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RGFP109, a histone deacetylase inhibitor attenuates l -DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset: A proof-of-concept study
Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 19 (2013) 260e264
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Short communication
RGFP109, a histone deacetylase inhibitor attenuates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset: A proof-of-concept study Tom H. Johnston a, b, *, Philippe Huot a, d, Sammie Damude c, Susan H. Fox d, Steven W. Jones e, James R. Rusche e, Jonathan M. Brotchie a, b a
Division of Brain, Imaging & Behaviour, Systems Neuroscience, Toronto Western Research Institute, 399 Bathurst Street, MP-12-303, Toronto, ON M5T2S8, Canada Atuka Ltd., Toronto, ON, Canada Faculty of Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands d Movement Disorder Clinic, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada e Repligen Corp., Waltham, MA, USA b c
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 7 March 2012 Received in revised form 26 June 2012 Accepted 1 July 2012
Background: L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID) are a complication of chronic dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Recent studies have suggested that the mechanisms underlying development and expression of LID in PD may involve epigenetic changes that include deacetylation of striatal histone proteins. We hypothesised that inhibition of histone deacetylase, the enzyme responsible of histone deacetylation, would alleviate LID. Methods: Four female common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) were rendered parkinsonian by administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Following stabilisation of the parkinsonian phenotype, marmosets were primed to exhibit dyskinesia with chronic administration of L-DOPA. We then investigated the effects of the brain-penetrant histone deacetylase inhibitor, RGFP109 (30 mg/kg p.o. once daily for 6 days), on LID and L-DOPA anti-parkinsonian efficacy. Results: RGFP109 had no acute effects on dyskinesia after single or 6 days once-daily treatment (both P > 0.05). However, one week following cessation of RGFP109, dyskinesia and duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia were reduced by 37% and 50%, respectively (both P < 0.05), compared to that seen previously with L-DOPA alone. There was no change in anti-parkinsonian actions of, or ON-time duration afforded by, L-DOPA (P > 0.05). Conclusions: Histone deacetylation inhibition may represent a novel approach to reverse established LID in PD and improve quality of the anti-parkinsonian benefit provided by L-DOPA. Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Parkinson’s disease Epigenetics Dyskinesia Primate
1. Introduction L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) replacement therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is compromised by the development of motor side effects including L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) [1], which are sometimes more disabling than PD itself [2]. LID will affect virtually every PD patient, provided duration of L-DOPA therapy is long enough [3]. The underlying pathophysiology of LID remains elusive, but significant advances have occurred over the past few years. Thus, anomalies in intracellular cascades involving dopamine- and
* Corresponding author. Division of Brain, Imaging & Behaviour, Systems Neuroscience, Toronto Western Research Institute, 399 Bathurst Street, MP-12-303, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada. Tel.: þ1 416 603 5369; fax: þ1 416 603 5447. E-mail address: [email protected] (T.H. Johnston). 1353-8020/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2012.07.001
cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32) [4], extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) [5] and its upstream regulator Ras-guanine nucleotide-releasing factor 1 (Ras-GRF1) [6] were demonstrated in animal models of dyskinesia. Accordingly, experiments aiming at correcting these signalling anomalies successfully alleviated established LID in experimental parkinsonism [5,6]. Ultimately, these signalling cascades converge on the nucleus of the cell where they influence gene expression. The histones are a family of protein involved in DNA compaction and organisation into units called nucleosomes [7,8]. Histone function is in part controlled via post-translational modifications including acetylation, a dynamic and bidirectional process mediated via histone acetyltransferase and histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes [9]. In the 1-methyl-4-phenyl1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned non-human primate model of PD, chronic L-DOPA treatment and the appearance of LID was associated with marked deacetylation of histone H4 [10].
T.H. Johnston et al. / Parkinsonism and Related Disorders 19 (2013) 260e264
Fig. 1. Chemical structure of RGFP109, from [11].
