultural products, which include sesame, do not contain trans-fatty acids, while being rich in mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (Kris et al., 1999), micronutrients such as vitamin E, folate, minerals (potassium, magnesium, and zinc), fiber, and health-promoting phytochemicals, particularly resveratrol (Fremont, 2000; Wang, Jin, & Ho, 1999) and other phenolic compounds can be found in sesame. Different articles on specific and different biologically active components in sesame have been written by various authors (Ahmad et al., 2006; Govind et al., 2002; Shahidi, Liyana, & Wall, 2006; Uchida et al., 1996), but so far no one has tried to put all those different biologically active components and functional attributes of sesame in one article to give a more balanced approach that addresses both the positive and negative aspects of sesame. The biological activity of most components in sesame is desirable but that of a few components is undesirable (in the area of allergy) and often makes sesame unacceptable to some individuals in society. The main objective of this review is to discuss sesame as a potential source of nutraceuticals, antioxidants and bioactive compounds that could be used in the prevention, control and management of diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and other degenerative illnesses that are caused by oxidative stress from eating unhealthy fatty foods. The paper also briefly discusses the biological activity of some anti-nutritional factors such as allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin in sesame that often give it negative publicity in some societies in the world.

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Sesame oil Sesame oil is considered to be a health-promoting food because it contains a higher proportion of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) than saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and it also contains bioactive compounds such as tocopherol and phytosterols (Yamashita et al., 1992). Sesame oil generally contains fatty acids, in the following percentages 45.3e 49.4% oleic, 37.7e41.2% linoleic and 12e16% SFAs

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foods and in biological systems (Kato, Chu, Davin, & Lewis, 1998; Yoshida, Shigezaki, Takagi, & Kajimoto, 1995).

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Bioactive components of sesame Tocopherol Tocopherols, derivatives of vitamin E, are lipid-soluble natural antioxidants produced only by plants like sesame and other oilseeds (Kajimoto et al., 1992). Sesame seeds are a good source of tocopherols. The tocopherol content of sesame varies with variety and production location. Sesame oil mainly contains a-tocopherol (50e373 ppm) and g-tocopherols (90e390 ppm) (Firestone, 1999; Weiss, 1971), their chemical structures are shown in Fig. 2. Their difference is a-tocopherol regulates protein transfer to the plasma tissue, while g-tocopherols lower lipid contents in the blood to the rate at which tissue concentration reaches it equilibrium so that excess lipids will not be allowed to stay in the plasma tissue (David, Blatt, Scott, Leonard, & Maret, 2001). The health benefits of tocopherol as a bioactive compound are well documented. a-Tocopherol, the principal form of vitamin E, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant and it functions as a chain-breaking antioxidant for lipid peroxidation (LP) in cell membranes and also as a scavenger of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as singlet oxygen (O ) (Liebler, 1993). It is considered to serve as the first line of defense against LP, and it protects PUFAs in cell membranes from free radical attack through its scavenging activity in biomembranes at early stages of LP (Lu, Shimura, Kinukawa, Yoshida, & Tamai, 1999). a-Tocopherol also exerts an anti-inflammatory action by inhibiting the production of the superoxide radicals in activated neutrophils, adhesion of neutrophils to endothelial cells, and transendothelial migration of neutrophils (Rockse´n, Ekstrand, Johansson, & Bucht, 2003). Animal studies showed that a-tocopherols and g-tocopherols were able to prevent cerebral ischaemia-induced brain damage in mice (Mishima et al., 2003), while Sen, Khanna, Roy, and Packer (2000) showed that a-tocopherols can inhibit glutamate-induced apoptosis also.

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(Weiss, 1983). Sesame oil is composed of various fatty acids, as shown in Table 1 of which good percentages accounted for by only oleic and linoleic acids (LA) (Weiss, 1983). Oleic acid, with one double bond in its chain, belongs to the group of MUFAs while linoleic acid with two double bonds, belongs to the group of PUFAs. The fatty acid composition of sesame may also have beneficial effects on blood lipid profiles. Substitution of SFAs with MUFAs leads to increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and decreased LDL cholesterol, triacylglycerol (TAG), lipid oxidation, and LDL susceptibility to oxidation (Nakao, Iwai, Kalil, & Augusto, 2003). Dietary MUFAs particularly from vegetable oils have also been shown to elicit a smaller postprandial lipemic response (Weiss, 1971), with lower chylomicron remnant concentration. Sankar et al. (2005) reported that addition of sesame oil or other MUFA-rich nuts to the diet significantly improves the blood lipid profile.

