Rural energy consumption patterns — A field study

Bloma~ 2 (1982) 255-280

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS - A FIELD STUDY

ASTRA

{Centre for the Application of Science and Technology to Rural A teas) Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore - 560 012, India Principal Investigator: AMULYA KUMAR N. REDDY* (Received: 18 June, 1981)

ABSTRACT This paper is a condensed version o f the final report o f a detailed fieM study o f rural energy consumption patterns in six villages located west o f Bangalore in the dry belt o f Karnataka State in India. The study was carried out in two phases; first, a pilot study of four villages and second, the detailed study o f six villages, the populations o f which varied from around 350 to about 950. The pilot survey ended in late 1976, and most o f the data was collected for the main project in 1977. Processing o f the collected data was completed in 1980. The aim was to carry out a census survey, rather than a sample study. Hence, considerable effort was expended in production o f both a suitable questionnaire, ensuring that all respondents were contacted, and devising methods which would accurately reflect the actual energy use in various energy-utilising activities, hi the end, 560 households out o f 578 (97%) were surveyed. The following ranking was found for the various energy sources in order o f average percentage contribution to the annual total energy requirement." firewood, 81.6%; human energy, 7.7%; animal energy, 2.7%; kerosene, 2.1%; electricity, 0.6% and all other sources (rice husks, ago-wastes, coal and diesel fuel), .5.3%. In other words commercial fuels made only a small contribution to the overall energy use. It should be noted that dung cakes are not burned in this region. The average energy use pattern, sector by sector, again on a percentage basis, was as follows." domestic, 88.3%; industry, 4.7%; agriculture, 4.3%;

* For full list of contributors to the study, see p. 278. 255

Biomass 0144-4565/82/0002-0255/$02.75 © Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1982 Printed in Great Britain

256

A.K.N. REDDY

lighting, 2.2% and transport, 0.5%. The total annual per capita energy consumption was 12.6 + 1.2 GJ, giving an average annual household consumption o f around 78.6 GJ. Key words: Rural energy, field study, Indian villages, wood fuel, consumption, cooking.

1. INTRODUCTION

ASTRA, a programme of the Indian Institute of Science, is primarily directed towards the generation of technologies appropriate for rural development. Part of this programme is focused on rural energy needs, the importance of which has been highlighted in several papers. ~'2's'6'9 The pattern of technologies required to satisfy these needs can only be derived if current patterns of energy consumption in rural areas are known in detail. 6' 7,8 However, it is precisely this type of knowledge that is unavailable. Rather than resorting to rough estimates or overviews ASTRA proposed in 1975 to carry out a field study of rural energy consumption patterns. This was carried out in two phases: (1) a pilot survey of four villages, Yedavani, Ungra, Pallerayanahalli and Kaggenahalli, and (2) a detailed field study of energy consumption patterns in six villages as follows (with total population shown in brackets)- Arjunahalli (474), Hanchipura (424), Keelara (946), Pura (353), Sugganahalli (446) and Ungra (809). In all tables these villages are identified by their initial letter, i.e., A, H, K, P, S and U. The pilot survey ended in late 1976. The second phase involving the detailed study (which is the subject of the present report) commenced in the summer of 1977 and the field studies were carried out in September-December 1977. Though the data were tabulated in December 1977, the computer processing of the information could not be completed until early 1980. During this period preliminary data from the village of Pura have been published. 4 This present paper is a condensed version of the Final Report on the detailed field study of rural energy consumption patterns in six villages located in the dry belt of Karnataka with an average rainfall of under 75 cm/year. A full version is available from ASTRA. 2. CENSUSSTRATEGY In the absence of any previous investigations of the present type, the pilot survey of KaggenahaUi, Pallerayanahalli, Ungra and Yedavani was used as a learning exercise. Of the conclusions drawn from the mistakes committed in the pilot survey, the following were considered to be the most important. (1) Surveys must be preceded by the establishment of rapport with the villagers a 'survey-and-run' approach is bound to lead to significant errors, apart from

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

257

generating in the minds of the populace doubts and hostility regarding the motivations of the investigators. Questionnaires must be finalised only after an elaborate field-testing in which the senior investigator(s) must be directly involved. Otherwise, superficially sensible, but effectively ridiculous, questions place the canvassers of the schedules in an embarrassing position: they must either be deemed silly by the respondents if they persist in asking the questions, or be considered insubordinate by their seniors if they refrain from following the questionnaire literally. The canvassers, therefore, tend to get out of this awkward predicament by asking questions different from those contained in the questionnaires, and then manipulating the answers into the strait-jacket of the schedules. Field-testing is facilitated if the form of questions is such that the answers can be obtained in ways which are natural and customary to the locals, e.g., firewood consumption in head-loads rather than in kilogrammes. In other words, the 'how-many-kilogrammes-of-firewood-did-you-use-last-year' type of question must be avoided. Responses to questions must be supplemented with observations and measurements. For example, answers in terms of head-loads of firewood gathered/ consumed must be converted into kilogrammes by actually weighing headloads. Or, questions regarding household kerosene consumption for lighting must be backed up with on-the-spot identification of the type of lamp(s) used and measurements (in the laboratory) of the kerosene capacity and consumption of these lamps. In-built consistency checks are essential, e.g. firewood consumption from verbal responses to questions must be cross-checked against weighing of household firewood stocks and measurements of the duration of such stocks. Cross-checks must also be used to circumvent the problems of recall and seasonality. Thus answers regarding labour-use in agriculture must be checked against farm management manuals and the answers of expert agriculturists knowledgeable in agricultural labour management. Since the gathering of energy consumption data requires considerable interpretative ability on the part of the field investigators, they must be trained carefully, and this training presupposes field experience on the part of the senior investigators.

The conclusions were used to produce a trial questionnaire which was field-tested in August 1977 before being modified into a final questionnaire of 32 pages. A complete response to this final questionnaire required about two hours of in-depth interviewing. This was in general carried out in the evening or early in the morning, which was when villagers were usually available in their homes. Since this was a considerable imposition upon their hospitality, the canvassing of schedules was preceded by public or group meetings explaining the objective of the study, the purpose of each

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A.K.N. REDDY

question, and the importance of accurate answers, and by lobbying the leaders of the various sections of the village. As stressed above, the study required on the one hand detailed observations, measurements and experiments (in addition to responses to questionnaires), and on the other hand, understanding and co-operation from the villagers. Hence, it was decided to select villages in the vicinity of Ungra village (located about 115 km southwest of Bangalore) where the Indian Institute of Science had established, as part of its ASTRA programme, an Extension Centre with the basic infrastructure for living and working. Further, a cluster of villages was chosen. All the villages, viz., Kaggenahalli, Pallerayanahalli, Ungra and Yedavani for the pilot survey, and Arjunahalli, Hanchipura, Keelara (excluding Keelara Koppal), Pura, Sugganahalli and Ungra for the final detailed survey, were within a radius of 5 to 10 km from the Ungra Extension Centre in Kunigal Taluk, Tumkur District, Karnataka State, South India. The aim was to carry out a census survey, rather than a sample study, in order to achieve the desired details of energy utilisation in the various activities/sectors. In practice, however, the field investigators succeeded only in approaching a total census, but did not actually attain it. This was due in part to the length and time-consuming nature of the questionnnaire, and in part to the difficulty of contacting all respondents. Nevertheless, 560 households were surveyed out of a total of 578 households, i.e., 96.8% of the census target was achieved.