While that study highlighted that abnormal histone deacetylation is present in LID, it remains unknown whether the deacetylated state is an aetiological factor in, or a consequence of, LID. It nevertheless suggests that reducing, or inhibiting histone deacetylation might alleviate LID. We hypothesised that abnormal histone deacetylation plays a role in the maintenance and/or expression of the dyskinetic phenotype. The current study was undertaken to explore whether treatment with RGFP109 (N-(6-(2-aminophenylamino)-6oxyhexyl)-4-methylbenzamide; Fig. 1), a pimelic diphenylamide HDAC inhibitor (HDACi) [11], could modify either acute expression of LID or even “de-prime” and reverse established LID in the MPTPlesioned common marmoset model of PD. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Behavioural assessment of RGFP109 in the MPTP-lesioned common marmoset 2.1.1. Induction of parkinsonism and dyskinesia in the common marmoset Experiments were conducted in four female common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus, 300e500 g; Harlan, Madison, USA). Animals (two per cage), were kept in controlled conditions, with access to food, fresh fruit and water ad libitum. All studies were performed with local IACUC approval (UHN 02/053) in accordance with Canadian Council on Animal Care regulations and those described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals as adopted and promulgated by the United States National Institutes of Health [12]. The housing environment was enriched with auditory and tactile stimuli under conditions of constant temperature (25 C), relative humidity (50%) and a 12-h light-cycle (7.00am lights on). Animals were rendered parkinsonian by subcutaneous (s.c.) injections of MPTP hydrochloride (2.0 mg/kg; SigmaeAldrich, Canada) over five consecutive days, as previously described [13,14]. After 14 weeks of recovery and stabilisation of the parkinsonian phenotype, motor complications, including dyskinesia, were induced by L-DOPA/benserazide treatment, as ProlopaÒ (twice-daily, 15/3.75 mg/kg p.o.; Hoffmann-La Roche Limited, Mississauga, Canada), for at least sixty days. Subsequently, repeated L-DOPA challenges were conducted to ensure that animals responded with stable and reproducible levels of dyskinesia (data not shown). 2.1.2. Administration of RGFP109 in combination with L-DOPA to the parkinsonian marmoset A schematic depicting the time line of the experiments conducted is provided in Fig. 2. Twelve days prior to the start of the study (D-12), animals were administered an acute challenge of L-DOPA/benserazide (20/5 mg/kg s.c., henceforth referred to as L-DOPA). Behaviour observed on D-12 was used as a baseline comparator to ensure that the animals responded consistently to L-DOPA, both in terms of dyskinesia and
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duration of reversal of parkinsonism, thereby ensuring that changes noted throughout the study would be secondary to HDAC inhibition and not variation in the response to L-DOPA. On study day 0 (D0), animals were treated with an acute challenge of L-DOPA in combination with vehicle. Treatment with the HDACi RGFP109 was initiated 24 h later (D1). Throughout the study, animals were administered RGFP109 orally (30 mg/kg) dissolved in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin acetate (50%, v/v) in water, in combination with LDOPA. Both drugs were administered simultaneously. The dose of L-DOPA was kept constant throughout the observation days (20/5 mg/kg), but was administered orally on non-behavioural days and s.c. on behavioural observation days (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12), in order to minimise variability due to erratic gastro-intestinal absorption. Treatment with RGFP109 was ceased on D6. After a six-day wash-out period during which daily L-DOPA treatment was maintained, response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was re-assessed (D12). 2.1.3. Behavioural analysis On days of behavioural analysis (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12), immediately following treatment administration, animals were transferred into observation cages (0.8 0.8 0.7 m) for 6 h and behaviour was recorded on DVD for post hoc assessment by a movement disorders neurologist (SHF) blinded to treatment. Behavioural analysis was performed according to previously published methods [13e17]. Parkinsonian disability scores were rated for 5 min every 10 min. The following items were rated: range of movement (0e9), bradykinesia (0e3), posture (0e1), and attention/alertness (0e1). For each of the aforementioned items, the higher the score, the greater was the disability. A global parkinsonian disability score was calculated as a combination of the aforementioned behaviours according to the following formula: (range of movement 1) þ (bradykinesia 3) þ (posture 9) þ (alertness 9). The maximal parkinsonian disability score per 5 min observation period was 36. L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia were assessed concomitantly with parkinsonian disability. Dyskinesia were rated from 0 to 4. Choreiform and dystonic dyskinesia were rated separately and the score given reflected the most disabling dyskinesis observed, whether chorea or dystonia, for every 5 min period of evaluation. For both chorea and dystonia, the higher the score, the greater was the disability. Scores were cumulated for each hour across the entire 6 h of observations and during the peak-effect period (90e150 min following L-DOPA administration). Duration of anti-parkinsonian action, i.e. ON-time, was defined as the number of minutes for which the bradykinesia score was 0. ON-time was further divided as “good” or “bad” quality, depending on the severity of dyskinesia present. “Good quality” ON-time was defined as the number of minutes during which dyskinesia were either absent, mild, or moderate in intensity (0e2), while “bad quality” ONtime was defined as the number of minutes during which dyskinesia were either marked or severe (3e4).
2.2. Statistical analysis Categorical, discontinuous scores for parkinsonian disability and dyskinesia severity were analysed using non-parametric Friedman’s followed by Dunn’s multiple comparison post hoc tests. Comparison of dyskinesia severity between D-12 and D0 was done by Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test. Continuous ON-time parameters were analysed by one-way repeated measure analysis of variance (RM ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison post hoc tests. Comparison of ONtime parameters between D-12 and D0 was done by paired Student’s t test. Statistical significance was assigned when P < 0.05. Analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism 5.03 (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, USA) and Microsoft Office Excel 2007 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, USA).
Fig. 2. Time line of the experiments performed in the present study. A baseline assessment of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia and L-DOPA-induced reversal of parkinsonism was obtained at D-12 and repeated on D0, in order to ensure that the marmosets response to L-DOPA was stable over time. Treatment with RGFP109 was initiated on D1 and continued up to and including D6. L-DOPA was then administered alone until D12, where behavioural assessment was repeated. Behaviour was assessed on D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12. On each of these behavioural days, L-DOPA was administered s.c., to avoid erratic gastro-intestinal absorption and orally on all other non-behavioural days. The dose of L-DOPA/benserazide was 20/5 mg/kg throughout the study, whether the administration was s.c. or oral. RGFP109 was administered orally at a dose of 30 mg/kg.