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Sesamin and sesamolin Sesamin and sesamolin in the sesame seed oil also reduced LPS-activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor (NF)-kB activations. Microglia, a resident macrophage-like population of brain cells, is involved in inflammatory cytokine mediated central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease (Aloisi, 1999). Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) released from activated microglia and other glial cells may also participate in the neurodegenerative process (Wang et al., 2002). Nitric oxide has pleiotropic effects in the CNS (Verity, 1994), and excessive NO production in the CNS can be toxic to many different cell types, including astrocytes and neurons (Wang et al., 2002). Sesame lignan can correct such problems since it has the antioxidant properties that have been reported. Several sesame lignans including pinoresinol, piperitol, sesamolinol, sesaminol, sesamin and sesamolin have been isolated and their chemical structures as shown in Fig. 1. These lignans have been characterized as a novel type of lipidsoluble antioxidant that exerts strong antioxidative effects in

Table 1. Fatty acid composition of sesame oil Fatty acid

Percentage

Oleic Linoleic Palmitic Stearic Arachidic Hexadecenoic Myritic Saturated fatty acids

45.3e49.4 37.7e41.2 7.8e9.1 3.6e4.7 0.4e1.1 0.0e0.5 0.1 12e16

Adapted from Weiss, E.A. (1983).

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Phytosterols Plant sterols (phytosterols) are minor components of all vegetable oils constituting major portions of the unsaponifiable fraction of the oil (Fremont, 2000). Sesame oil contains 900e3000 ppm total phytosterols, (Choi & Kim, 1985). Major phytosterols in sesame oil are b-sitosterol (>80% of total phytosterols), campesterol (about 10%) and stigmasterol (<5%) (Choi & Kim, 1985). Phytosterols may occur in the free form but also esterified to free fatty acids, sugar moieties or phenolic acids. Free phytosterols of both black and white colour type sesame seeds consisted of about 65% of the total sterols in the oil as reported by Norme´n, Ellega˚rd, Brants, Dutta, and Andersson (in press).

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Fig. 1. The chemical structures of sesame lignans.

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The cholesterol-lowering properties of phytosterols were first demonstrated about 55 years ago by Peterson (1951) who fed chicks with plant sterols in their diet. Weststrate and Meijer (1998) also demonstrated the plasma cholesterollowering effect of a phytosterol ester (PE) contained in margarine in human. Consumption of 1.8e2.0 g/day of plant sterols has been shown to lower both total LDL and cholesterol concentrations by 10e15% in a variety of different population groups (Katan et al., 2003). Several authors reported that phytosterols (esters), and especially b-sitosterols, have (phyto) oestrogenic potential and act as an effective oestrogen-like agonists (Malini & Vanithakumari, 1993;

Fig. 2. Chemical structure of a-tocopherols and g-tocopherols.

Norme´n et al., in press). Therefore, phytosterols can also be used as major components of oral contraceptives (Kamel & Appelpvist, 1994). Phospholipids Phospholipids, which are derivatives of phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylcholine (lecithine), are generally useful as syngerists in reinforcing the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds (Wu & Sheldon, 1988). Phospholipids also contribute to the smoothness, texture, and mouth feel of foods and improve the stability of the product because of their inherent antioxidant properties. Phospholipids in sesame is the major constituents of cell membranes, and has a high degree of unsaturation, (Sugano et al., 1990). Hany, Abou, Adel, and Fereidoon (2000) reported that sesame comprised 38e48% of the total phospholipids present in it. It is one of the bioactive compounds with several beneficial effects including improved learning and memory in rats (Ahmad et al., 2006), which might be applicable to human beings as well when sesame is consumed. Polyphenols Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants, characterized by the presence of more than one phenol group per molecule (Shahidi et al., 2006). Research suggests that polyphenols are antioxidants with potential health benefits. They may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer (Arts & Hollman, 2005). Elleuch, Besbes, Roiseux, Blecker, and Attia (2007) reported that different polyphenols were found in sesame seed coat, including phenolic acids (caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid and coumaric acid), flavonoids (catechins and procyanidins), and stilbene (resveratrol). A

