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Rotten ivory as raw material source in European Upper Palaeolithic
Quaternary International 361 (2015) 313e318
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Quaternary International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
Rotten ivory as raw material source in European Upper Palaeolithic Leif Steguweit Institute of Prehistory, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Kochstr. 4/18, D e 91054 Erlangen, Germany
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 13 January 2015
Human manipulation on mammoth ivory is widely known from the archaeological record of the Upper Palaeolithic. The ring notching technique to break a tusk can be documented from the Early Aurignacian with continuous traditions in the Gravettian/Pavlovian. Experiments with rotten and fresh elephant ivory highlight for many Palaeolithic objects the analogy to breakage patterns in a significant decomposition process. The use of rotten ivory is especially evident in several Upper Palaeolithic art objects. These ivory plates, showing a concave inner surface caused by rotting, were the raw material for several Aurignacian figurines from the Swabian Alb (Southern Germany) and Gravettian figurines from Southern Moravia. The use of rotten ivory in a “carve and splinter technique” will be discussed for the lion man from Hohlenstein-Stadel. Strategies of deliberate maceration can reduce working costs. Procurement of rotten ratoire, either starting by killing the animal and caching of the tusks, ivory is conceivable as a chaîne ope or harvesting of specific weathered material from the land surface. In particular, the latter behavior gives reason to consider that raw material acquisition as “recycling”. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ivory Upper Palaeolithic Aurignacian Gravettian Taphonomy
1. Introduction The earliest evidence of figurative art is typically associated with the arrival of Homo sapiens in Central and Western Europe. Tusks of Mammuthus primigenius served as raw material for the oldest figurines of those anatomically modern humans in Europe. While expression of Neanderthal art has been recently debated (Zilh~ ao et al., 2010; Peresani et al., 2011, 2013; Roebroeks et al., 2012), non-utilitarian treatment of mammoth ivory or teeth is known only in rare cases (Dobosi, 2001). Although the Aurignacian art objects of the Swabian Alb themselves and their cultural implications are widely known, only little investigations have been carried out on the taphonomy of mammoth ivory. Technical aspects of ivory working were first taken under focus by Joachim Hahn and some of his scholars. The detected “ring notching technique” for transversal breaking of tusks to pieces had been used in several cases of Aurignacian and Gravettian sites (Hahn et al., 1995, 30; Christensen, 1999, 60e66; Khlopachev, 2001, 215e216, Fig. 1; Thiault, 2001, Fig. 12e14; Scheer, 2001). Most of those experiments were undertaken with fossil mammoth ivory. The practical background is its accessibility because of its exclusion from the Washington Convention (CITES). Consequently, some studies could not focus on the differences
E-mail address: [email protected]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.11.019 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
between fresh and more or less rotten mammoth ivory. Malina and Ehmann (2009) reconstructed the Aurignacian flute from Geis€sterle Cave (Swabian Alb, Southern Germany) by splintering senklo a spall of fossil mammoth ivory. They confirmed the adequate properties of fossil ivory which are different from recent (“fresh”) material. The advantage of using such a weathered spall was not part of their conclusions. The use of weathered and recent elephant ivory confiscated by customs officials at two German airports allowed testing of an experimental range of different raw material conditions for a better understanding of its properties. Breaking patterns and other observations including soaking pretreatment allow discussion of Palaeolithic use of mammoth tusks in an advanced decomposition or macerated stage.
2. Taphonomy of Proboscidean tusks Tusks of the Upper Pleistocene woolly mammoth and recent elephants display similar material properties. Cross sections show a rosette shaped inner fibre structure, a Schreger pattern (Trapani and Fisher, 2003). The different angle of the Schreger lines (the fibre texture) is reasoned mainly by the different bending of the tusks: the heavily bent mammoth tusks display acute Schreger line angles of less than 90 , while the slightly curved or elongated elephant tusks show obtuse Schreger line angles of 100 or more
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degrees (Penniman, 1952). They are best visible in the outer dentin cones next to the cementedentin junction (CDJ). The dentin cones consist of 50e65% calcium phosphate. Dentin rates approximately 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. The outer cement consists of 70% calcium-hydroxylapatite and, with a Mohs hardness of 5, is the hardest organic material animals produce. The dentinal tubules contain fluid and cellular structures. They are three-dimensionally cross-linked. As Trapani and Fisher (2003) describe, during dentin deposition sets of odontoblasts move in phase with each other and 180 out of phase with adjacent sets. The growing of the dentin cones is influenced by the diet and environmental conditions, and the growth rings can be used as individual signatures. Cross-sections of the right and left tusk are identical. X-ray scans of complete tusks can provide for the same diagnosis as do virtual cross sections. Summarizing, living dentin does not build up any cleavage faces along the conical growing rings. Longitudinal breaking patterns on fresh ivory display practically isotropic properties while transversal breaks show the outlined Schreger patterns (Fig. 1). Only after decomposition do the tusks start to develop cleavage patterns along the growing rings and break apart along the cones (Fig. 2). The duration of the weathering process is due to the climatic conditions: for a decomposition of a South African tusk, conical lamellar pieces were observed after ten years. In consideration of the fact that Pleistocene mammoth ivory is still in trade as raw material for modern ivory carvers, decomposition is obviously a question of local sedimentation without time limit. 3. Breakage patterns in the archaeological record vs. experiments The use of bone retouchers has been known since the Middle Palaeolithic. It is related to well-documented Neanderthal sites (Verna and d'Errico, 2011; Daujeard et al., 2014). While hitting
Fig. 2. Fossil ivory, conical breakage patterns (foto: R. Bücking, scale 5 cm).