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3. Results Prior to start of the study, reproducibility of the response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was assessed. Comparing the effects of acute L-DOPA challenge on D-12 and D0, there was no effect of time on extent of dyskinesia, parkinsonian disability or ON-time (all P > 0.05, Fig. 3). Thus, on both D-12 and D0, acute challenge with L-DOPA evoked dyskinesia lasting approximately 3.5 h (Fig. 3A) which, when cumulated over the period of peak-effect (90e150 min), reached marked to severe levels (median semi-interquartile range (semiQ): 22.0 0.8 on D-12 and 21.5 1.0 on D0; sum of signed ranks (W) ¼ 0.0, P > 0.05, Wilcoxon’s test, Fig. 3B). During the peak-effect period, in response to L-DOPA treatment, parkinsonian disability was of mild to absent levels and comparable between D-12 and D0 (29.0 3.1 on D-12 and 28.0 11.8 on D0; W ¼ 2.0, P > 0.05, Wilcoxon’s test, Fig. 3D). Similarly, ON-time duration was not different between D-12 and D0 (208 29 min on D-12 and 205 18 min on D0; t3 ¼ 0.2000; P > 0.05, paired Student’s t test, Fig. 3E). In both D-12 and D0, the majority of ON-time, w70%, was compromised by disabling dyskinesia (156 7 min on D-12 and 145 11 min on D0; t3 ¼ 0.8273; P > 0.05, paired Student’s t test, Fig. 3F). Oral RGFP109 treatment was well-tolerated with no adverse effects observed throughout the study. Over the twelve-day study period, there was a significant effect of treatment on levels of LID during periods of peak L-DOPA effect (Friedman statistic (FS) ¼ 9.75, P < 0.01, Friedman test, Fig. 3B). However, neither acute (D1) nor six days (D6) of treatment with RGFP109 co-administered with LDOPA, had any effect on levels of LID compared to L-DOPA alone on D0 (all P > 0.05, Dunn’s post hoc test). On D12, 6 days after cessation of RGFP109 treatment, although daily L-DOPA was continued, there was a significant reduction (by 37%) in levels of LID (21.5 1.0 on D0 and 13.5 1.5 on D12; P < 0.05, Dunn’s post hoc test, Fig. 3B). Accordingly, across the study, there was a significant effect of treatment on the duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia (F3,9 ¼ 5.6, P < 0.05, one-way RM ANOVA). At D12, but not prior to this point, the duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia was reduced by 50% compared to L-DOPA alone on D0 (145 11 min on D0 and 73 23 min on D12; P < 0.05, Tukey’s post hoc test Fig. 3F). At no point during the study was there a change in the antiparkinsonian action of L-DOPA during the peak-effect period (FS ¼ 0.3, P > 0.05, Friedman test, Fig. 3D) or on the total duration of ON-time (F3,9 ¼ 0 0.9, P > 0.05, one-way RM ANOVA Fig. 3E). 4. Discussion The current proof-of-concept study demonstrates that systemic treatment with a HDACi can reverse established L-DOPAinduced motor complications in the MPTP-lesioned common marmoset. RGFP109 was well-tolerated by the animals throughout the study. 4.1. Pharmacological profile of RGFP109 RGFP109 is specific for Class I HDACs and is selective for HDAC type 1 and 3, with an affinity in the low nanomolar range for both
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isoenzymes [11]. RGFP109 is brain-penetrant, showing a 1:10 brain to blood level ratio and an oral bioavailability of 35% in the dog. The dose of RGFP109 employed in this study (30 mg/kg, p.o.) was chosen because it evoked significant inhibition of deacetylase activity in preliminary experiments performed in the dog. Thus, HDAC activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from dogs treated orally with 30 mg/kg RGFP109 showed a time-dependent inhibition (SWJ, JRR, unpublished data). Furthermore, while the activity of RGFP109 in human or non-human primate brain tissue has not been assessed, RGFP109 has been shown to significantly increase levels of acetylated histones in wild-type and YG8R mutant-mice (a mouse model of Friedreich’s ataxia) [18]. 4.2. Sub-chronic treatment with RGFP109 alleviates established LDOPA-induced dyskinesia Acute challenges of RGFP109 did not reduce LID severity, as shown by the lack of anti-dyskinetic efficacy on D1 and, to a certain extent, D6. However, RGFP109 significantly reduced severity of peak-dose LID and decreased duration of “bad quality” ON-time on D12, six days after cessation of treatment with RGFP109. This delayed onset of anti-dyskinetic efficacy is consistent with long-lasting changes at the nuclear level, as would be expected with HDAC inhibition, as opposed to blockade of a synaptic receptor, which would be expected to produce an immediate benefit. Importantly, the anti-dyskinetic effect of RGFP109 was obtained without compromising peak antiparkinsonian efficacy or duration of L-DOPA benefit, suggesting that abnormal histone deacetylation is a consequence of LID and not L-DOPA therapy per se. Interestingly, the results of our study are in accordance with those of a clinical trial which assessed the effect of the anticonvulsant and mood stabiliser valproic acid on LID in PD patents [19]. In that double-blind crossover trial, valproic acid, administered as sodium valproate, was without effect on acute expression of LID during the 12-week study. However, patient diaries reported a reduction in incidence and severity of dyskinesia after completion of the study compared to that seen 3 months prior. The mechanisms of action of valproic appear to be multiple [20,21], and include non-selective inhibition of HDAC [22,23]. The HDAC inhibitory effect of valproic acid is likely to be key in the therapeutic benefit afforded by the molecule, which is now being investigated for the treatment of cancer [24,25] and neurodegenerative disorders [26]. While this study provides behavioural evidence for a role of HDAC in the pathogenesis of motor complications in PD, an additional role in the neurodegenerative process in PD is also plausible, though this could not be assessed in the current study, as the marmosets used in the present experiment had a stable, nonevolving, parkinsonian phenotype. Thus, a recent study revealed a link between HDAC modulation and the protein DJ-1 (PARK7), loss of function mutations in which are associated with a form of earlyonset PD. Administration of the HDACi phenylbutyrate to mice led to an increase in brain levels of DJ-1 and protected dopamine neurons against MPTP-induced toxicity [27]. Thus, there might be