3. METHODOLOGY

(a) Firewood consumption: The

questionnaires required that the respondents give information on firewood consumption in terms of head-loads. To convert these units into kilogrammes, a number of head-loads (in the homes and in the field while being transported home) were weighed with spring balances to obtain the mean weight (in kg) and weight distribution of head-loads. This determination of mean weight of head-loads was done separately for men, women and children because of differences in the amount carried by each of these categories. Thus, one of the crucial questions pertained to who gathered and transported home the firewood, and how often this was done. Having established the weight of firewood gathered per trip by men, women and children, the next step was to determine how many days such a head-toad would last as domestic fuel. This determination was based, firstly, on a verbal estimate by the householder of the duration of a head-load, and secondly, on measurements in a sample of households. The head-load which a household was about to use was weighed, and given back with a request that the cooking for the next 24 hours be done with fuel from the weighed sample. On the following day, the investigators weighed the remaining firewood to obtain the firewood consumption.

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

259

As a further step, the questionnaire elicited information of daily food consumption. This information was used to obtain correlations between food consumption and firewood use, both statistically as well as through standard cooking tests. Electricity consumption for lighting and water-pumping: Electricity consumption data were determined from the payments for electricity. These charges were obtained, firstly, from the respondent's answers, and secondly, from the electricity-board bills. Kerosene consumption for lighting." Kerosene consumption was determined by two methods. Firstly, the respondents were asked to show the type of kerosene lamps used and to state (i) how long a filling lasts, and (ii) how many hours per day the lamps were used. The information on kerosene consumption thus obtained was verified by measuring (at the Extension Centre) the volumetric capacities of various types of lamps and their kerosene consumption rates. Secondly, the respondents were questioned regarding (i) their expenditure on kerosene for periods convenient to their way of reckoning (e.g., fortnight), and (ii) the measures (e.g., beer bottles) in which they purchased kerosene. From this information too, the kerosene consumption could be determined. Water consumption: The respondents were asked how many water-fetching trips they made per day, and how many pots they carry per trip. The volume of their pots was then determined with the aid of measuring jars. In addition, responses regarding the source of water indicated the distances traversed. Livestock grazing." Responses regarding the times of livestock grazing and which members of the family carry out this task were cross-checked with field observations of different animals (the grazing habits are different for milch animals, draught animals, sheep and goats). Agricultural operations: The responses obtained to the questionnaires were verified with norms obtained from farm management data and discussions with knowledgeable farmers.

4.

G E N E R A L FEATURES OF THE VILLAGES

4.1 Population The average distribution of the population of each village was as follows: (1) children up to 5 years, 16%; (2) children between 6 and 15 years, 30%; (3) adult males, 28%; and (4) adult females, 26%. The average household in the six-village cluster consisted of about six members. The average literacy in the six villages was 18.9%, but there are large inter-village variations. Of these 9% had received primary education, 5% secondary education and less than 2% college education.

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REDDY

The villages are predominantly inhabited by the Vokkaliga (farmer)community; 77.9% of the 560 households in the six villages belong to this caste, and 9.1% are Harijan households. Land-owning agriculture is the occupation of 471 (i.e., 84-1%) out of 560 households, with the next most important occupation being landless labour which accounts for 8.0% of the households. In addition, the total population of 3452 in six villages is serviced by one goldsmith, one basket-weaver, one barber, two potters, two tailors, two coffee-shops, two carpenters, two mat-weavers, four blacksmiths and six traders. Thus, it seems to be clusters of villages, rather than individual villages, which are 'self-sufficient' with respect to the basic occupations. 4.2 Land The pattern of land utilisation in the six villages is given in Table 1, which shows that there are large inter-village variations. The total area of all the six villages is 4056 acres, of which 27% is irrigated land, 29% dry land, 19% uncultivated and 25% unavailable for agriculture (because of settlements, water-bodies, etc.). The main crops are paddy, ragi (Eleusine coracana), and small amounts of sugarcane, jowar (sorghum), pulses, etc. TABLE 1 Land use patterns Village Total area (acres)

A

H

K

P

S

U

328

428

1 149

806

455

890

Distribution (%)

Irrigated Dry land Total cultivated Uncultivated Not availablefor agriculture

54.3 25.0 79.3 4.5 16-2

43.6 19.1 62.7 11.6 25-7

35.6 23-6 59.2 17.3 23.5

10.3 22-4 32.4 33-5 34.1

20.9 45-5 66-4 24.4 9.2

12-8 42.4 55.2 13.0 31.8

The classification of households according to their land-holdings is presented in Table 2. On the average, about 12% of the households are landless, 30% have less than 2.5 acres, 31% between 2.5 and 5 acres, 20% between 5 and 10 acres, and 8% are large farmers with 10 or more acres. The data also revealed the inequality in land distribution. For example, in the case of Ungra village, the poorest 51-2% of the households only own 13-8% of the total land, in contrast to the richest 7.1% of the households which own 29-4% of the land, and the top 25% which own 63.2% of the land. 4.3

Food consumption

The average annual per capita food consumption is as follows (kg): rice (50), ragi (237), jowar (9), total cereal (320), pulses (15), sugar (0.6), jaggery (8), vegetable oil (2.6) and milk (21).

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

261

TABLE 2 Size of individual land holdings (average for all six villages)

Type

Size (acres) -

Small Medium Large

< 2.5 2-5-5-0 5.0-10.0 > 10

%of households 12-4

_+ 3 . 4

28.9 ÷ 7.0 30.9 +_5.3 19-5 +_2.2 8.3 -+0.9

Rice and ragi account for 25% and 73% of the cereals consumed in the six villages, with jowar contributing a mere 2%. The quantity of sugar used is only 8% that of jaggery. There are inter-village variations for all the food items, but the least variations are with respect to total cereal, ragi and rice, the standard deviations being 11%, 15% and 16% of the averages respectively. The greatest variations are in the case of sugar, jowar and milk, the standard deviations being 83%, 57% and 36% respectively of the averages. There are, of course, intra-village variations in food consumption. Firstly, 14% of the 560 households (in all the six villages) do not consume any rice at all in contrast to only 2% of the households which do not eat ragi. Secondly, within a single village, there are significant differences in the per capita consumption of different households - for example, if the per capita consumption of total cereal of each household is calculated for the village of Pura, the average is 401 kg total cereal/household/year, but the standard deviation is 180 kg/household/year, i.e. 45% of the average, with some households having a per capita consumption as low as 183 kg/year, and others as high as 808 kg/year.

5. ENERGY-UTILISING ACTIVITIES

5.1 Agriculture One of the long-term objectives of ASTRA's study of rural energy consumption patterns is the quantification of energy flows through a village ecosystem. Such a comprehensive study must account for the energy content or equivalence of goods, equipment and materials, in addition to the inflows of solar and wind energy. At the present stage of the investigation, however, attention has been focused on direct sources of energy currently being utilised. Hence tools, implements, inorganic fertilisers, etc., were not considered as direct energy inputs into agriculture even though energy was utilised in their production; on the other hand, animate energy from human beings and draught animals was included in the estimate of direct energy sources.