marks on long bone shaft fragments seems to be less practical in terms of a longer preservation of the hammers (Verna and d'Errico, 2011), the epiphysis of the long bones from big game are hard enough and feasible for longer use as hammers for flint-knapping (Daujeard et al., 2014). Interesting details of anthropogenic manipulations were found on four worked pieces of mammoth tusks from Alberndorf, Lower Austria (Steguweit, 2005; Steguweit and Trnka, 2008). The site has been AMS dated, and four charcoal samples delivered the most reliable date of approximately 29e27 ka BP and fit within the late Aurignacian (Steguweit and Trnka, 2008). The removal of the tusk sections was done with the typical method of cutting a concave ring through the outer part of the tusk, the ring notching technique (Hahn et al., 1995). After the preliminary consideration, it is clear that conical inner breakage is possible only after decomposition. As pretreatment for the breakage, two smaller oppositestanding notches were carved on object AL 774. The predetermined breaking point leads to controlled breaks, as well at AL 774, AL 840 and AL 1246 on the proximal side and at object AL 775 on both ends. In contrast, the distal ends of AL 774 and AL 840 are irregularly broken and splintery. Special attention is directed to the only surface which had been intensively worked after the separation: the distal surface from object AL 775. Because of the significant traces of use at the distal edge, object AL 775 was recently identified as a soft hammer for flint-knapping (Fig. 3). Comparing the ivory hammer from Alberndorf with objects from other collections, I could identify similar traces of use on other ivory artefacts from the Gravettian sites of Predmostí Ia (13 objects, stonice (1 object), recently Fig. 4), Pavlov (5 objects) and Dolní Ve published with elaborated descriptions and figures (Steguweit, 2005). More probable ivory hammers for flint-knapping can be identified from Eastern European sites, such as Avdeevo, Kostenki IV, Mezin, Suponevo, Sungir, Timonovka, and Eliseevichi (for details see Steguweit, 2005). There seem to be continuous traditions from Late Aurignacian to Gravettian and the cultures after the Last Glacial Maximum, showing patterns of exchange, trade or at least interactions. Experiments with a replica made of elephant ivory indicate the excellent properties of the ivory for flint-knapping, due to its hardness and weight. Hitting marks on the recent elephant ivory hammer accord with the archaeological record (Fig. 5). 4. Aurignacian figurines made of mammoth splinters
Fig. 1. African elephant tusk: transversal section with sawn vs. broken surface (foto: Leif Steguweit ¼ LS, scale 5 cm).
Deposits of tusks (ivory splinters) were described from Vogel€sterle and Hohlefels herd cave, Hohlenstein-Stadel, Geissenklo (Hahn, 1986; Hiller, 2003; Heckel and Wolf, 2014). Hahn (1986) interpreted the object accumulations as caches to allow maceration by water and sediment chemistry. Knapped ivory flakes are known from the Swabian Aurignacian. Some workers discussed the improvement of the fracture behavior by freezing the ivory (Khlopachev and Girya, 2010).
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Fig. 3. Alberndorf 1 (Austria) Ivory objects AL 1246, AL 840, AL 774, AL 775 (airbrush graphics: F. Siegmeth, scale 10 cm).
Fig. 4. Predmostí Ia (Czech Republic), proximal edge of an ivory percussor, Moravian Museum Brno (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Fig. 5. Elephant ivory percussor with hit marks (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Hahn (1986) analysed the figurative art of all four Swabian Alb sites in relationship to the detectable tusk dimensions and their positions in it. All figurines were labeled with numbers for easy identification. Using decomposed ivory, a bison (no. 9) and a felid (no. 6) bas relief show unmodified cylindrical breakage surface of the growing cone inside. The concept of bas reliefs is best illustrated in the horse no. 3 from Vogelherd Cave (Fig. 6). That figurine displays the outer convex tusk on its back side while the inside is carved. The outer cement was either artificially removed or weathered by decomposition. In recent ivory carving, the harder and lighter dentin layer including the CDJ is avoided in the production of veneers and figurative art objects. On the other hand, the CDJ was deliberately used in splinting the two halves of the Geis€sterle flute (Malina and Ehmann, 2009). senklo Surprisingly, the lion (no. 10) from Vogelherd Cave could be recently refitted with parts of its head on the outer surface (press release: University of Tuebingen, 2014). Also the anthropomorphic figurine no. 11 could be a longitudinal broken half figurine, while €sterle) was made of a small no. 16 (the “adorant” from Geissenklo ivory plate displaying the convexity of the break at the back side. In other cases of the Swabian Alb figurine record, the concept was
Fig. 6. Vogelherd Cave (Germany), horse no. 3 (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
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(Schmid, 1989). New ivory fragments of its shoulder and neck were found in 2010 and require a modified reconstruction (Beutelspacher et al., 2011, 2012; Wehrberger, 2013). The new reconstruction does not change the fact that several tusk cones appear as surface levels on the carved figurine. The illustration shows a selective laser sinter replica (Rietzel et al., 2008) based on the 3D data set from the 1987 reconstruction (Fig. 8). A few additions replaced several missing parts, as parsimoniously as possible. The observation of an authentic artificially modified surface indicates that the figurine was a combination of carving and breaking pieces of the cylindrical surface from the bottom to the top. The carver used the cylindrical breaking levels to determine body surfaces on at least six concentric levels, marked in Fig. 9. Recently, another expert in ancient techniques replicated the lion man statuette by using authentic techniques and tools (Hein and Wehrberger, 2010). It took him 321 hours to carve the figurine out of a recent elephant's tusk cylinder, not counting the transversal cuts (done with a modern saw) to prepare the length of the cylinder. He expected the ancient use of an isotropic ivory blank. That way, all removals had to be done by carving and scraping with flint tools. The different approach did not include the concentric surfaces of growing rings in the reduction process. A significant decomposition is necessary as well for the production of so called “ivory shuffles”, known from Gravettian/ Pavlovian sites such as Predmostí and Pavlov (Southern Moravia) or Abri I (Bavaria). The spall of about 50 cm length from the latter site displays an inner concave surface along a naturally decomposed growing tube. A deliberate modification was done with the handle on the proximal end (Fig. 9). 6. Soaking of ivory
stonice (Czech Republic), mask, Moravian Museum Brno (foto: M. Oliva, Fig. 7. Dolní Ve scale 5 cm).