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reduced cardiovascular disease. Resveratrol has been used for the treatment of hyperglycemia, arteriosclerosis and allergic and inflammatory diseases (Siemann & Creasy, 1992). Findings have reported that sesame seeds are a source of resveratrol and phytochemical with human health benefits. It has been associated with reduced human pathological processes such as atherosclerosis (Shahidi et al., 2006), and carcinogenesis (Jang, Cai, Udeani, Slowing, Thomas, & Beecher, 1997). Over the years, the health protecting properties of resveratrol have been well described as an antioxidant (Fre´mont, Belguendouz, & Delpal, 1999), modulator of lipoprotein metabolism (Soleas, Diamandis, & Goldberg, 1997), inhibitor of platelet aggregation (Pace, Hahn, Diamandis, Soleas, & Goldberg, 1995) and vaso-relaxing agent (Ja¨ger & Nguyen, 1999). The most important beneficial effect of resveratrol is its cancer chemopreventive activity as it is involved in the inhibition of tumor initiation, promotion and progression (Jang et al., 1997). Nonetheless, Govind et al. (2002) reported that comparatively sesame resveratrol was the most potent followed by other resveratrols like sunflower. When the chemoprotective capabilities of these products (sesame resveratrol and resveratrol from sunflower) were compared and observed, the in vivo, 7,12-dimethylbenz-anthracene, which is part of sesame resveratrol, prevented the development of mouse skin carcinogenesis (Govind et al., 2002). Sesame and its products might help in preventing the development of carcinogenesis in human beings.

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study by Shahidi et al. (2006) found that the seed coat of sesame particularly the black colour contains about 150 mg total polyphenols per gram of defatted dry seed coat. Lee, Wen, Shiow, and Pin (2002) in their study identified A-type procyanidins in sesame seed coat. This compound was found to inhibit the activity of hyaluronidase, an enzyme that is responsible for the release of histamine, which causes inflammation. These few studies have shown the potential of sesame as a potentially rich and inexpensive source of nutraceutical and functional ingredients such as phenolics. Elleuch et al. (2007) reported that the compounds found in sesame seed coats are considered potent antioxidants, particularly, flavonoids and resveratrol. In addition to antioxidant activity, phenolic acids and flavonoids appear to have antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic and anticancer activities (Kahkonen et al., 1999). It is important to realize that in addition to the positive biological effects in humans consuming them, plant phenolic compounds can be used as potent natural antioxidants in food systems. Mohamed and Awatif (1998) reported that the phenolic compound extracted from sesame could significantly reduce the oxidation of food to extend their storage stability. It also contains some good derivatives which have good health effects; they are resveratrol and flavonoids.

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Resveratrol Resveratrol (3,5,40 -trihydroxystilbene) shown in Fig. 3 with sesamol is a phytochemical occurring naturally in various spermatophytes and present in sesame particularly the brown colour on the skin after the seed coat has been removed (Namiki, 1995), grapes (Landcake & Price, 1976) and wine (red wine produced from grapes) (Siemann & Creasy, 1992). The American Heritage Dictionary defines resveratrol as a natural compound found in grapes, mulberries, peanuts, and other oilseed plants or food products, especially red wine, that may protect against cancer and cardiovascular disease by acting as an antioxidant, antimutagen, and anti-inflammatory (Landcake & Price, 1976). Choi and Kim (1985) reported that sesame is one of the limited number of plant species that synthesize resveratrol, which is both a phytoalexin (an antibiotic produced by a plant that is under attack) with antifungal activity and a photochemical associated with reduced cancer risk and

Flavonoids Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites based around a phenylbenzopyrone structure as shown in Fig. 4. Flavonoids are most commonly known for their antioxidant activity and are also commonly referred to as bioflavonoids since all of them are biological in origin (Answers, 2004). Procyanidins, ()-epicatechin, guercint and (þ)-catechins are some of the well studied flavonoids in sesame so far. According to Lee et al. (2002), limited studies suggest that sesame seed coat may contain potent procyanidin compounds. Catechins, A-type procyanidin dimers, procyanidins trimers,

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O Flavone

Fig. 3. The structure of resveratrol and sesamol.