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F r o m this v i e w p o i n t , t h e r e are four sources o f direct energy for agriculture in t h e six-village region, i.e., h u m a n energy, d r a u g h t a n i m a l energy, e l e c t r i c i t y a n d diesel fuel ( t h e l a t t e r t w o b e i n g used for w a t e r - p u m p i n g ) . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e direct sources over t h e various agricultural o p e r a t i o n s is p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 3. O f t h e t o t a l h u m a n e n e r g y i n p u t s i n t o agriculture, significant i n p u t occurs in p l o u g h i n g ( 8 . 4 % ) , t r a n s p l a n t i n g ( 1 8 . 1 % ) , wee ding (17- 0%), irrigation (13.9%), harvesting (16-3%), a n d t h r e s h i n g a n d w i n n o w i n g ( 1 0 . 4 % ) . Whereas w o m e n d o n o t participate in p l o u g h i n g , h a r r o w i n g , h o e i n g , irrigation a n d t r a n s p o r t , t h e y a c c o u n t for a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e h u m a n h o u r s s p e n t o n t h e literally b a c k - b r e a k i n g o p e r a t i o n s o f t r a n s p l a n t i n g (78%), w e e d i n g (79%), sowing ( 4 1 % ) a n d h a r v e s t i n g (50%).

TABLE 3 Total annual energy consumption in agriculture in six villages

Agricultural operation

Nursery Ploughing Harrowing Manuring Transplanting Sowing Earthing up and weeding Hoeing Irrigation Harvesting Threshing and winnowing

Man hours

Total human hours

Draught animal hours

ElectHcity (k Wh)

Diesel (litres)

-

-

-

-

40

-

-

-

48

-

-

976 (0.9) -

-

-

-

-

4 342 (3.9) 256 (0.2) -

-

-

59 058 (19.7) 28 675

25 049 (3.4) 61 368 (8.4) 9 578 (1.3) 48 347 (6.6) 132 509 (18.1) 9 950 (1.4) 124 664 (17.0) 4 569 (0.6) 101 799 (13-9) 119 214 (16.3) 76 306

(9.6)

(10.4)

(0.9)

17 826 (4.1) 431 167 300012

17 826 (2.4) 731 179

i 1 024 (9.9) 111 163

22 493 (5.2) a 61 368 (14.2) 9 578 (2.2) 44 657 (10.4) 29 100 (6.7) 5 846 (1.4) 26 144 (6.1) 4 569 (1.1) 101 799 (23.6) 60 156 (14.0) 47 631 (11.0)

Transport Total Total hours/household year

770

Woman hours 2 556 (0.9) 3 690 (1.2) 103 409 (34.5) 4 104 (1.4) 98 520 (32.8) -

536

1 306

60 471 (54.4) 8 502 (7.6) 24 599 (22.1) -

993

-

42 108

100

-

-

-

-

-

-

42108

188

-

-

a Figures in brackets refer to percentages of the total consumption of the source contributed to by the particular operation.

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTIONPATTERNS

263

The average time spent in agriculture practice is as follows (hours per household per year): Men, 799+ 159; women 572+ 180; draught animal pair 229+47. There are significant inter-village variations in the man hours, woman hours and human hours expended per household per annum (or per day). These variations are probably due to factors such as the cropping pattern, percentage of irrigated land, rainfall, etc. Despite these inter-village variations, however, it is clear that, taking a year-round figure, an average household has less than 4 hours of agricultural work per day. This underutilisation of labour is also reflected in the use of draught animal pairs in agriculture for only 230 hours (or 29 eight-hour days) per year. This draught animal power is used mainly for ploughing (54.4%), manuring (22-1%), transport (9-9%) and harrowing (7.6%), and to a very small extent for sowing, hoeing, irrigation and threshing. The transport referred to here is of inputs from house to farm and of produce from farm to house. Electricity is used solely for water-pumping for irrigation. Only the villages of Hanchipura, Pura and Ungra have electric pumpsets - 13 sets in all with a total horsepower of 57, i.e., 42.5 kW. Thus, the total electricity consumption of 42 108 kWh on these pumpsets corresponds to a utilisation of 2.7 hours per day.

5.2 Domestic activities 5.2.1 Obtainingfirewood. The firewood used in the six villages comes from three sources: (1) gathering, (2) the land owned by the firewood-consumer, and (3) purchasing. The percentage of households depending on each of these sources is shown in Table 4a. On the average, about 71% of the households depend on gathering firewood, either as a sole source (46%) or supplemented by other sources (25%), 21% on purchasing only, and about 8% on procurement from their own land. The quantities of firewood obtained from these various sources are given in Table 4b, according to which about 48% of the firewood used (about 11 kg/household day) is gathered, about 33% purchased, and about 19% procured from the consumer's own land. There is, however, considerable inter-village variation in these percentages, as may be seen from the comparison of the standard deviations with the averages. The variation is most probably due to the accessibility of suitable tree and shrub cover within convenient distances. Thus, Pura and Sugganahalli which are adjoining a forest (or rather, the remains of what used to be a forest!) depend to the extent of 81% and 73% respectively on gathered firewood and 4% and 9% respectively on purchased firewood; this may be compared with ArjunahaUi and Hanchipura - both deficient in tree and shrub resources - which obtain only 32% each of their firewood requirements from gathering and 53% and 49% respectively from purchasing. In contrast, there is only a minor inter-village variation in per capita firewood c o n s u m p t i o n - the annual per capita firewood consumption in kg is 639.3 + 53.0, i.e., the standard deviation is only 8.3% of the average.

A. K. N. REDDY

264

TABLE 4a Sources of firewood

Source

Number (and percen tage) o f households

Gathering only Purchasing only Private land of firewood consumer Gathering and other sources

A

H

K

P

S

U

Average

17 (23.0) 25 (33.8) 6 (8.1) 26 (35.1)

21 (32-3) 16 (24-6) 6 (9.2) 22 (33.9)

55 (33.5) 35 (21.3) 21 (12.8) 53 (32.4)

43 (76.8) 2 (3.6) 2 (3.6) 9 (16.0)

54 (77.1) 5 (7.1) 3 (4.3) 8 (11.4)

43 (34.7) 40 (32-3) 15 (12-0) 26 (21.0)

(46.2_+24.2) (20-5 -+12.6) (8.3+- 3.8) (25.0+-10.2)

TABLE 4b Quantities (in kg per annum) of firewood from various sources Source

Gathered Purchased From consumer's private land Total kg/capita year kg/household day kg/capita day

A

H

K

P

S

U

Average

kg 102019 91527 233409 174653 190568 152138 (47.5+-22.8) % (31.6) (31.5) (35.6) (80.5) (72.9) (32.6) kg 172061 143329 276466 7943 24599 202276 (33-5+-21.4) % (53-2) (49.3) (42.2) (3-7) (9.4) (43.4) kg 49231 55642 145032 34142 46409 112044 (19-0-+3-5) % (15.2) (19.2) (22.2) (15.8) (17.7) (24.0) 323 311 290 498 654 907 216 738 261576 466 458 682 12.0 1.87