three-dimensionally shaped (felid no. 4, 5; mammoth no. 2). Those objects are not indicative of fresh or decomposed ivory. For figurative objects without the cement layer, its removal by weathering is more likely than artificial removal by splintering. The costs for carving a small figurine like the horse no. 3 were quite high: an experienced specialist carved and scraped 35 hours using recent elephant ivory (Hein, 2008). The difference in density and hardness between old and fresh ivory is only gradual, so the working costs can be seen as representative. Only pretreatment by deliberate maceration of the ivory spall makes a significant difference. Figurative bas reliefs made of ivory are known as well from the Gravettian sites at the Palava mountains in Southern Moravia (Oliva, 2008). Prominent examples are the mammoth plate from stonice (Fig. 7). Pavlov and the human “mask” from Dolní Ve 5. The lion man from Hohlenstein-Stadel The famous Aurignacian sculpture from mammoth ivory was found in the Swabian Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave in 1939. In the early 1970s, Joachim Hahn discovered the figurative character and refitted all available pieces. In the more sophisticated reconstruction of 1987, it was 29.6 cm in height, 5.6 cm wide, and 5.9 cm thick
Neither recent nor fossil ivory can be macerated by water. Several archaeologists expected the opposite, by analogy with antler. Given more or less the same chemical bond, both materials display a completely different structure. After discussing several misunderstandings with antler softening techniques expected for ivory, my focus was on acids which can break the structure of ivory (Steguweit, 2010). The main reason for a high probability of deliberate manipulation is given by the carving facets of Upper Palaeolithic ivory art objects from Hohle Fels cave, including a horse head and a water bird (Conard, 2003, 2009) (Figs. 10 and 11). Two chemicals which are known to break up and soften the surface of ivory are oxalic acid (C2H2O4) and formic acid (CH2O2). This was confirmed in laboratory experiments with 10% solutions. Both solutions extract calcium oxalate from the ivory and soften the surface in a reversible manner. Formic acid is more aggressive than oxalic acid, precipitating calcium hydrogen phosphate. Both acids were available in plants of the central European Pleniglacial: a high content of oxalic acid is found in sorrel (Rumex acetosa), and formic acid is concentrated in urtica (Urtica dioica). A brew of sorrel plants and a second one with urtica were applied to smaller pieces of an elephant tusk. After 4e6 weeks in the brew, the carving properties of the ivory blanks improved significantly (Fig. 12). 7. Conclusions Significant differences of fresh vs. rotten ivory can be demonstrated with their fracture properties. There are implications for the interpretation of tools and figurative art from the central European Upper Palaeolithic with special focus on the Aurignacian. Several objects made of decomposed ivory and ivory depots in central European caves could indicate long-term planning by Aurignacian people. Aurignacian and Gravettian Upper Palaeolithic carving
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€tzel 2009 (foto: LS, scale 10 cm). Some rings are probably indistinFig. 8. HohlensteindStadel (Germany), lion man, laser sinter replica with reconstructions, L. Steguweit/J. Ka guishable in the printed gray scale version.
techniques used the cylindrical i.e. conical fracture patterns: either in convexeconcave chips or in a “carve and splinter technique”. In a few cases like in the Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave, the deposition of rotten ivory in caches is documented. Christensen (1999, 70) described finds of buried ivory in Swabian Alb caves. Beside the fact that this evidence indicate a high number of levels for Aurignacian Cro-Magnons (Hahn, 1995), the duration of treatment is not detectable.
Direct AMS data on ivory from a late Palaeolithic site in Germany recently verified the fact that 5000 year old ivory was used as raw material (Gramsch et al., 2013). It was the first chronometric proof. The pictured fracture patterns of the outlined objects give distinct evidence as well.
Fig. 11. Hohle Fels cave, water bird (foto: LS, scale 5 cm). Fig. 9. Abri I (Germany), ivory shuffle, Gravettian (foto: LS, scale 10 cm).
Fig. 10. Hohle Fels cave, horse head (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Fig. 12. Elephant ivory, improvement of carving properties after treatment with a brew of Rumex acetosa (foto: LS).
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Within the frame of the fruitful “Tel Aviv recycling conference”, a question is if the use of ivory in an advanced decomposition stage can be denoted as “recycling” or simply “raw material procurement”. If we extend the concept of “recycling” to include taking resources out of the taphonomic process and bringing them back into the cycle of raw material use, there is no doubt that used rotten ivory is recycled material. For the determination, it is necessary to include two most likely (at least possible) scenarios into the concept. The first is the re-use of rotten ivory after killing the bearer of the tusks. The second is the deliberate caching of tusks in caves ratoire involving the “carve and as the first step of a chaîne ope splinter technique”. In both cases, rotten material was recovered from the “natural cycle” and returned in the cycle of human use. Acknowledgments Many thanks to Rainer Bücking and Dietrich Breitinger (Erlangen) for their help and comments, Kurt Wehrberger (Ulm) for the opportunity to work with the lion man copy and Wulf Hein (DornAssenheim) for his fruitful experimental work. I am grateful to the German customs for the loan of confiscated elephant ivory as recent raw material. The workshop was kindly supported by the Israel Science Foundation and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. References €hle Beutelspacher, T., Ebinger-Rist, N., Kind, C.J., 2011. Neue Funde aus der Stadelho €ologische Ausgrabungen in Badenim Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen. In: Archa Württemberg 2010, pp. 65e70. Beutelspacher, T., Kind, C.J., 2012. Auf der Suche nach Fragmenten des €wenmenschen in der Stadelho €hle im Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen. In: ArchLo € aologische Ausgrabungen in Baden-Württemberg 2011, pp. 66e71. olithique supe rieur. CharChristensen, M., 1999. Technologie de l'ivoire au Pale risation physico-chimique du mate riau et analyse fonctionelle des outils de acte transformation. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 751, 1e201. Conard, N.J., 2003. Paleolithic ivory sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art. Nature 426, 830e832. Conard, N.J., 2009. …und noch mehr Tiere! Die neuen Kleinkunstwerke vom Hohle Fels und vom Vogelherd. In: Arch€ aologisches Landesmuseum Ba-Wü (Ed.), Eiszeit e Kunst und Kultur. Thorbecke, Stuttgart. Daujeard, C., Moncel, M.H., Fiore, I., Tagliacozzo, A., Bindon, P., Raynal, J.P., 2014. Middle Paleolithic bone retouchers in Southeastern France: variability and functionality. Quaternary International 326e327, 492e518. Dobosi, V.T., 2001. Ex Proboscideis e Proboscidean remains as raw material at four Palaeolithic sites, Hungary. In: Cavarretta, G., et al. (Eds.), The World of Elephants e International Congress. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma, pp. 429e431. Gramsch, B., Beran, J., Hanik, S., Sommer, R.S., 2013. A Palaeolithic fishhook made of ivory and the earliest fishhook tradition in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (5), 2458e2463. Hahn, J., 1986. Kraft und Aggression. Die Botschaft der Eiszeitkunst im Aurignacien Süddeutschlands? Archaeologica Venatoria 7. Tübingen. bitage, faconnage et utilisation au Hahn, J., 1995. Les ivoires en Allemagne: de olithique supe rieur. In: Hahn, J., Menu, M., Taborin, Y., Walter, P., Pale olithique supe rieur. Widemann, F. (Eds.), Le travail et l'usage de l'ivoire au Pale Actes de la table ronde, Ravello, Italien, 29e31 Mai 1992, pp. 115e136. Hahn, J., Scheer, A., Waibel, O., 1995. Gold der Eiszeit e experimente zur Elfenbeinbearbeitung. In: Scheer, A., (Hrsg) (Eds.), Eiszeitwerkstatt e Experimentelle €ologie, Museumsheft 2, pp. 29e37. Blaubeuren. Archa
Heckel, C., Wolf, S., 2014. Ivory debitage by fracture in the Aurignacian: experimental and archaeological examples. Journal of Archaeological Science 42, 1e14. Hein, W., 2008. Elfenbein und Feuerstein. In: Steguweit, L. (Ed.), Menschen der Eiszeit: J€ ager e Handwerker e Künstler. Praehistorika, Fürth, pp. 55e59. €wenmensch 2.0 e Nachbildung der ElfenbeinHein, W., Wehrberger, K., 2010. Lo €hle mit authentischen Werkzeugen. In: statuette aus der Hohlestein-Stadel-Ho €ologie in Europa 9. Bilanz 2010, pp. 47e53. Experimentelle Archa €olithikum des Hohle Fels bei Hiller, B., 2003. Die Nutzung von Elfenbein im Jungpala Schelklingen. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 12, 7e23. bitage de l'ivoire dans les sites de la Khlopachev, G.A., 2001. Les techniques de de olithique supe rieur (25000e13000 av. J.-C.). Pre histoire plaine russe au Pale ene 16e17, 215e230. Europe Khlopachev, G.A., Girya, E.Y., 2010. Secrets of Ancient Carvers of Eastern Europe and Siberia: Treatment Techniques of Ivory and Reindeer Antler in the Stone Age. NAUKA, St. Petersburg. Malina, M., Ehmann, R., 2009. Elfenbeinspaltung im Aurignacien: Zur Her€ te aus dem Geißenklo €sterle. Mitteilungen der stellungstechnik der Elfenbeinflo Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 18, 93e107. Oliva, M., 2008. Kunst und Schmuck des Gravettien in M€ ahren. In: Steguweit, L. (Ed.), Menschen der Eiszeit: J€ ager e Handwerker e Künstler. Praehistorika, Fürth, pp. 60e73. Penniman, T.K., 1952. Pictures of ivory and other animal teeth, bone, and antler. Pitt Rivers Museum Occasional Papers on Technology 5, 1e37. Peresani, M., et al., 2011. Late Neandertals and the intentional removal of feathers as evidenced from bird bone taphonomy at Fumane Cave 44 ky B.P., Italy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 3888e3893. Peresani, M., et al., 2013. An ochred fossil marine shell from the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy. PLoS One 8 (7), e68572. Rietzel, D., Kühnlein, F., Wendel, B., Feulner, R., Hülder, G., Osswald, T.A., 2008. Enhanced range of plastics for Selective Laser Sintering: serving different user profiles and also consumer and industry requests. In: Tagungsband e Euro-u Rapid 2008, Berlin, pp. 209e216. Roebroeks, W., et al., 2012. Use of red ochre by early Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, 1889e1894. Scheer, A., 2001. The utilisation of mammoth remains as raw material and its importance for the Gravettian people of the German Danube. In: The World of Elephants e International Congress, Rome 2001. €hle Stadel im Schmid, E., 1989. Die altsteinzeitliche Elfenbeinstatuette aus der Ho Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen, Alb-Donau-Kreis. Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg 14, 33e96. Steguweit, L., 2005. Gebrauchsmuster an „Elfenbein-Zylindern“ aus jung€ sterreich und Ma €hren. Mitteilungen der pal€ aolithischen Fundstellen in Niedero € €rforschung Osterreichische Kommission für Quarta Akademie der Wissenschaften 14, 177e193 (with English abstract). Steguweit, L., Trnka, G., 2008. Ivory artefacts from the Aurignacian site Alberndorf I in the Pulkau valley (Lower Austria) and their interpretation as tools. Wissen€ sterreichischen Landesmuseums 19, schaftliche Mitteilungen des Niedero 149e165. Steguweit, L., 2010. Experimente zum Weichmachen von Elfenbein. In: Exper€ologie in Europa 9, pp. 55e63. Bilanz. imentelle Archa Thiault, M.-H., 2001. L'exploitation et la transformation de l'ivoire de mammoth: tude technologique d'objects gravettiens de la grotte du Pape (Brassemune e histoire 43, 153e174. Paris. pouy, Landes). Gallia Pre Trapani, J., Fisher, D.C., 2003. Discriminating Proboscidean Taxa using features of the Schreger Pattern in Tusk Dentin. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 429e438. Verna, C., d'Errico, F., 2011. The earliest evidence for the use of human bone as a tool. Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2), 145e157. Wehrberger, K., 2013. The Return of the Lion Man. History e Myth e Magic. Thorbecke, Ostfildern. ~o, J., et al., 2010. Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Zilha Iberian Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, 1023e1028.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
Rotten ivory as raw material source in European Upper Palaeolithic Leif Steguweit Institute of Prehistory, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Kochstr. 4/18, D e 91054 Erlangen, Germany