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Fig. 4. Molecular structure of flavone.

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thus also the absorption and utilization of nutrients. Pusztai (1996) and Radberg et al. (2001) reported that administration of lectins to experimental animals can also alter the bacterial flora. Thus dietary lectins have generally been considered to be toxic and anti-nutritional factors. Nonetheless, lectins are among the phytochemicals that are being intensively studied for their role in cancer chemoprevention (Abdullaev & Gonzalez, 1997). Various authors have reported that lectins are used as tools in the field of biochemistry, cell biology, and immunology, as well as for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in cancer research (Sharon & Lis, 2002; Vandamme et al., 1998). Studies on laboratory animals show that ingested lectins have a wide range of effects that might be relevant to human diseases. Some observations suggest that sesame lectins, which exhibit growth-promoting effects on the gut, may have interesting applications in the formulation of new approaches regarding cancer treatment (Govind et al., 2002). Gonzalez and Prisecaru (2005), who reviewed in detail the potential for lectins in cancer management, concluded that lectins have great potential in the treatment, prevention and diagnosis of chronic diseases, such as cancer. The information from clinical studies using pure lectins is promising. Additional research, including clinical trials, mechanisms of action at the molecular level and structureefunction relationships, should help researchers continue to examine and clearly understand the therapeutic effects, nutritional benefits, and toxic consequences of lectins.

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tetramers, and oligomers with higher degrees of polymerization were also reported to be present in sesame (Lazarus, Adamson, Hammerstone, & Schmitz, 1999). Human studies also show that diet rich in procyanidins decrease/inhibit lipid peroxidation of LDL cholesterol and increase free radical scavenging capacity (Fuhrman, Lavy, & Aviram, 1995; Natella, Belelli, & Gentili, 2002). Procyanidins have affinity for vascular tissue and they play a role in the protection of collagen and elastin, two critical proteins in the connective tissue, by strongly inhibiting several enzymes involved in degradation of collagen, elastin, and hyaluronic acid. Procyanidins were reported to selectively inhibit protein kinase C (Takahashi, Kamimura, Shirai, & Yokoo, 2000), and intensively promote hair growth by enhancing proliferation of mouse hair epithelial cells in vitro and activating hair follicle growth in vivo. Procyanidins were also found to slow the proliferation and decrease apoptosis of pancreas b-cells induced by hydrogen peroxide, and promote proliferation of normal pancreas b-cells (Zhong, 2003). Even though the presence of procyanidins found in sesame was reported to be small (20 ppm), that amount was reported to be enough to exact the health benefit to the human system as 15e17 ppm is needed by the human body (Zhong, 2003).

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Lectins Lectins possess a remarkable array of biological activities that have been found in sesame among other sources. An interesting aspect of the lectins in sesame is that high heat treatment does not destroy them (Hany et al., 2000). Lectins are a group of proteins with the common characteristic of reversibly binding carbohydrates including those found on the surfaces of cells particularly in sesame seed (Vandamme, Peumanns, Barre, & Rouge´, 1998). Since the demonstration by Springer, Desai, and Banatwala (1974) that sesame agglutinin binds malignant cells in preference to normal cells in breast glands, this lectin has been widely used as a probe for malignant phenotype in several tissues. Disease-dependent polyagglutin ability of red blood cells was also assessed using lectin (Springer et al., 1974). A fairly stable and non-glycosylated lectin, sesame has been proven to be a potential structure-specific probe in glycobiology, especially as it sharply discriminates between sialylated and non-sialylated forms of its most powerful inhibitor carbohydrate group, the Galb1 / 3GalNAc- (T antigen), unlike the jack fruit seed lectin, jacalin (Carvalho & Sgarbieri, 1998; El-Shafei, 1990). For many years lectins have been considered toxic substances to cells and animals, mainly because of agglutination of erythrocytes and other cells. Some lectins isolated from legumes and cereals have been shown to inhibit the growth of experimental animals and reduce the digestibility and biological value of dietary proteins (Reynoso, Gonzalez, & Loarca, 2003). Anti-nutritional effects are most likely caused by the fact that some lectins impair the integrity of the intestinal epithelium (Reynoso et al., 2003) and