685 12-1 1.88

692 10.9 1.90

614 10.6 1.68

586 I0.0 1.61

577 639.3-+53.0 10.l 10.95+-0.91 1.58 1.75-+0.15

In view of the general belief that firewood consumption by villagers is the main cause o f deforestation and environmental degradation, a study was made of the type of firewood used. Table 5 gives the number of households depending on various types of firewood as main and/or secondary sources, and shows that firewood-gatherers depend overwhelmingly on twigs and branches; in contrast, those who either buy firewood or procure it from their own land depend largely on logs and branches. The same pattern emerges from the disaggregation into main and secondary sources for Pura village (Table 6) - 96% of the firewood-gathering household depend on twigs; in contrast, households which obtain their requirements from their own land depend upon logs. Incidentally, the large extent of dependence upon twigs and branches in the purchased firewood is because the purchasing is done from firewood-gatherers. Further evidence comes from the q u a n t i t i e s (in kg/year) of different types of firewood gathered (Table 7). It is clear that the bulk of the gathered firewood is in the form of twigs, and an order of magnitude smaller amount in the form of branches.

R U R A L E N E R G Y CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

265

TABLE 5 Number o f households depending (for primary and secondary sources) on various types of firewood

Gathered Twigs Branches Ro ots Logs Purchased Twigs Branches Roots Logs

From user's land Twigs Branches Ro ots

A

H

K

P

S

U

35 9 1 .

36 23 -

53 40 5

48 42 6 .

59 40 1

51 24 -

3 6

8 23

.

.

2 15 20

4 20 8

-

-

4 22

.

3 3

1

-

-

-

43

-

-

35

1

l 24

-

9

11

1

-

8

8

-

Logs

.

5

7 -

5

1 21 -

5

9

TABLE 6 Types of firewood used in Pura village

Type o] firewood

Gathered Main

Twigs

Secondary

46 (96%) 2

Branches

2 (4%) 40

(4%)

Roots

-

Logs

.

Purchased Main

Secondary

Main

Secondary

3 (50%) -

-

-

-

3

-

(83%)

(50%)

6 (13%) .

From user's land

. .

.

5 (50%)

.

.

.

5

(50%) Total

48

48

3

3

5

5

TABLE 7 Quantities (in kg/year) of different types of firewood gathered

Source Twigsandbranches Roots Unaccounted for Total

A

H

K

P

S

92 846 16 173 109019

86 855 4 672 91527

138 455 59 623 35 331 233409

169 093 3 536 2 024 174653

177 516 1 560 11 492 190568

U

Total

130 436 795 201 (83-6%) 64 719 (6-8%) 21 702 91 394 (9.6%) 152138951314

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A.K.N.

REDDY

If it is argued that twigs, and to a lesser extent branches, can be obtained without cutting down trees, whereas the procurement of logs necessarily requires tree felling (or in rare cases, fallen trees), then an important conclusion is that gathered firewood (upon which three-quarters of the households depend) does not contribute in any significant way to deforestation. This conclusion is further confirmed by an analysis of whether the firewood gathering is done primarily by women and children (who are unlikely to be treefellers!) or by men (who are much better physically endowed to fell trees!). These data are presented in Table 8, from which it is seen that men contribute only about one-third of the total time spent on firewood-gathering, and the remaining two-thirds is accounted for by women (39%) and children (28%).

TABLE 8 Human energy (in hours/year) spent on firewood gathering

Man hours % Woman hours % Child hours % Total hours Hours/(FW-gathering) household day

A

H

K

P

S

U

A verage

13 116 (40.5) 10607 (32.7) 8 689 (26-8) 32 412

6921 (21.9) 20 161 (63.9) 4 466 (14.2) 31 548

29 366 (34.8) 32 629 (38.6) 22 469 (26-6) 84464

16 191 (34.0) 17 735 (37.2) 13 716 (28-8) 47 642

13 310 (26.3) 16 741 (33.1) 20 598 (40-6) 50 649

39 271 (33-5+-8.1) (43.2) 25 913 (38.9+-12-8) (27.7) 26 385 (27.7+_8.4) (29.1) 90 849

2.07

2.01

2.14

2.51

2.24

1.96 (2-16+-0.20)

This table shows that the real problem is not so much the environmental impact of firewood gathering, but the time spent on collecting the firewood. On the average, a firewood-gathering household spends 2.16 ± 0.20 hours per day to collect its daily firewood requirement of about 11 ± 1 kg. An idea of the number of trips required and the distances travelled to accomplish this firewood gathering can be derived from the fact that on the average a firewoodgathering household makes 142 trips per annum (1 trip in 2.57 days) and travels 5-40 km for the round trip. Finally, the utilisation of children for the purpose of gathering firewood has two serious implications" (1) children become a vital necessity from the standpoint of activities that determine the survival of the family, and (2) children must be removed from school to carry out these crucial activities. 5.2.2 Cooking. The cooking is done almost exclusively on mud stoves ('chulas'). Data on the human energy spent on cooking are presented in Table 9, from which it can be seen that women contribute over 90% of the human energy spent on cooking,

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

267

TABLE 9 Human energy (in hours per year) spent on cooking A

H

K

P

S

U

Man hours Child hours Woman hours

730 10 222 113 400

2 190 5 840 90 379

1 643 15 095 219 082

7 483 60 388

10 322 85 252

1 825 12 957 197 564

Hours/household day

4,60

4-09

3.92

3.32

3.64

4.58

TABLE 10 Quantities of domestic fuels A

H

K

P

S

U

270 253 47 579 317 832

223 006 46 866 269 872

524 383 115 450 639 833

178 225 29 582 207 807

219 117 35 335 254 452

378 810 75 634 454 444

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

-

-

-

-

Firewood (kg) (a) For cooking (b) For heating water (c) Total domestic use Dung cakes (kg) Rice husk (kg) (a) For heating water

365

820

53 881 35 951

9 800

Other agro-waste (kg) (a) For cooking (b) For heating water

10 374 6 922

30 855 4 582

3 292

21 113 21 767

Kerosene (litres) (a) For cooking

108

-

460

-

-

144

with children s u p p l e m e n t i n g with a b o u t a t e n t h o f that contribution. Averaged over the six villages, w o m e n spend a b o u t 3 . 6 8 h o u r s / d a y household. In addition to cooking the m o r n i n g meal, w o m e n also carry the meal to the farm where the m a n is working - the average time spent on this task is 1.82 hours. The quantities o f various fuels used for cooking and o t h e r d o m e s t i c tasks are given in Table 10. A very i m p o r t a n t finding is that, in the cluster o f villages which has been surveyed, dung cakes are not burnt as cooking fuel. This finding was missed in the pilot survey, probably because the latter failed to observe the absence o f dung cakes drying on the walls o f houses, etc. Since data were separately available for each h o u s e h o l d on the c o n s u m p t i o n o f cooking fuel (i.e., f i r e w o o d ) on the one hand, and o f total cereals on the other, an a t t e m p t was m a d e to explore the correlation b e t w e e n these t w o variables. Taking Ungra village as a test case and 126 pairs o f values o f the f i r e w o o d c o n s u m p t i o n (FWC)

268

A.K.N.