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 13 January 2015
Human manipulation on mammoth ivory is widely known from the archaeological record of the Upper Palaeolithic. The ring notching technique to break a tusk can be documented from the Early Aurignacian with continuous traditions in the Gravettian/Pavlovian. Experiments with rotten and fresh elephant ivory highlight for many Palaeolithic objects the analogy to breakage patterns in a significant decomposition process. The use of rotten ivory is especially evident in several Upper Palaeolithic art objects. These ivory plates, showing a concave inner surface caused by rotting, were the raw material for several Aurignacian figurines from the Swabian Alb (Southern Germany) and Gravettian figurines from Southern Moravia. The use of rotten ivory in a “carve and splinter technique” will be discussed for the lion man from Hohlenstein-Stadel. Strategies of deliberate maceration can reduce working costs. Procurement of rotten ratoire, either starting by killing the animal and caching of the tusks, ivory is conceivable as a chaîne ope or harvesting of specific weathered material from the land surface. In particular, the latter behavior gives reason to consider that raw material acquisition as “recycling”. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ivory Upper Palaeolithic Aurignacian Gravettian Taphonomy
1. Introduction The earliest evidence of figurative art is typically associated with the arrival of Homo sapiens in Central and Western Europe. Tusks of Mammuthus primigenius served as raw material for the oldest figurines of those anatomically modern humans in Europe. While expression of Neanderthal art has been recently debated (Zilh~ ao et al., 2010; Peresani et al., 2011, 2013; Roebroeks et al., 2012), non-utilitarian treatment of mammoth ivory or teeth is known only in rare cases (Dobosi, 2001). Although the Aurignacian art objects of the Swabian Alb themselves and their cultural implications are widely known, only little investigations have been carried out on the taphonomy of mammoth ivory. Technical aspects of ivory working were first taken under focus by Joachim Hahn and some of his scholars. The detected “ring notching technique” for transversal breaking of tusks to pieces had been used in several cases of Aurignacian and Gravettian sites (Hahn et al., 1995, 30; Christensen, 1999, 60e66; Khlopachev, 2001, 215e216, Fig. 1; Thiault, 2001, Fig. 12e14; Scheer, 2001). Most of those experiments were undertaken with fossil mammoth ivory. The practical background is its accessibility because of its exclusion from the Washington Convention (CITES). Consequently, some studies could not focus on the differences
E-mail address: [email protected]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.11.019 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
between fresh and more or less rotten mammoth ivory. Malina and Ehmann (2009) reconstructed the Aurignacian flute from Geis€sterle Cave (Swabian Alb, Southern Germany) by splintering senklo a spall of fossil mammoth ivory. They confirmed the adequate properties of fossil ivory which are different from recent (“fresh”) material. The advantage of using such a weathered spall was not part of their conclusions. The use of weathered and recent elephant ivory confiscated by customs officials at two German airports allowed testing of an experimental range of different raw material conditions for a better understanding of its properties. Breaking patterns and other observations including soaking pretreatment allow discussion of Palaeolithic use of mammoth tusks in an advanced decomposition or macerated stage.
2. Taphonomy of Proboscidean tusks Tusks of the Upper Pleistocene woolly mammoth and recent elephants display similar material properties. Cross sections show a rosette shaped inner fibre structure, a Schreger pattern (Trapani and Fisher, 2003). The different angle of the Schreger lines (the fibre texture) is reasoned mainly by the different bending of the tusks: the heavily bent mammoth tusks display acute Schreger line angles of less than 90 , while the slightly curved or elongated elephant tusks show obtuse Schreger line angles of 100 or more
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degrees (Penniman, 1952). They are best visible in the outer dentin cones next to the cementedentin junction (CDJ). The dentin cones consist of 50e65% calcium phosphate. Dentin rates approximately 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. The outer cement consists of 70% calcium-hydroxylapatite and, with a Mohs hardness of 5, is the hardest organic material animals produce. The dentinal tubules contain fluid and cellular structures. They are three-dimensionally cross-linked. As Trapani and Fisher (2003) describe, during dentin deposition sets of odontoblasts move in phase with each other and 180 out of phase with adjacent sets. The growing of the dentin cones is influenced by the diet and environmental conditions, and the growth rings can be used as individual signatures. Cross-sections of the right and left tusk are identical. X-ray scans of complete tusks can provide for the same diagnosis as do virtual cross sections. Summarizing, living dentin does not build up any cleavage faces along the conical growing rings. Longitudinal breaking patterns on fresh ivory display practically isotropic properties while transversal breaks show the outlined Schreger patterns (Fig. 1). Only after decomposition do the tusks start to develop cleavage patterns along the growing rings and break apart along the cones (Fig. 2). The duration of the weathering process is due to the climatic conditions: for a decomposition of a South African tusk, conical lamellar pieces were observed after ten years. In consideration of the fact that Pleistocene mammoth ivory is still in trade as raw material for modern ivory carvers, decomposition is obviously a question of local sedimentation without time limit. 3. Breakage patterns in the archaeological record vs. experiments The use of bone retouchers has been known since the Middle Palaeolithic. It is related to well-documented Neanderthal sites (Verna and d'Errico, 2011; Daujeard et al., 2014). While hitting
Fig. 2. Fossil ivory, conical breakage patterns (foto: R. Bücking, scale 5 cm).