Fig. 3. Effect of RGFP109 on dyskinesia, parkinsonism and ON-time in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset. Twelve days prior to the start of the study (D-12), animals were administered an acute challenge of L-DOPA (20 mg/kg, s.c.). On study day 0 (D0), animals were treated with an acute challenge of L-DOPA in combination with vehicle. Treatment with RGFP109 was initiated 24 h later (D1). Throughout the study, animals were co-administered RGFP109 orally (30 mg/kg) dissolved in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin acetate (50%, v/v) in water, in combination with L-DOPA. L-DOPA dose was administered orally on non-behavioural days and s.c. on behavioural observation days (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12). Treatment with RGFP109 was ceased on D6. After a six-day wash-out period during which daily L-DOPA treatment was maintained, response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was re-assessed (D12). On D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12 immediately following treatments dyskinesia and parkinsonism were assessed every 10 min for a 5 min period and cumulated into 30 min epochs for the duration of the 6 h time-course (A and C respectively) or over the period of peak-effect (90e150 min, B and D respectively). Total (E) and ‘bad’-quality (F) ON-time were also assessed for the duration of the 6 h time-course. Data are median (time-courses, A and C) with individual values (B and D only) or mean s.e.m. (E and F). N ¼ 4 for all treatment groups. * represents P < 0.05 cf. D0 (Friedman test with Dunn’s Multiple Comparison test (B) or 1-way, RM-ANOVA with Dunnett’s Multiple Comparison test (F). N ¼ 4 for all treatment groups.
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a role for HDACi in PD, both in symptomatic and neuroprotective/ neurodegenerative treatment paradigms. 5. Concluding remarks While our proof-of-concept study supports a role of HDAC inhibition in the treatment of LID, it also generates questions that will need to be addressed in future studies. For instance, would the reduction in dyskinesia have been of greater magnitude if treatment had been carried on for a longer period of time? Also, to what extent the effects of RGFP109 on LID are permanent or whether, with continued L-DOPA treatment, motor complications would return to pre-treatment levels. Would HDAC inhibition also reduce dyskinesia triggered by dopamine agonists? Moreover, HDACi are cytostatic agents and many of them are currently being developed for therapy against cancer [28,29]. This effect on cell cycle has not been evaluated in the current study, but such safety concerns, including the therapeutic window, will obviously have to be addressed in further studies assessing the potential efficacy of HDACi in the treatment of LID in PD. Nevertheless, these data provide support for the continued study of the role of epigenetic modifications in LID and the potential of HDAC inhibition as a treatment for motor complications of L-DOPA therapy in PD. Author roles 1. Research project: A. Conception, B. Organisation, C. Execution; 2. Statistical analysis: A. Design, B. Execution, C. Review and Critique; 3. Manuscript: A. Writing of the first draft, B. Review and Critique THJ: 1ABC, 2ABC, 3A; PH: 1C, 2B; SD: 1C, 2B; SHF: 2BC, 3B; SWJ: 1A, 3B; JRR: 1A, 3B; JMB: 1AB, 2AC, 3B. Financial disclosures for past 12 months THJ is employed by University Health Network and has received consultancy payments from Atuka Ltd. PH and SD have nothing to disclose. SHF has received funding from Krembil Neuroscience Fund, Canadian Institute of Health Research, National Institute of Health and consultancy from Atuka, Merck, Merck Serono and Teva. SWJ and JRR are employees of Repligen Corporation. JMB is employed by University Health Network and has received consultancy payments from Atuka Ltd. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Krembil Foundation and the Cure Parkinson’s Trust in addition to the provision of the test compound RGFP109 by Repligen Corporation. PH was supported by Fellowships from the Edmond J Safra Philanthropic Foundation, the Parkinson Society Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. References [1] Voon V, Fernagut PO, Wickens J, Baunez C, Rodriguez M, Pavon N, et al. Chronic dopaminergic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: from dyskinesias to impulse control disorders. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:1140e9. [2] Fahn S. The spectrum of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Ann Neurol 2000;47: S2e9. discussion S-11. [3] Hely MA, Morris JG, Reid WG, Trafficante R. Sydney multicenter study of Parkinson’s disease: non-L-dopa-responsive problems dominate at 15 years. Mov Disord 2005;20:190e9.