Biological activity of anti-nutritional factors in sesame Allergens Sesame, peanut, milk proteins and eggs, account for approximately 80% of adverse reactions to foods in patients with atopic dermatitis individuals particular children (Burks, Williams, Mallory, Shirel, & Williams, 1989). Wolffa et al. (2003) reported that the reactivity of the 14 kDa protein with most of the sera indicates that this is the major sesame allergen, later identified as 2S albumin precursor; and its peptide which reacted positively in the dot blot test evidently contains an epitope(s). Some minor sesame allergens, of higher molecular weight, were also revealed. But Pastorello et al. (2001) suggested that the major sesame seed allergen is a 9 kDa, 2S albumin. Furthermore, Beyer, Bardina, Grishina, and Sampson (2002) reported to have identified 10 IgE-binding proteins in sesame seeds, 4 of which were 7 kDa, 34 kDa, 45 kDa and 78 kDa as minor sesame allergens from globulin, HPLC was used to characterize these allergens from sesame seed. Products derived from sesame have been recommended for young children in societies of the Mediterranean region and Africa, because of their high nutritional value, as sesame proteins are rich in methionine (Dalal et al., 2002). During recent decades their use has increasingly spread to North America as well as Europe. The increasing

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phytochemicals which could be extracted for the purpose of the above to be utilized as functional ingredients. It could help in the prevention, control and management of diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, oxidative stress and other degenerative diseases. The combination of functional ingredients and rich nutritional composition of sesame makes it very unique and a very good functional food that could be developed as food for the children as well as for the aged. Nonetheless, the presence of anti-nutritional factors such as allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in sesame could be tackled well so that it will not lose it functional potentialities. But with lectins, sesamin, sesamolin, and tocopherols having great potential in the treatment, prevention and diagnosis of chronic diseases, such as cancer, have greatly improved the image of sesame as functional ingredients that could be supplemented in the food system because it serves as both bioactive compounds and nutraceuticals. However, for individuals who are not allergic to sesame, it remains a very good source of nutrients and phytochemicals.

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consumption of foods containing sesame seeds and oil (e.g., vegetarian dishes, mid-eastern foods, bread, cakes, pastries, appetizers, and salad dressings) seems to be paralleled by an increase in reported sesame-induced allergic reactions (Pajno et al., 2000). This increase in sesame-induced allergic reactions called for additional studies on the characterization and identification of the specific sesame allergens. IgE-mediated reactions are believed to be responsible for most food-induced allergic reactions of the immediate hypersensitivity type (Type 1), and the diagnosis relies on biological and clinical specific features. The most common allergic reactions are mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE), which occur in the serum and involve activation of effector cells, mainly mast cells and basophils, leading to an inflammatory response and specific clinical manifestations (Asero, Mistrello, Roncarolo, Antoniotti, & Falagiani, 1999). When antigens, such as certain proteins from pollen or foods, bind to specific preformed IgE antibodies attached to the surface of basophils in the blood or mast cells in tissues, the antigeneIgE interaction results in the release of various mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes and cytokines, producing an acute inflammatory reaction (Leimgruber et al., 1991; D’Hondt, Damme, Eberlein, Rueff, & Przybilla, 1995). With better characterization of allergens and better understanding of the immunologic mechanism, investigators have developed several therapeutic modalities that are potentially applicable to the treatment and prevention of food allergy. Therapeutic options currently under investigation include peptide immunotherapy, DNA immunization, and immunization with immunostimulatory sequences, anti-IgE therapy, and genetic modification of foods (Wild & Lehrer, 2001). These exciting developments hold promise for the safe and effective treatment and prevention of food allergy in the next several years. Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors Like most oilseeds, sesame also contains both trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors (Johnson et al., 1979). These inhibitors interfere with the process of digestion and lower the digestibility of sesame proteins. However, Johnson et al. (1979) also reported that heat treatment destroys their inhibitory activity. Heating is the most commonly used treatment for the elimination of anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors although other processes are also used, such as fermentation, precipitation, washing and filtration during the manufacture of products for general human consumption (Melcion & Colonna, 1986; Mukhopadhyay & Bandyopadhyay, 2003).

Conclusion Sesame contains very useful phytochemical such as resveratrol, flavonoids, tocopherol, ethyl protocatechuate, phytosterols, lectins, sesamin, sesamolin and other

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