marks on long bone shaft fragments seems to be less practical in terms of a longer preservation of the hammers (Verna and d'Errico, 2011), the epiphysis of the long bones from big game are hard enough and feasible for longer use as hammers for flint-knapping (Daujeard et al., 2014). Interesting details of anthropogenic manipulations were found on four worked pieces of mammoth tusks from Alberndorf, Lower Austria (Steguweit, 2005; Steguweit and Trnka, 2008). The site has been AMS dated, and four charcoal samples delivered the most reliable date of approximately 29e27 ka BP and fit within the late Aurignacian (Steguweit and Trnka, 2008). The removal of the tusk sections was done with the typical method of cutting a concave ring through the outer part of the tusk, the ring notching technique (Hahn et al., 1995). After the preliminary consideration, it is clear that conical inner breakage is possible only after decomposition. As pretreatment for the breakage, two smaller oppositestanding notches were carved on object AL 774. The predetermined breaking point leads to controlled breaks, as well at AL 774, AL 840 and AL 1246 on the proximal side and at object AL 775 on both ends. In contrast, the distal ends of AL 774 and AL 840 are irregularly broken and splintery. Special attention is directed to the only surface which had been intensively worked after the separation: the distal surface from object AL 775. Because of the significant traces of use at the distal edge, object AL 775 was recently identified as a soft hammer for flint-knapping (Fig. 3). Comparing the ivory hammer from Alberndorf with objects from other collections, I could identify similar traces of use on other ivory artefacts from the Gravettian sites of Predmostí Ia (13 objects, stonice (1 object), recently Fig. 4), Pavlov (5 objects) and Dolní Ve published with elaborated descriptions and figures (Steguweit, 2005). More probable ivory hammers for flint-knapping can be identified from Eastern European sites, such as Avdeevo, Kostenki IV, Mezin, Suponevo, Sungir, Timonovka, and Eliseevichi (for details see Steguweit, 2005). There seem to be continuous traditions from Late Aurignacian to Gravettian and the cultures after the Last Glacial Maximum, showing patterns of exchange, trade or at least interactions. Experiments with a replica made of elephant ivory indicate the excellent properties of the ivory for flint-knapping, due to its hardness and weight. Hitting marks on the recent elephant ivory hammer accord with the archaeological record (Fig. 5). 4. Aurignacian figurines made of mammoth splinters
Fig. 1. African elephant tusk: transversal section with sawn vs. broken surface (foto: Leif Steguweit ¼ LS, scale 5 cm).
Deposits of tusks (ivory splinters) were described from Vogel€sterle and Hohlefels herd cave, Hohlenstein-Stadel, Geissenklo (Hahn, 1986; Hiller, 2003; Heckel and Wolf, 2014). Hahn (1986) interpreted the object accumulations as caches to allow maceration by water and sediment chemistry. Knapped ivory flakes are known from the Swabian Aurignacian. Some workers discussed the improvement of the fracture behavior by freezing the ivory (Khlopachev and Girya, 2010).
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Fig. 3. Alberndorf 1 (Austria) Ivory objects AL 1246, AL 840, AL 774, AL 775 (airbrush graphics: F. Siegmeth, scale 10 cm).
Fig. 4. Predmostí Ia (Czech Republic), proximal edge of an ivory percussor, Moravian Museum Brno (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Fig. 5. Elephant ivory percussor with hit marks (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Hahn (1986) analysed the figurative art of all four Swabian Alb sites in relationship to the detectable tusk dimensions and their positions in it. All figurines were labeled with numbers for easy identification. Using decomposed ivory, a bison (no. 9) and a felid (no. 6) bas relief show unmodified cylindrical breakage surface of the growing cone inside. The concept of bas reliefs is best illustrated in the horse no. 3 from Vogelherd Cave (Fig. 6). That figurine displays the outer convex tusk on its back side while the inside is carved. The outer cement was either artificially removed or weathered by decomposition. In recent ivory carving, the harder and lighter dentin layer including the CDJ is avoided in the production of veneers and figurative art objects. On the other hand, the CDJ was deliberately used in splinting the two halves of the Geis€sterle flute (Malina and Ehmann, 2009). senklo Surprisingly, the lion (no. 10) from Vogelherd Cave could be recently refitted with parts of its head on the outer surface (press release: University of Tuebingen, 2014). Also the anthropomorphic figurine no. 11 could be a longitudinal broken half figurine, while €sterle) was made of a small no. 16 (the “adorant” from Geissenklo ivory plate displaying the convexity of the break at the back side. In other cases of the Swabian Alb figurine record, the concept was
Fig. 6. Vogelherd Cave (Germany), horse no. 3 (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
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(Schmid, 1989). New ivory fragments of its shoulder and neck were found in 2010 and require a modified reconstruction (Beutelspacher et al., 2011, 2012; Wehrberger, 2013). The new reconstruction does not change the fact that several tusk cones appear as surface levels on the carved figurine. The illustration shows a selective laser sinter replica (Rietzel et al., 2008) based on the 3D data set from the 1987 reconstruction (Fig. 8). A few additions replaced several missing parts, as parsimoniously as possible. The observation of an authentic artificially modified surface indicates that the figurine was a combination of carving and breaking pieces of the cylindrical surface from the bottom to the top. The carver used the cylindrical breaking levels to determine body surfaces on at least six concentric levels, marked in Fig. 9. Recently, another expert in ancient techniques replicated the lion man statuette by using authentic techniques and tools (Hein and Wehrberger, 2010). It took him 321 hours to carve the figurine out of a recent elephant's tusk cylinder, not counting the transversal cuts (done with a modern saw) to prepare the length of the cylinder. He expected the ancient use of an isotropic ivory blank. That way, all removals had to be done by carving and scraping with flint tools. The different approach did not include the concentric surfaces of growing rings in the reduction process. A significant decomposition is necessary as well for the production of so called “ivory shuffles”, known from Gravettian/ Pavlovian sites such as Predmostí and Pavlov (Southern Moravia) or Abri I (Bavaria). The spall of about 50 cm length from the latter site displays an inner concave surface along a naturally decomposed growing tube. A deliberate modification was done with the handle on the proximal end (Fig. 9). 6. Soaking of ivory
stonice (Czech Republic), mask, Moravian Museum Brno (foto: M. Oliva, Fig. 7. Dolní Ve scale 5 cm).