REDDY

and the total cereal consumption (TCC), (both in kg/household year), a coefficient of correlation (r) of 0.7670 was obtained. In spite of this degree of correlation between the two variables, values of a and b in the linear regression equation were calculated as follows: a = 628.6 and b = 1.232, i.e., FWC (kg/HH year) = 628.6 + 1-232 × TCC (kg/HH year) and the standard error of estimate of FWC is 1154 kg/HH year. To estimate daily consumption, the above equation can be rewritten thus: FWC (kg/HH day) = 1.720 + 1.232 TCC (kg/HH day) and the standard error of estimate of FWC is 3.16 kg/HH day. This linear regression equation can be tested by using it to estimate the average daily household firewood consumption for cooking in another village, for example, Arjunahalli. The average daily total cereal consumption for a household can be calculated by dividing the average annual per capita total cereal consumption, which is 329 kg/capita year for Arjunahalli, by 365 and then multiplying by the average number of persons in a household, which is 6-41 ; the result is 5-778 kg TCC/HH day. Inserting this value in the linear regression equation, the average daily household firewood consumption for coola'ng is 8.84 kg/HH day for Arjunahalli. Further, since the percentage of total firewood used for cooking purposes only is 83-6%, it was estimated that 8 . 8 4 - 0.836 = 10.6 kg/HH day is the total daily household firewood consumption in Arjunahalli - in comparison, the observed value is 12.0 kg/HH day, i.e., the estimated value is within 12% of the observed value. The Ungra data also yield a value for the specific fuel consumption (SFC) from the ratio Y.FWC/ETCC - the result is 1-558 kg FW/kg TC. This result can be inserted into an experimentally derived correlation ( I / E ) = 3.491 + 10.386 SFC to obtain the cooking efficiency, E, i.e. (energy used to raise the pot, water and food temperatures from ambient to boiling + energy to cook food)/energy released from fuel. A cooking efficiency of 5.08% has been obtained. A special survey was also conducted to determine the different species of fuel used in the village of Pura. The results reveal that as many as 40 species of firewood and seven types of agro-wastes are used as fuel. Further, most households use at any one time more than one species, and as many as five species. Experiments on samples of firewood obtained from village homes show that the calorific values determined through bomb calorimetry of the different species do not vary much (Table 11) - the standard deviation is only 8.2% of the average calorific value of 3792 kcal/kg (15.7 GJ/t) of 'as used' firewood. Incidentally, the average calorific values of the firewood species used are 3792 -+ 310 kcal/kg on an 'as used' basis (8-41 + 3-84% moisture) and 4147 + 379 kcal]kg on a 'dry' basis - these values

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

269

TABLE 11 Calorific values of some common firewood species Firewood species

Hunase (Tamarintus indica) Glyrecedia Bidiri/Bamboo Kaggali (Acacia catechu) Tooparu Neralu Roja (Lantana camara) Avarake (Cassia auriculata) Hatti Hunge Chuggali Hippe Neeranji Tapala Esale Average Charcoal (obtained from firewood in stoves) Cellulose (average value)

Extent of use Calorific value a {% of house- {'as used" basis) holds which use) (kcal/kg) 1.0 8-3 1.0 2.5 0.5 0.5 10.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 6-4 1.9 n.a. n.a. 1-0

Moisture {~)

Calorific valuea {'dry' basis) (kcal/kg)

3 410 3 950 3 730 3 570 3 600 4 050 4 140 3 580 3 620 4 640 3 890 3 530 3 740 3 780 3 650

8-66 11.33 5.98 5.75 2.35 14-31 2.51 10.61 9.83 7.25 12.87 12.44 11.13 7-77 3.29

3 730 4 450 3 970 3 790 3 690 4 730 4 250 4 010 4 010 5 000 4 470 4 030 4 210 4 100 3 770

3 792 _+310

8.41 + 3.84

4 147 +_379

3910 4 150

a Values have been rounded off to the nearest 10 kcal/':g.

are about 12% lower than the corresponding literature values of 4300 kcal/kg and 4720 kcal/kg respectively. This difference may be due to the fact that the literature values are for wood in the form of logs, chips, etc., whereas the values reported here are for the twigs, branches, etc., used by villagers. 5.2.3 Fetching water f o r domestic uses. The main sources of water (for domestic purposes) are as follows: of the 560 households in all the six villages, 62.0% depend on public wells, 18.4% on ponds/tanks, 8.4% on handpumps, 6.1% on canals/rivers, and 5-1% on private wells. The human energy (in hours per household day) spent on fetching water for domestic uses is given in Table 12, which shows that, on the average, women contribute about 81% of the total time, children 16% and men 3%. Though there are large inter-village variations in the percentage contributions of men and children to this task, the differences in the role of women in fetching water are much smaller the standard deviation in the percentage contribution of women is only 5.3% of the average value of 80.7%. Similarly, the standard deviation for the hours spent/household day is only 9.2% of the average time, which is 1.53 hours/household day.

270

A. K. N. REDDY TABLE 12 Human energy (in hours/household day) for various activities Activity

Gathering firewood Fetching water Cooking Carrying food to farm Livestock grazing Total domestic Agriculture Total

Men

Women

Children

Total

0.57 0-04 0.03 2.85 3.49 +-0-40 2.19 +-0.43 5.68

0.66 1.24 3.65 1.82 0.75 8.12 +_0.44 1.57 ± 0.49 9.69

0.46 0.25 0.34 1.95 3.00 _+0.45 3-00

1.69 +-0.45 1-53 -+0.15 4.02 +-0.51 1.82 +_0.12 5.55 -+0.28 14.61 +-0-36 3.76 +-0.88 18.37

TABLE 13 Livestock (and poultry) population Ca tegory

Bullocks Cows Buffaloes Calves Total cattle Total cattle/capita Sheep Goats Cattle: goats/sheep ratio Poultry

A

H

K

P

S

U

103 59 44 32 238 0.50 220 58 0-86 383

88 41 60 25 214 0.51 102 46 1-45 182

175 125 52 69 421 0.44 374 83 0.92 606

36 49 39 19 143 0.40 142 69 0.68 179

52 72 38 27 189 0.42 301 37 0.56 201

130 83 69 59 341 0.42 326 90 0.82 328

Three o t h e r aspects o f this task of fetching water for domestic use were also investigated and it was found that the average n u m b e r of trips/household day is 2 . 0 4 + 0 . 1 2 , the average distance to the p r e d o m i n a n t water source is about 0 . 4 kin, and the average per capita c o n s u m p t i o n o f water is about 17 litres/day. For comparison, the n o r m used in urban t o w n planning is about 100 litres/capita day (the standard deviation being only 7.6% o f the average). 5.2.4 Grazing livestock. Livestock are an i m p o r t a n t source o f supplementary i n c o m e - often, the only additional income - to households. There is considerable inter-village u n i f o r m i t y in the holdings o f total cattle (bullocks + cows + buffaloes + calves) - the standard deviation is a b o u t 10% of the average h o l d i n g / h o u s e h o l d (viz., 2.76) or o f the per capita holding, viz., 0 . 4 5 cattle/ capita) (Table 13). Apart from these two quantities, there are large variations in the other holdings. Considerable time is spent on the grazing o f livestock (Table 12) - men contribute, on the average, 51% o f this time, w o m e n 14% and children 35%. The inter-village