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Parkinsonism and Related Disorders journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/parkreldis
Short communication
RGFP109, a histone deacetylase inhibitor attenuates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset: A proof-of-concept study Tom H. Johnston a, b, *, Philippe Huot a, d, Sammie Damude c, Susan H. Fox d, Steven W. Jones e, James R. Rusche e, Jonathan M. Brotchie a, b a
Division of Brain, Imaging & Behaviour, Systems Neuroscience, Toronto Western Research Institute, 399 Bathurst Street, MP-12-303, Toronto, ON M5T2S8, Canada Atuka Ltd., Toronto, ON, Canada Faculty of Medicine, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands d Movement Disorder Clinic, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada e Repligen Corp., Waltham, MA, USA b c
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 7 March 2012 Received in revised form 26 June 2012 Accepted 1 July 2012
Background: L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID) are a complication of chronic dopamine replacement therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Recent studies have suggested that the mechanisms underlying development and expression of LID in PD may involve epigenetic changes that include deacetylation of striatal histone proteins. We hypothesised that inhibition of histone deacetylase, the enzyme responsible of histone deacetylation, would alleviate LID. Methods: Four female common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) were rendered parkinsonian by administration of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Following stabilisation of the parkinsonian phenotype, marmosets were primed to exhibit dyskinesia with chronic administration of L-DOPA. We then investigated the effects of the brain-penetrant histone deacetylase inhibitor, RGFP109 (30 mg/kg p.o. once daily for 6 days), on LID and L-DOPA anti-parkinsonian efficacy. Results: RGFP109 had no acute effects on dyskinesia after single or 6 days once-daily treatment (both P > 0.05). However, one week following cessation of RGFP109, dyskinesia and duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia were reduced by 37% and 50%, respectively (both P < 0.05), compared to that seen previously with L-DOPA alone. There was no change in anti-parkinsonian actions of, or ON-time duration afforded by, L-DOPA (P > 0.05). Conclusions: Histone deacetylation inhibition may represent a novel approach to reverse established LID in PD and improve quality of the anti-parkinsonian benefit provided by L-DOPA. Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Parkinson’s disease Epigenetics Dyskinesia Primate
1. Introduction L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) replacement therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD) is compromised by the development of motor side effects including L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID) [1], which are sometimes more disabling than PD itself [2]. LID will affect virtually every PD patient, provided duration of L-DOPA therapy is long enough [3]. The underlying pathophysiology of LID remains elusive, but significant advances have occurred over the past few years. Thus, anomalies in intracellular cascades involving dopamine- and
* Corresponding author. Division of Brain, Imaging & Behaviour, Systems Neuroscience, Toronto Western Research Institute, 399 Bathurst Street, MP-12-303, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada. Tel.: þ1 416 603 5369; fax: þ1 416 603 5447. E-mail address: [email protected] (T.H. Johnston). 1353-8020/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2012.07.001
cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32 kDa (DARPP-32) [4], extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) [5] and its upstream regulator Ras-guanine nucleotide-releasing factor 1 (Ras-GRF1) [6] were demonstrated in animal models of dyskinesia. Accordingly, experiments aiming at correcting these signalling anomalies successfully alleviated established LID in experimental parkinsonism [5,6]. Ultimately, these signalling cascades converge on the nucleus of the cell where they influence gene expression. The histones are a family of protein involved in DNA compaction and organisation into units called nucleosomes [7,8]. Histone function is in part controlled via post-translational modifications including acetylation, a dynamic and bidirectional process mediated via histone acetyltransferase and histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes [9]. In the 1-methyl-4-phenyl1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned non-human primate model of PD, chronic L-DOPA treatment and the appearance of LID was associated with marked deacetylation of histone H4 [10].
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Fig. 1. Chemical structure of RGFP109, from [11].