three-dimensionally shaped (felid no. 4, 5; mammoth no. 2). Those objects are not indicative of fresh or decomposed ivory. For figurative objects without the cement layer, its removal by weathering is more likely than artificial removal by splintering. The costs for carving a small figurine like the horse no. 3 were quite high: an experienced specialist carved and scraped 35 hours using recent elephant ivory (Hein, 2008). The difference in density and hardness between old and fresh ivory is only gradual, so the working costs can be seen as representative. Only pretreatment by deliberate maceration of the ivory spall makes a significant difference. Figurative bas reliefs made of ivory are known as well from the Gravettian sites at the Palava mountains in Southern Moravia (Oliva, 2008). Prominent examples are the mammoth plate from stonice (Fig. 7). Pavlov and the human “mask” from Dolní Ve 5. The lion man from Hohlenstein-Stadel The famous Aurignacian sculpture from mammoth ivory was found in the Swabian Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave in 1939. In the early 1970s, Joachim Hahn discovered the figurative character and refitted all available pieces. In the more sophisticated reconstruction of 1987, it was 29.6 cm in height, 5.6 cm wide, and 5.9 cm thick
Neither recent nor fossil ivory can be macerated by water. Several archaeologists expected the opposite, by analogy with antler. Given more or less the same chemical bond, both materials display a completely different structure. After discussing several misunderstandings with antler softening techniques expected for ivory, my focus was on acids which can break the structure of ivory (Steguweit, 2010). The main reason for a high probability of deliberate manipulation is given by the carving facets of Upper Palaeolithic ivory art objects from Hohle Fels cave, including a horse head and a water bird (Conard, 2003, 2009) (Figs. 10 and 11). Two chemicals which are known to break up and soften the surface of ivory are oxalic acid (C2H2O4) and formic acid (CH2O2). This was confirmed in laboratory experiments with 10% solutions. Both solutions extract calcium oxalate from the ivory and soften the surface in a reversible manner. Formic acid is more aggressive than oxalic acid, precipitating calcium hydrogen phosphate. Both acids were available in plants of the central European Pleniglacial: a high content of oxalic acid is found in sorrel (Rumex acetosa), and formic acid is concentrated in urtica (Urtica dioica). A brew of sorrel plants and a second one with urtica were applied to smaller pieces of an elephant tusk. After 4e6 weeks in the brew, the carving properties of the ivory blanks improved significantly (Fig. 12). 7. Conclusions Significant differences of fresh vs. rotten ivory can be demonstrated with their fracture properties. There are implications for the interpretation of tools and figurative art from the central European Upper Palaeolithic with special focus on the Aurignacian. Several objects made of decomposed ivory and ivory depots in central European caves could indicate long-term planning by Aurignacian people. Aurignacian and Gravettian Upper Palaeolithic carving
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€tzel 2009 (foto: LS, scale 10 cm). Some rings are probably indistinFig. 8. HohlensteindStadel (Germany), lion man, laser sinter replica with reconstructions, L. Steguweit/J. Ka guishable in the printed gray scale version.
techniques used the cylindrical i.e. conical fracture patterns: either in convexeconcave chips or in a “carve and splinter technique”. In a few cases like in the Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave, the deposition of rotten ivory in caches is documented. Christensen (1999, 70) described finds of buried ivory in Swabian Alb caves. Beside the fact that this evidence indicate a high number of levels for Aurignacian Cro-Magnons (Hahn, 1995), the duration of treatment is not detectable.
Direct AMS data on ivory from a late Palaeolithic site in Germany recently verified the fact that 5000 year old ivory was used as raw material (Gramsch et al., 2013). It was the first chronometric proof. The pictured fracture patterns of the outlined objects give distinct evidence as well.
Fig. 11. Hohle Fels cave, water bird (foto: LS, scale 5 cm). Fig. 9. Abri I (Germany), ivory shuffle, Gravettian (foto: LS, scale 10 cm).
Fig. 10. Hohle Fels cave, horse head (foto: LS, scale 5 cm).
Fig. 12. Elephant ivory, improvement of carving properties after treatment with a brew of Rumex acetosa (foto: LS).
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Within the frame of the fruitful “Tel Aviv recycling conference”, a question is if the use of ivory in an advanced decomposition stage can be denoted as “recycling” or simply “raw material procurement”. If we extend the concept of “recycling” to include taking resources out of the taphonomic process and bringing them back into the cycle of raw material use, there is no doubt that used rotten ivory is recycled material. For the determination, it is necessary to include two most likely (at least possible) scenarios into the concept. The first is the re-use of rotten ivory after killing the bearer of the tusks. The second is the deliberate caching of tusks in caves ratoire involving the “carve and as the first step of a chaîne ope splinter technique”. In both cases, rotten material was recovered from the “natural cycle” and returned in the cycle of human use. Acknowledgments Many thanks to Rainer Bücking and Dietrich Breitinger (Erlangen) for their help and comments, Kurt Wehrberger (Ulm) for the opportunity to work with the lion man copy and Wulf Hein (DornAssenheim) for his fruitful experimental work. I am grateful to the German customs for the loan of confiscated elephant ivory as recent raw material. The workshop was kindly supported by the Israel Science Foundation and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. References €hle Beutelspacher, T., Ebinger-Rist, N., Kind, C.J., 2011. Neue Funde aus der Stadelho €ologische Ausgrabungen in Badenim Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen. In: Archa Württemberg 2010, pp. 65e70. Beutelspacher, T., Kind, C.J., 2012. Auf der Suche nach Fragmenten des €wenmenschen in der Stadelho €hle im Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen. In: ArchLo € aologische Ausgrabungen in Baden-Württemberg 2011, pp. 66e71. olithique supe rieur. CharChristensen, M., 1999. Technologie de l'ivoire au Pale risation physico-chimique du mate riau et analyse fonctionelle des outils de acte transformation. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 751, 1e201. Conard, N.J., 2003. Paleolithic ivory sculptures from southwestern Germany and the origins of figurative art. Nature 426, 830e832. Conard, N.J., 2009. …und noch mehr Tiere! Die neuen Kleinkunstwerke vom Hohle Fels und vom Vogelherd. In: Arch€ aologisches Landesmuseum Ba-Wü (Ed.), Eiszeit e Kunst und Kultur. Thorbecke, Stuttgart. Daujeard, C., Moncel, M.H., Fiore, I., Tagliacozzo, A., Bindon, P., Raynal, J.P., 2014. Middle Paleolithic bone retouchers in Southeastern France: variability and functionality. Quaternary International 326e327, 492e518. Dobosi, V.T., 2001. Ex Proboscideis e Proboscidean remains as raw material at four Palaeolithic sites, Hungary. In: Cavarretta, G., et al. (Eds.), The World of Elephants e International Congress. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma, pp. 429e431. Gramsch, B., Beran, J., Hanik, S., Sommer, R.S., 2013. A Palaeolithic fishhook made of ivory and the earliest fishhook tradition in Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (5), 2458e2463. Hahn, J., 1986. Kraft und Aggression. Die Botschaft der Eiszeitkunst im Aurignacien Süddeutschlands? Archaeologica Venatoria 7. Tübingen. bitage, faconnage et utilisation au Hahn, J., 1995. Les ivoires en Allemagne: de olithique supe rieur. In: Hahn, J., Menu, M., Taborin, Y., Walter, P., Pale olithique supe rieur. Widemann, F. (Eds.), Le travail et l'usage de l'ivoire au Pale Actes de la table ronde, Ravello, Italien, 29e31 Mai 1992, pp. 115e136. Hahn, J., Scheer, A., Waibel, O., 1995. Gold der Eiszeit e experimente zur Elfenbeinbearbeitung. In: Scheer, A., (Hrsg) (Eds.), Eiszeitwerkstatt e Experimentelle €ologie, Museumsheft 2, pp. 29e37. Blaubeuren. Archa
Heckel, C., Wolf, S., 2014. Ivory debitage by fracture in the Aurignacian: experimental and archaeological examples. Journal of Archaeological Science 42, 1e14. Hein, W., 2008. Elfenbein und Feuerstein. In: Steguweit, L. (Ed.), Menschen der Eiszeit: J€ ager e Handwerker e Künstler. Praehistorika, Fürth, pp. 55e59. €wenmensch 2.0 e Nachbildung der ElfenbeinHein, W., Wehrberger, K., 2010. Lo €hle mit authentischen Werkzeugen. In: statuette aus der Hohlestein-Stadel-Ho €ologie in Europa 9. Bilanz 2010, pp. 47e53. Experimentelle Archa €olithikum des Hohle Fels bei Hiller, B., 2003. Die Nutzung von Elfenbein im Jungpala Schelklingen. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 12, 7e23. bitage de l'ivoire dans les sites de la Khlopachev, G.A., 2001. Les techniques de de olithique supe rieur (25000e13000 av. J.-C.). Pre histoire plaine russe au Pale ene 16e17, 215e230. Europe Khlopachev, G.A., Girya, E.Y., 2010. Secrets of Ancient Carvers of Eastern Europe and Siberia: Treatment Techniques of Ivory and Reindeer Antler in the Stone Age. NAUKA, St. Petersburg. Malina, M., Ehmann, R., 2009. Elfenbeinspaltung im Aurignacien: Zur Her€ te aus dem Geißenklo €sterle. Mitteilungen der stellungstechnik der Elfenbeinflo Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 18, 93e107. Oliva, M., 2008. Kunst und Schmuck des Gravettien in M€ ahren. In: Steguweit, L. (Ed.), Menschen der Eiszeit: J€ ager e Handwerker e Künstler. Praehistorika, Fürth, pp. 60e73. Penniman, T.K., 1952. Pictures of ivory and other animal teeth, bone, and antler. Pitt Rivers Museum Occasional Papers on Technology 5, 1e37. Peresani, M., et al., 2011. Late Neandertals and the intentional removal of feathers as evidenced from bird bone taphonomy at Fumane Cave 44 ky B.P., Italy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 3888e3893. Peresani, M., et al., 2013. An ochred fossil marine shell from the Mousterian of Fumane Cave, Italy. PLoS One 8 (7), e68572. Rietzel, D., Kühnlein, F., Wendel, B., Feulner, R., Hülder, G., Osswald, T.A., 2008. Enhanced range of plastics for Selective Laser Sintering: serving different user profiles and also consumer and industry requests. In: Tagungsband e Euro-u Rapid 2008, Berlin, pp. 209e216. Roebroeks, W., et al., 2012. Use of red ochre by early Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, 1889e1894. Scheer, A., 2001. The utilisation of mammoth remains as raw material and its importance for the Gravettian people of the German Danube. In: The World of Elephants e International Congress, Rome 2001. €hle Stadel im Schmid, E., 1989. Die altsteinzeitliche Elfenbeinstatuette aus der Ho Hohlenstein bei Asselfingen, Alb-Donau-Kreis. Fundberichte aus Baden-Württemberg 14, 33e96. Steguweit, L., 2005. Gebrauchsmuster an „Elfenbein-Zylindern“ aus jung€ sterreich und Ma €hren. Mitteilungen der pal€ aolithischen Fundstellen in Niedero € €rforschung Osterreichische Kommission für Quarta Akademie der Wissenschaften 14, 177e193 (with English abstract). Steguweit, L., Trnka, G., 2008. Ivory artefacts from the Aurignacian site Alberndorf I in the Pulkau valley (Lower Austria) and their interpretation as tools. Wissen€ sterreichischen Landesmuseums 19, schaftliche Mitteilungen des Niedero 149e165. Steguweit, L., 2010. Experimente zum Weichmachen von Elfenbein. In: Exper€ologie in Europa 9, pp. 55e63. Bilanz. imentelle Archa Thiault, M.-H., 2001. L'exploitation et la transformation de l'ivoire de mammoth: tude technologique d'objects gravettiens de la grotte du Pape (Brassemune e histoire 43, 153e174. Paris. pouy, Landes). Gallia Pre Trapani, J., Fisher, D.C., 2003. Discriminating Proboscidean Taxa using features of the Schreger Pattern in Tusk Dentin. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 429e438. Verna, C., d'Errico, F., 2011. The earliest evidence for the use of human bone as a tool. Journal of Human Evolution 60 (2), 145e157. Wehrberger, K., 2013. The Return of the Lion Man. History e Myth e Magic. Thorbecke, Ostfildern. ~o, J., et al., 2010. Symbolic use of marine shells and mineral pigments by Zilha Iberian Neandertals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, 1023e1028.