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

271

variations are smaller in the case of the contributions of men than in the cases of women and children - the standard deviations are 8.6%, 25% and 17.7% respectively. In the case of this activity too, children make a substantial contribution - more than one-third of the total time. This total time is quite uniform in the six villages with the standard deviation being less than 5% of the average time spent per household per day, viz., 5.55 hours/household day. 5.2.5 Division of human energy for domestic activities. Taking all the six villages into account, the average percentage contributions of men, women and children to the various domestic activities are given in Table 12. From this table, it is seen that men contribute negligibly to fetching water, cooking and carrying food to the farm, but account for about half the effort on livestock grazing and a third of that on gathering firewood. Women play a comparatively minor role in grazing livestock, but are burdened with the bulk of the work of fetching water and cooking, besides being solely responsible for carrying food to the farm. Also, they contribute a little more than a third of the total time spent on gathering firewood. Children make substantial contributions to grazing livestock, fetching water and gathering firewood - their only minor role is in cooking. Overall, the burden of domestic work is shared between men, women and children in the ratio 24% : 56% : 20%. A total of approximately 3½, 8 and 3 hours/household day are spent by men, women and children respectively on essential, but non-remunerative, activities, making up a total of about 14½ hours/household day. It is clear that, despite the small amount of time spent (as a year-round average) on agriculture, viz., less than 4 hours/household day, life is quite arduous, particularly for women. 5.3 Lighting Five of the six villages surveyed have been electrified - Hanchipura is the only unelectrified village. The situation with regard to the illumination of households is presented in Table 14. It is seen that only about one-fifth of the households in the electrified villages are electrified - actually, this small percentage of electrified households is high compared to the state and national percentage which is about 10-14%. The electrified households have a monthly consumption of about 20 kWh (or units). The remaining 78% of the homes are forced to depend on kerosene lamps with an average monthly consumption of about 4.3 litres per unelectrified household. This consumption requires an expenditure of about Rs.8.00/month which is not very different from the expenditure on electricity in electrified households. But, the incurring of the same expenditure on lighting does not yield the same output of l i g h t - the kerosene illuminant is burnt mainly in open-wick lamps and chimney lanterns which account for about 72% and 19% respectively of the lighting devices and these devices have only about 1/200 of the luminous efficiency of electric bulbs. Other forms of lighting include wall lamps (5%), bottles with wicks (3%) and

A. K. N. REDDY

272

TABLE 14 Energy consumption for lighting A

H

K

P

S

U

Average

23 31.1 4 968

-

17 10.3 3 403

13 23.2 3 078

17 23.6 3 398

27 21-3 9 524

21.9 ± 7.5

18.0

-

16.7

19.7

16.7

29-4

20.1 ± 5.3

Electricity Electrified houses (No.) Electrified houses (%) Consumption (kWh/year) kWh/electrified household month Kerosene Consumption (litres) Litres/unelectrified household month Litres/household month

3 105 5.07

3 394 4.29

6 710 3.78

1 938 3.76

2 924 4.43

5 383 4.49

4.30 +_0.45

3.50

4-29

3.39

2.88

3.38

3.53

3.50± 0.42

TABLE 15 Average pattern of utilisation of a bullock-cart Activity

Agriculture-related transport Transporting firewood Other transport Total Utilisation factor (as % of 330 6 hour/day bullock-cart days)

Number of hours/year

% of total number of hours

81.5 ± 43.0 19.7 ± 5.8 5.1 ± 5.9 106-3 +-41.9 5.4%

76.7 18.5 4.8 100.0

Petromax (0.5%). The main reason why most households are compelled to accept a much poorer quality of light even though they spend the same amount on operating costs (as electrified households) is because they cannot afford the high installation costs which have to be borne by the households before they secure electricity connections. 5.4

Transport From data collected with regard to bullock-carts and their utilisation the following conclusions can be drawn. (1) On the average, about 35% of the households own carts. (2) The bullock-carts are used for three activities: (a) agriculture-related transport (e.g., transport of manure, etc.) - 81.5 hours/cart year; (b) transporting firewood 19.7 hours/cart year, and (c) other transport (e.g., people) - 5.1 hours/cart year. (3) The total number of hours for which a cart is used is about 106 hours/year on the average, corresponding to a utilisation (Table 15) factor of 5.4% (taking 330 six-hour days/cart year as 100% utilisation). (4) Table 15 which describes the average pattern

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

273

TABLE 16 List of industries

Industries Coffee-shop Sugar-cane crushing Carpentry Laundry Smithy Pottery Brick-manufacture Basket-weaving Oil crushing Flour mill

A

H

K

P

S

U

1 1 1 1 -

1 1 -

3 2 1 1 2

2 -

1 1 2

2 1 1

Total 10 5 3 2 5

1

2

-

-

3

2 1

-

-

1 2

3 3

1

-

-

1

2

-

1

-

1

2

TABLE 17 Annual energy consumption in industries

Man hours Woman hours Child hours Total human hours ttuman days/household year Draught animal hours Firewood (kg) Firewood/capita year Rice husk (kg) Coal (kg) Agro-wastes (kg) Kerosene (litres) Electricity (kWh)

A

H

14 913 1 693 416 17 022 29 20 600 43.5 1 300 3 650 2 708

2 660 5 960 8 620 16 1 975 4.7 183

K

P

S

119 808 650 577 39 860 16 655 17.6 385 1 646 1 702 62 -

16 755 3 075 19 830 44 8 931 25.3 156 720

10 475 7 500 17 975 31 1 870 4.2 1 285 -

39 8 3 51

U 46 3 2 52

530 525 555 610 52 660 68 085 84.2 1 500 756 3 000

o f u t i l i s a t i o n o f a b u l l o c k - c a r t s h o w s t h a t a b o u t 77% o f the u s a g e is in r e l a t i o n t o a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a n o t h e r 19% f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g f i r e w o o d .

5.5

Industry T h e h o u s e h o l d s / e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n classified in t h e s u r v e y as i n d u s t r i a l

in n a t u r e are listed in T a b l e 16. The consumption

o f e n e r g y in t h e s e ' i n d u s t r i e s ' is t a b u l a t e d

in T a b l e 17. T h e

i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o i n d u s t r y is t h e large v a r i a t i o n in i n d u s t r i a l e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n f r o m village t o village. F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e i n d i c a t o r o f t h i s v a r i a t i o n is t h e number

of industrial work

d a y s / h o u s e h o l d y e a r , viz., 35 _+ 13, w h e r e t h e s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n is 3 6 % o f t h e average; a n o t h e r i n d i c a t o r is t h e a n n u a l p e r c a p i t a f i r e w o o d consumption

f o r i n d u s t r y , w h i c h is 29.9-+ 3 0 . 3 k g / c a p i t a y e a r w h e r e t h e s t a n d a r d

d e v i a t i o n is m o r e t h a n t h e average.