While that study highlighted that abnormal histone deacetylation is present in LID, it remains unknown whether the deacetylated state is an aetiological factor in, or a consequence of, LID. It nevertheless suggests that reducing, or inhibiting histone deacetylation might alleviate LID. We hypothesised that abnormal histone deacetylation plays a role in the maintenance and/or expression of the dyskinetic phenotype. The current study was undertaken to explore whether treatment with RGFP109 (N-(6-(2-aminophenylamino)-6oxyhexyl)-4-methylbenzamide; Fig. 1), a pimelic diphenylamide HDAC inhibitor (HDACi) [11], could modify either acute expression of LID or even “de-prime” and reverse established LID in the MPTPlesioned common marmoset model of PD. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Behavioural assessment of RGFP109 in the MPTP-lesioned common marmoset 2.1.1. Induction of parkinsonism and dyskinesia in the common marmoset Experiments were conducted in four female common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus, 300e500 g; Harlan, Madison, USA). Animals (two per cage), were kept in controlled conditions, with access to food, fresh fruit and water ad libitum. All studies were performed with local IACUC approval (UHN 02/053) in accordance with Canadian Council on Animal Care regulations and those described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals as adopted and promulgated by the United States National Institutes of Health [12]. The housing environment was enriched with auditory and tactile stimuli under conditions of constant temperature (25 C), relative humidity (50%) and a 12-h light-cycle (7.00am lights on). Animals were rendered parkinsonian by subcutaneous (s.c.) injections of MPTP hydrochloride (2.0 mg/kg; SigmaeAldrich, Canada) over five consecutive days, as previously described [13,14]. After 14 weeks of recovery and stabilisation of the parkinsonian phenotype, motor complications, including dyskinesia, were induced by L-DOPA/benserazide treatment, as ProlopaÒ (twice-daily, 15/3.75 mg/kg p.o.; Hoffmann-La Roche Limited, Mississauga, Canada), for at least sixty days. Subsequently, repeated L-DOPA challenges were conducted to ensure that animals responded with stable and reproducible levels of dyskinesia (data not shown). 2.1.2. Administration of RGFP109 in combination with L-DOPA to the parkinsonian marmoset A schematic depicting the time line of the experiments conducted is provided in Fig. 2. Twelve days prior to the start of the study (D-12), animals were administered an acute challenge of L-DOPA/benserazide (20/5 mg/kg s.c., henceforth referred to as L-DOPA). Behaviour observed on D-12 was used as a baseline comparator to ensure that the animals responded consistently to L-DOPA, both in terms of dyskinesia and
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duration of reversal of parkinsonism, thereby ensuring that changes noted throughout the study would be secondary to HDAC inhibition and not variation in the response to L-DOPA. On study day 0 (D0), animals were treated with an acute challenge of L-DOPA in combination with vehicle. Treatment with the HDACi RGFP109 was initiated 24 h later (D1). Throughout the study, animals were administered RGFP109 orally (30 mg/kg) dissolved in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin acetate (50%, v/v) in water, in combination with LDOPA. Both drugs were administered simultaneously. The dose of L-DOPA was kept constant throughout the observation days (20/5 mg/kg), but was administered orally on non-behavioural days and s.c. on behavioural observation days (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12), in order to minimise variability due to erratic gastro-intestinal absorption. Treatment with RGFP109 was ceased on D6. After a six-day wash-out period during which daily L-DOPA treatment was maintained, response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was re-assessed (D12). 2.1.3. Behavioural analysis On days of behavioural analysis (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12), immediately following treatment administration, animals were transferred into observation cages (0.8 0.8 0.7 m) for 6 h and behaviour was recorded on DVD for post hoc assessment by a movement disorders neurologist (SHF) blinded to treatment. Behavioural analysis was performed according to previously published methods [13e17]. Parkinsonian disability scores were rated for 5 min every 10 min. The following items were rated: range of movement (0e9), bradykinesia (0e3), posture (0e1), and attention/alertness (0e1). For each of the aforementioned items, the higher the score, the greater was the disability. A global parkinsonian disability score was calculated as a combination of the aforementioned behaviours according to the following formula: (range of movement 1) þ (bradykinesia 3) þ (posture 9) þ (alertness 9). The maximal parkinsonian disability score per 5 min observation period was 36. L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia were assessed concomitantly with parkinsonian disability. Dyskinesia were rated from 0 to 4. Choreiform and dystonic dyskinesia were rated separately and the score given reflected the most disabling dyskinesis observed, whether chorea or dystonia, for every 5 min period of evaluation. For both chorea and dystonia, the higher the score, the greater was the disability. Scores were cumulated for each hour across the entire 6 h of observations and during the peak-effect period (90e150 min following L-DOPA administration). Duration of anti-parkinsonian action, i.e. ON-time, was defined as the number of minutes for which the bradykinesia score was 0. ON-time was further divided as “good” or “bad” quality, depending on the severity of dyskinesia present. “Good quality” ON-time was defined as the number of minutes during which dyskinesia were either absent, mild, or moderate in intensity (0e2), while “bad quality” ONtime was defined as the number of minutes during which dyskinesia were either marked or severe (3e4).
2.2. Statistical analysis Categorical, discontinuous scores for parkinsonian disability and dyskinesia severity were analysed using non-parametric Friedman’s followed by Dunn’s multiple comparison post hoc tests. Comparison of dyskinesia severity between D-12 and D0 was done by Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test. Continuous ON-time parameters were analysed by one-way repeated measure analysis of variance (RM ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s multiple comparison post hoc tests. Comparison of ONtime parameters between D-12 and D0 was done by paired Student’s t test. Statistical significance was assigned when P < 0.05. Analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism 5.03 (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, USA) and Microsoft Office Excel 2007 (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, USA).
Fig. 2. Time line of the experiments performed in the present study. A baseline assessment of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia and L-DOPA-induced reversal of parkinsonism was obtained at D-12 and repeated on D0, in order to ensure that the marmosets response to L-DOPA was stable over time. Treatment with RGFP109 was initiated on D1 and continued up to and including D6. L-DOPA was then administered alone until D12, where behavioural assessment was repeated. Behaviour was assessed on D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12. On each of these behavioural days, L-DOPA was administered s.c., to avoid erratic gastro-intestinal absorption and orally on all other non-behavioural days. The dose of L-DOPA/benserazide was 20/5 mg/kg throughout the study, whether the administration was s.c. or oral. RGFP109 was administered orally at a dose of 30 mg/kg.
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3. Results Prior to start of the study, reproducibility of the response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was assessed. Comparing the effects of acute L-DOPA challenge on D-12 and D0, there was no effect of time on extent of dyskinesia, parkinsonian disability or ON-time (all P > 0.05, Fig. 3). Thus, on both D-12 and D0, acute challenge with L-DOPA evoked dyskinesia lasting approximately 3.5 h (Fig. 3A) which, when cumulated over the period of peak-effect (90e150 min), reached marked to severe levels (median semi-interquartile range (semiQ): 22.0 0.8 on D-12 and 21.5 1.0 on D0; sum of signed ranks (W) ¼ 0.0, P > 0.05, Wilcoxon’s test, Fig. 3B). During the peak-effect period, in response to L-DOPA treatment, parkinsonian disability was of mild to absent levels and comparable between D-12 and D0 (29.0 3.1 on D-12 and 28.0 11.8 on D0; W ¼ 2.0, P > 0.05, Wilcoxon’s test, Fig. 3D). Similarly, ON-time duration was not different between D-12 and D0 (208 29 min on D-12 and 205 18 min on D0; t3 ¼ 0.2000; P > 0.05, paired Student’s t test, Fig. 3E). In both D-12 and D0, the majority of ON-time, w70%, was compromised by disabling dyskinesia (156 7 min on D-12 and 145 11 min on D0; t3 ¼ 0.8273; P > 0.05, paired Student’s t test, Fig. 3F). Oral RGFP109 treatment was well-tolerated with no adverse effects observed throughout the study. Over the twelve-day study period, there was a significant effect of treatment on levels of LID during periods of peak L-DOPA effect (Friedman statistic (FS) ¼ 9.75, P < 0.01, Friedman test, Fig. 3B). However, neither acute (D1) nor six days (D6) of treatment with RGFP109 co-administered with LDOPA, had any effect on levels of LID compared to L-DOPA alone on D0 (all P > 0.05, Dunn’s post hoc test). On D12, 6 days after cessation of RGFP109 treatment, although daily L-DOPA was continued, there was a significant reduction (by 37%) in levels of LID (21.5 1.0 on D0 and 13.5 1.5 on D12; P < 0.05, Dunn’s post hoc test, Fig. 3B). Accordingly, across the study, there was a significant effect of treatment on the duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia (F3,9 ¼ 5.6, P < 0.05, one-way RM ANOVA). At D12, but not prior to this point, the duration of ON-time with disabling dyskinesia was reduced by 50% compared to L-DOPA alone on D0 (145 11 min on D0 and 73 23 min on D12; P < 0.05, Tukey’s post hoc test Fig. 3F). At no point during the study was there a change in the antiparkinsonian action of L-DOPA during the peak-effect period (FS ¼ 0.3, P > 0.05, Friedman test, Fig. 3D) or on the total duration of ON-time (F3,9 ¼ 0 0.9, P > 0.05, one-way RM ANOVA Fig. 3E). 4. Discussion The current proof-of-concept study demonstrates that systemic treatment with a HDACi can reverse established L-DOPAinduced motor complications in the MPTP-lesioned common marmoset. RGFP109 was well-tolerated by the animals throughout the study. 4.1. Pharmacological profile of RGFP109 RGFP109 is specific for Class I HDACs and is selective for HDAC type 1 and 3, with an affinity in the low nanomolar range for both
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isoenzymes [11]. RGFP109 is brain-penetrant, showing a 1:10 brain to blood level ratio and an oral bioavailability of 35% in the dog. The dose of RGFP109 employed in this study (30 mg/kg, p.o.) was chosen because it evoked significant inhibition of deacetylase activity in preliminary experiments performed in the dog. Thus, HDAC activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from dogs treated orally with 30 mg/kg RGFP109 showed a time-dependent inhibition (SWJ, JRR, unpublished data). Furthermore, while the activity of RGFP109 in human or non-human primate brain tissue has not been assessed, RGFP109 has been shown to significantly increase levels of acetylated histones in wild-type and YG8R mutant-mice (a mouse model of Friedreich’s ataxia) [18]. 4.2. Sub-chronic treatment with RGFP109 alleviates established LDOPA-induced dyskinesia Acute challenges of RGFP109 did not reduce LID severity, as shown by the lack of anti-dyskinetic efficacy on D1 and, to a certain extent, D6. However, RGFP109 significantly reduced severity of peak-dose LID and decreased duration of “bad quality” ON-time on D12, six days after cessation of treatment with RGFP109. This delayed onset of anti-dyskinetic efficacy is consistent with long-lasting changes at the nuclear level, as would be expected with HDAC inhibition, as opposed to blockade of a synaptic receptor, which would be expected to produce an immediate benefit. Importantly, the anti-dyskinetic effect of RGFP109 was obtained without compromising peak antiparkinsonian efficacy or duration of L-DOPA benefit, suggesting that abnormal histone deacetylation is a consequence of LID and not L-DOPA therapy per se. Interestingly, the results of our study are in accordance with those of a clinical trial which assessed the effect of the anticonvulsant and mood stabiliser valproic acid on LID in PD patents [19]. In that double-blind crossover trial, valproic acid, administered as sodium valproate, was without effect on acute expression of LID during the 12-week study. However, patient diaries reported a reduction in incidence and severity of dyskinesia after completion of the study compared to that seen 3 months prior. The mechanisms of action of valproic appear to be multiple [20,21], and include non-selective inhibition of HDAC [22,23]. The HDAC inhibitory effect of valproic acid is likely to be key in the therapeutic benefit afforded by the molecule, which is now being investigated for the treatment of cancer [24,25] and neurodegenerative disorders [26]. While this study provides behavioural evidence for a role of HDAC in the pathogenesis of motor complications in PD, an additional role in the neurodegenerative process in PD is also plausible, though this could not be assessed in the current study, as the marmosets used in the present experiment had a stable, nonevolving, parkinsonian phenotype. Thus, a recent study revealed a link between HDAC modulation and the protein DJ-1 (PARK7), loss of function mutations in which are associated with a form of earlyonset PD. Administration of the HDACi phenylbutyrate to mice led to an increase in brain levels of DJ-1 and protected dopamine neurons against MPTP-induced toxicity [27]. Thus, there might be