274

A.K.N. REDDY

Another important conclusion is that human energy and firewood are the most important energy inputs for industry in the six v i l l a g e s - this is inevitable because most of the industries listed are labour-intensive wood-fuelled traditional industries. The only 'modern' industries are the rice mills.

6. ENERGY SOURCE-SECTOR PATTERNS The results reported in Section 5 on the various energy-utilising activities were aggregated and are summarised in Tables 18-20 which list all the sources and sectors and indicate the quantity of each source that flows into every sector. The following is the ranking of energy sources (in the order o f average percentage contribution to the annual energy requirement): f i r e w o o d - 81.6%, human energy 7.7%, draught animal energy - 2.7%, kerosene - 2.1%, electricity - 0.6%, and other sources (rice husk, agro-wastes, coal, d i e s e l ) - 5.3%. Thus, what is conventionally referred to as commercial energy (electricity, kerosene, coal and diesel) makes only a minor contribution. The bulk of the inanimate energy comes predominantly from firewood with very small contributions from rice husk and agro-wastes. As stressed earlier, dung cakes are not burnt as fuel in this region - it appears that, in situations where agro-wastes (e.g., coconut husk) are scarce, dung cakes are used as fuel (instead o f as manure) only if firewood is not available within some convenient distance which is determined by the capacity o f head-load transportation. Animate energy sources, viz., human beings and draught animals, account for a mere 10% o f the total energy, but the real significance of this contribution is demonstrated by the fact that these animate sources represent about 92% of the energy used in agriculture (39.3 + 6.3% human beings and 53.1 -+ 6.4% draught animals). The inter-village variations in the contributions of various sources are small in the case of human energy, kerosene and firewood and large in the case of electricity and TABLE 18 Pattern of village energy supply and consumption Source-wise contributions Source

Human (Men) (Women) (Children) Animal Firewood Kerosene Electricity Other

%

7.7 ÷ 0.5 3.1 +-0-4 3.8 +-0.2 0-8 +-0.2 2.7 -+0-5 81.6 +-2.6 2.1 -+0-2 0.6 +-0.5 5.3 +-2.9

Sector-wise consumption Activity

Agriculture Domestic Lighting Transport Industry

%

4-3 _+1.0 88-3 _+4.1 2-2 +_0.2 0.5 +_0.l 4-7 _+4.0

75-78 76.05 72.94 65 -02 60-91 65.71 69-40 +_6-36

Domestic 1-82 1-77 1.60 1.50 1-70 1-86 1-71 +-0-14

Lighting 0-32 0-38 0-33 0-30 0-37 0-40 0.35 ± 0-14

Transport

Agriculture 0-479 0-756 0-438 0-560 0-429 0.582 0.541 -+0-123

Arjunahalli Hanchipura Keelara Pura Sugganahalli Ungra Average

11.831 11.838 12-723 10.315 9-833 10-315 11.143 _+1-144

Domestic 0.284 0-275 0.279 0-238 0.274 0.292 0.274 +- 0.019

Lighting

0.050 0.058 0-058 0-048 0.060 0-064 0-056 ± 0.006

Transport

TABLE 20 Sector-wise per capita energy c o n s u m p t i o n (106 k J/year)

3.07 4.85 2.50 3.53 2.66 3-70 3.39 +-0.86

Agriculture

Village

Arjunahalli Hanchipura Keelara Pura SugganahaUi Ungra Average

Village

T A B L E 19 Sector-wise energy c o n s u m p t i o n per h o u s e h o l d (106 k J/year)

0.902 0.109 0-409 0-483 0-166 1.499 0.595 • 0.525

Industry

5.78 0.70 2.34 3-05 1.03 9-55 3.74 + 3.37

Industry

13.544 13-036 13-906 11.644 10.761 12.751 12.607 +_ 1.192

Total

86.76 83-75 79-73 73.40 66.66 81-23 78.59 _+7-36

Total

to

z

5

© Z (13

Z

7, r"

7~ 7~

276

A.K.N. REDDY

other sources. Thus, the standard deviation is only 3.2% of the average percentage contribution of firewood, in contrast to 83.3% in the case of electricity. The average sector-wise consumption o f energy is also given in Table 18, which yields the following ranking (in terms of percentage of total energy consumed): domestic - 88.3%, industry - 4-7%, agriculture - 5-3%, lighting - 2.2% and transport -0.5%. The inter-village variations are small for the domestic and lighting sectors, significant for agriculture and transport, and very large in the case of industry. The domestic sector is the largest consumer mainly because of its need for firewood cooking fuel which is responsible on the average for 88.1 + 3.0% of the total energy used in this sector. An idea of the magnitude of village energy consumption and the inter-village variation of this magnitude is provided by Tables 19 and 20 - the former gives the values and makes the comparison on a per household basis, and the latter on a per capita basis. Except for agriculture and industry, the inter-village variations are small with the standard deviations being about 10% of the average value. Incidentally the total annual household consumption is 78.6 + 7.4 million kilojoules, and the total annual per capita consumption is 12.6 -+ 1.2 million kilojoules (3501 kWht/cap year = 9.6 kWht/cap day).

7.

INTRA-VILLAGE VARIATIONS IN ENERGY CONSUMPTION*

The data presented thus far provide aggregations at the village level or disaggregations to the level of the average household or person. The question of dependence of energy consumption on land-holding size has not been explored in the previous sections. In order, therefore, to examine whether there is prima facie evidence for such a dependence, the holding-wise data for Pura village are given in Table 21. This table provides the average values of land holdings (acres), household size (number of members), firewood consumption (kg firewood/household day and kg firewood/ capita year), kerosene consumption (millilitres kerosene/household day and litres of kerosene/capita year), electricity consumption of electrified households (kWh/household year and kWh/capita year), and hours spent on livestock-grazing, water-fetching and firewood-gathering (hours/household year). These data were subjected to linear regression analysis, and the coefficients of correlation are given in Table 22. The following conclusions may be drawn: (1) There is a high degree of correlation (r -- 0.9576) between the average quantity of firewood consumed per household and the average holding-size, but a much poorer correlation (r = - - 0 . 4 9 4 3 ) between the average per capita consump* This brief analysis has been stimulated by Dr D. D. Narula's comments on the interim study of Pura village.

RURAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

277

TABLE 21 Dependence of energy consumption on land-holdings and household size

Item a

Landless Marginal Small labourers farmers farmers

Number of households (HH) Land-holding (acres) Household size (no. of persons) kg FW/HH day kg FW/capita year ml kerosene/HH day Litres kerosene/capita year kWh electricity/HH year kWh electricity/capita year LS grazing hours/HH year Water fetching hours/HH year FW gathering hours/HH year

Medium farmers

Large farmers

Others

7

10

l8

l3

5

3

0 4.42

1.30 5.50

3.46 5.83

7.36 7.30

18.70 10-80

0 4.33

7.21 595.5 92.35 7-62

8.57 569.3 124-90 8-29

10.25 641.9 98-63 6.17

12.92 646.5 89.98 4.49

15.77 533-1 29.58 1.00

8.67 731-4 106.84 9-00

-

-

23.27 3.99

88-69 12.14

161.20 14.92

n.a. -

n.a. 425

1 497 511

1 742 563

3 543 6l 3

5 181 949

617

1 010

971

857

551

-

a Except for number of households, all other items are average values.

TABLE 22 Coefficients of correlation (ryx) between energy consumption and landholdings (or household size)

y• Household size kg FW/HH day kg FW/capita year ml kerosene/HH day Litres kerosene/capita year kwh electricity/HH year kWh electricity/capita year LS grazing hours/HH year Water fetching hours/HH year FW gathering h ou rs/capita year

Holding (acres)

Household size

0.9951 0.9576 --0.4943 --0-9133 --0.9786 0.9701

0-9630 --0-5994 --0.8696 --0.9677 0.9797 0-8737 0.9733 0-9919 -- 0.4714

0.8519 0.9686 0.9912 -- 0.5438

tion o f f i r e w o o d and the average h o l d i n g size. This d i f f e r e n c e suggests t h a t the high c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n average h o u s e h o l d f i r e w o o d c o n s u m p t i o n and average l a n d - h o l d i n g arises because o f the c o r r e l a t i o n (r = 0 . 9 6 3 0 ) b e t w e e n average h o u s e h o l d f i r e w o o d c o n s u m p t i o n and average h o u s e h o l d size, t h e latter being in t u r n well c o r r e l a t e d w i t h average land-holding, w h i c h is i n d e e d t h e case w i t h r = 0-9951.

278

(2)

(3)

A.K.N. REDDY

In contrast, both per household and per capita consumption of kerosene and electricity depend strongly on the size of either land-holdings or households. Further, the kerosene consumption (of either households or persons) decreases with increases in land-holdings, whereas electricity consumption increases. This implies that with increasing affluence kerosene for lighting is increasingly substituted with electricity. The times spent on both grazing livestock and fetching water are highly correlated with both land-holdings and household size. In contrast, the time spent on gathering firewood is less well correlated, perhaps because gathering is not the only means of procuring firewood. Further, the negative correlation between firewood-gathering hours and land-holdings implies that with increasing land-holdings households turn increasingly to purchasing firewood and/or getting it from their own land. C O N T R I B U T O R S TO PILOT S U R V E Y A N D F I N A L STUDY

Pilot survey

Design of pilot questionnaire-N. Somasekhara, Amulya Kumar N. Reddy and K. Krishna Prasad. Field investigation - K. S. Thotappanavar, M. Venugopala Naidu and Sinha. Tabulation- K. S. Thotappanavar and M. Venugopala Naidu. Analysis of data - N. H. Ravindranath and N. Somasekhara. Final study

Design, field testing and finalisation of questionnaire- N. H. Ravindranath and Amulya Kumar N. Reddy. Canvassing of schedules, in-depth interviewing, observations, measurements and tabulation of results -iN. H. Ravindranath, H. I. Somasekhar, D. Lingamanthu, Vasudev Jagirdar, R. Ramesh, A. G. Kulkarni, C. S. Somanatha lyer and B. N. Ramanuja. Manual analysis of Pura data - Amala Reddy, K. Venkatram and Amulya Kumar N. Reddy. Writing of Pura paper (Interim Report to ICSSR) - Amulya Kumar N. Reddy. Computer processing of'six village' data - D. Rajagopal and D. K. Subramanian. Preparation of final report - Amulya Kumar N. Reddy.

REFERENCES

1. Makhijani, A. & Poole, A. (1975). Energy and Agriculture in the Third WorM, Cambridge, Mass., BaUinger. 2. Makhijani, A. (1976). Energy for the Rural Third World, London, International Institute for Environment and Development.

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3. Prasad, C. R., Krishna Prasad, K. & Reddy, A. K. N. (1974). Economic and Political Weekly, 9, 1347. 4. Ravindranath, N. H., Somasekhar, H. I., Ramesh, R., Reddy, Amala, Venkatram, K. & Reddy, A. K. N. (1978). In Employment Expansion in Indian Agriculture, ILO, Bangkok, p. 171. 5. Reddy, A. K. N. (1978). Energy Management, 2, 225. 6. Reddy, A. K. N. (1978). Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, p. 28. 7. Reddy, A. K. N. & Krishna Prasad, K. (1977). Economic and Political tCeekly, 12, 1465. 8. Reddy, A. K. N. & Subramanian, D. K. (1979). Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, C2, 395. 9. Revelle,R. (1976). Science, 192, 969.

APPENDIX: SUMMARYOF QUESTIONNAIRE The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on the following main aspects and particulars. 1. Households (a) Description o f household: Name and caste of head of household; number of members in household; age, education and occupation of each member and his/her relationship to head of household. (b) Food consumption: Quantity of cereals/pulses/oils/sweeteners/milk/meat consumed per day/week/annum;average quantity purchased per day/week/annum. (c) Cooking schedule: Starting time, hours taken and woman/child labour utilised for morning/evening session. (d) Cooking fuel: Nature of fuel used for cooking, i.e. firewood/dungcakes/ vegetable wastes/husk/kerosene. (e) Procurement of firewood used in househoM: Purchased/gathered/obtained from own trees; and if combination of modes of procurement, proportion of each mode; frequency of procurement operation; type of firewood procured, i.e. twigs/roots~branches/logs; quantity of man/woman/child labour used for procurement, i.e. head-loads/cart-loads per trip, number of trips, distance and duration per trip. (f) Household consumption of fuel: Fraction of fuel used for cooking/heating bath-water; how long unit quantity of firewood/vegetable wastes/husk/kerosene lasts. (g) Lighting: If electrified, number of outlets, duration of lighting, electricity bills and kWh per month; if dependent on kerosene, monthly consumption. (h) Appliances for lighting and cooking: Open-wick lamp/chimney lamp/lantern/ Petromax lantern, and how long each filling of device lasts; nature of cooking stove, i.e. number of openings. (i) Water consumption in households: Source of water, distance of water source from household; number of water-fetching trips per day; woman/child labour used; number of pots carried and time taken per trip.

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(j) Livestock: Household-wise number of cows/bullocks/buffaloes/sheep/goats/ poultry; type of feed, i.e. fodder/concentrates, and rate of consumption. (k) Livestock grazing: Household-wise number of hours spent per day on livestock grazing by men/women/children. 2. Agriculture (a) Cropping pattern: For each crop and season, area, irrigated/dry. (b) Crop production: For each crop, inputs, i.e. quantity of manure/fertiliser; output, i.e. quantity produced/sold/retained for home consumption; labour use for each operation, i.e. number of man/woman/bullock hours for ploughing/ harrowing/manuring/sowing, etc. (c) Agricultural implements: Household-wise number of iron/wooden ploughs/ bullock-cart s/pumpsets, etc. (d) Irrigation: Source of water; method of irrigation; in the case of pumpsets, electricity/diesel consumption per month/season. 3. Industry (a) Inanimate energy: For each industry, type of inanimate energy, i.e. electricity/ firewood, etc; quantity used per day/week/season. (b) Animate energy: For each industry, man/woman/bullock labour used per day/week/season.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The investigators are grateful to the Indian Council for Social Science Research, and particularly its former Member-Secretary, the late J. P. Naik, for sponsoring this project.