Fig. 3. Effect of RGFP109 on dyskinesia, parkinsonism and ON-time in the MPTP-lesioned marmoset. Twelve days prior to the start of the study (D-12), animals were administered an acute challenge of L-DOPA (20 mg/kg, s.c.). On study day 0 (D0), animals were treated with an acute challenge of L-DOPA in combination with vehicle. Treatment with RGFP109 was initiated 24 h later (D1). Throughout the study, animals were co-administered RGFP109 orally (30 mg/kg) dissolved in hydroxypropyl-b-cyclodextrin acetate (50%, v/v) in water, in combination with L-DOPA. L-DOPA dose was administered orally on non-behavioural days and s.c. on behavioural observation days (D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12). Treatment with RGFP109 was ceased on D6. After a six-day wash-out period during which daily L-DOPA treatment was maintained, response to an acute L-DOPA challenge was re-assessed (D12). On D-12, D0, D1, D6 and D12 immediately following treatments dyskinesia and parkinsonism were assessed every 10 min for a 5 min period and cumulated into 30 min epochs for the duration of the 6 h time-course (A and C respectively) or over the period of peak-effect (90e150 min, B and D respectively). Total (E) and ‘bad’-quality (F) ON-time were also assessed for the duration of the 6 h time-course. Data are median (time-courses, A and C) with individual values (B and D only) or mean s.e.m. (E and F). N ¼ 4 for all treatment groups. * represents P < 0.05 cf. D0 (Friedman test with Dunn’s Multiple Comparison test (B) or 1-way, RM-ANOVA with Dunnett’s Multiple Comparison test (F). N ¼ 4 for all treatment groups.
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a role for HDACi in PD, both in symptomatic and neuroprotective/ neurodegenerative treatment paradigms. 5. Concluding remarks While our proof-of-concept study supports a role of HDAC inhibition in the treatment of LID, it also generates questions that will need to be addressed in future studies. For instance, would the reduction in dyskinesia have been of greater magnitude if treatment had been carried on for a longer period of time? Also, to what extent the effects of RGFP109 on LID are permanent or whether, with continued L-DOPA treatment, motor complications would return to pre-treatment levels. Would HDAC inhibition also reduce dyskinesia triggered by dopamine agonists? Moreover, HDACi are cytostatic agents and many of them are currently being developed for therapy against cancer [28,29]. This effect on cell cycle has not been evaluated in the current study, but such safety concerns, including the therapeutic window, will obviously have to be addressed in further studies assessing the potential efficacy of HDACi in the treatment of LID in PD. Nevertheless, these data provide support for the continued study of the role of epigenetic modifications in LID and the potential of HDAC inhibition as a treatment for motor complications of L-DOPA therapy in PD. Author roles 1. Research project: A. Conception, B. Organisation, C. Execution; 2. Statistical analysis: A. Design, B. Execution, C. Review and Critique; 3. Manuscript: A. Writing of the first draft, B. Review and Critique THJ: 1ABC, 2ABC, 3A; PH: 1C, 2B; SD: 1C, 2B; SHF: 2BC, 3B; SWJ: 1A, 3B; JRR: 1A, 3B; JMB: 1AB, 2AC, 3B. Financial disclosures for past 12 months THJ is employed by University Health Network and has received consultancy payments from Atuka Ltd. PH and SD have nothing to disclose. SHF has received funding from Krembil Neuroscience Fund, Canadian Institute of Health Research, National Institute of Health and consultancy from Atuka, Merck, Merck Serono and Teva. SWJ and JRR are employees of Repligen Corporation. JMB is employed by University Health Network and has received consultancy payments from Atuka Ltd. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Krembil Foundation and the Cure Parkinson’s Trust in addition to the provision of the test compound RGFP109 by Repligen Corporation. PH was supported by Fellowships from the Edmond J Safra Philanthropic Foundation, the Parkinson Society Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. References [1] Voon V, Fernagut PO, Wickens J, Baunez C, Rodriguez M, Pavon N, et al. Chronic dopaminergic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: from dyskinesias to impulse control disorders. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:1140e9. [2] Fahn S. The spectrum of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. Ann Neurol 2000;47: S2e9. discussion S-11. [3] Hely MA, Morris JG, Reid WG, Trafficante R. Sydney multicenter study of Parkinson’s disease: non-L-dopa-responsive problems dominate at 15 years. Mov Disord 2005;20:190e9.
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