Safety and sustainability nexus: A review and appraisal

Journal of Cleaner Production 216 (2019) 74e87

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

Safety and sustainability nexus: A review and appraisal Waqas Nawaz a, *, Patrick Linke b, Muammer Koҫ a a b

Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Education City, Doha, Qatar Department of Chemical Engineering, Texas A&M University at Qatar, PO Box 23874, Doha, Qatar

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 18 September 2018 Received in revised form 12 January 2019 Accepted 14 January 2019 Available online 17 January 2019

The significance of sustainable development has been globally recognized as it offers a roadmap to counter the existential threats which humanity face in the modern world. While sustainability attempts to achieve a balance between economic growth, social development, and environmental protection, its operationalization is hard to comprehend. Generally, the environmental departments are held responsible for managing issues pertaining to sustainable development, which may lead to, or perceived as, a loss in the economic and social dimension. This paper argues that the operationalization of sustainability can be better understood if the association between sustainability and safety is recognized. This study attempts to answer three questions: (i) how ignoring safety can have adverse consequences for sustainable development; (ii) how safety-related initiatives support the operationalization of sustainability; and (iii) how the integration of safety at the design stage is the key to sustainable development. Following a systematic literature review, this mixed-method exploratory study attempts to emphasize on the safety-sustainability nexus through various practical examples, including City Center of Las Vegas; KiK Textilien and Ali Enterprise; Al-Shaheen Oil Field Gas Recovery and Utilization Project, Qatar; Jetty Boil-off Gas Recovery Project, Qatar; Tetra Ethyl Lead; Chlorofluorocarbons; and Nanomaterials. A commentary from selected safety experts (in the field of nanotechnology) is also provided to reflect on the significance of safety for the commercialization of new products and technologies. The results of this study confirm that safety and sustainability are closely linked, and the former can offer an operational command on the latter because both disciplines share the same pillars, which include economy, environment, and society. Also, historical events suggest that disregarding safety-sustainability nexus any further may lead to more dangerous consequences than ever before because of the growing human interest to adopt new technologies and products straightaway without analyzing the possible consequences. The results of this paper offer a rationale to look across the complete spectrum of safety in the organizational context in order to highlight the areas where optimization or modifications can result in more sustainable outcomes. Hence, managers and researchers can benefit from the findings of this study to improve the sustainability settings in the firms. © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sustainability Health and safety Safety-sustainability nexus Operationalization of sustainability Safe commercialization

Contents 1. 2.

3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Systematic literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.1. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.2. Descriptive and thematic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.3. Critical review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.1. Unrecognized role of safety in sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.1.1. The City Center of Las Vegas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 3.1.2. KiK Textilien and Ali Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (W. Nawaz). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.167 0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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3.1.3. Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Capitalizing on safety interventions to operationalize sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.2.1. Al-Shaheen oil field gas recovery and utilization project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.2.2. JBOG recovery project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.2.3. Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.3. Integration of safety for sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.3.1. The history of Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.3.2. The history of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.3.3. The case of engineered nano-materials (ENMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.3.4. Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 3.2.

4.

1. Introduction “Safety has not been invited to the prom” Tom Cecich, May 2014 In 1987, sustainability was first conceived as the integrated development around economics, environment, and society, which could offer substantial and maintainable benefits to the world. Over time, it has emerged as an independent interdisciplinary field that combines the concepts of other disciplines but has its own intertwined dynamics. The holistic nature of sustainability differentiates it from other fields, but perhaps it is the same reason why sustainability has been ignored at the operational level e as it demands multi-variant, yet coherent, approach to understand the issues and implement the solutions. Although there are no shortcuts in developing an operational understanding of a particular field, creating analogies is always helpful to explore the new problems in the light of existing knowledge. As argued earlier, sustainability has a broader scope compared to the existing disciplines of knowledge, however, it has exclusive similarities with the safety discipline.1 The similitude of both fields is evident from the definitions, as noted below: “Safety is the prevention of accident through the use of appropriate technologies to identify the hazards and eliminate them before they cause unintended damage to people, property and/ or environment” (Lees, 2012). “Sustainable development is the non-declining trend of economic growth and development integrated with the goals of high quality of life, health and prosperity with social justice and maintaining the earth's capacity to support life in all its diversity” (Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, 1997; ISO, 2012). Since both fields maintain an emphasis on the protection and development of society (people), economy, and environment (ecology), it is argued through this paper that the advancements in the field of safety may be extended further to overcome the operational shortcomings of sustainable development. This argument is partly supported by the empirical evidence which suggests that the performance of organizations improves with the improvements in
ndezthe health and safety (H&S) standards and practices (Ferna

1

The ‘safety’ discipline includes both occupational health and safety and process safety.

~ iz et al., 2009; Veltri et al., 2007). In fact, some commentaMun tors noted that the issues and concerns of these two fields widely overlap with one another (Smith, 2013), including end of life and legacy issues; fallouts of new technologies; zero waste economy; skilled manpower; proper management; handling subcontractor and supply chain; innovative solutions; uncertainty and resilience; and improving operational excellence by conducting business in a way that protects people, planet, profit, and principles. As far as the statistics are concerned, according to the H&S Executive of United Kingdom, the cost of H&S failures in 2001 and 2002 brought forward a huge amount of £51.8 billion (AmponsahTawiah and Mensah, 2015). The European Agency for Safety and Health has estimated 146 million lost hours every year in Europe Union (EU). Quantitatively, this loss equals 2.6%e3.8% of EU's gross national product per annum (Amponsah-Tawiah and Mensah, 2015). On a global level, the H&S losses exceed $1250 billion (Amponsah-Tawiah, 2013). Similarly, a study carried out by the Goldman Sachs (investment banking company) revealed that returns on investment in six industrial sectors (beverages, energy, food, media, mining, and steel) could have increased from 25% to 38%, in the previous four years, had safety been integrated in the strategic decision making (Hill and Seabrook, 2013). Besides the aforementioned monetary figures, 2.8 million workers died in 2016e17 as a result of work-related disease and injuries €ma €la €inen et al., 2017). The H&S accidents also result in reduced (Ha quality of human life (survivors of the accidents), loss of biodiversity, environmental and ecological damages, and social stigmas which the families of the victims of these accidents have to suffer for the rest of their lives (Kasperson et al., 1988). Factoring these elements together underscores the significance of natural, but ignored, link between safety and sustainability. At the organizational level, Aberdeen Group conducted a survey among the corporate executives to understand which department should be responsible for the sustainability of the organizations. According to the results, 71% of the respondents (n ¼ 110) believe that it is the health, safety, and environment (HSE) department in organizations that fits well with sustainability (Hill and Seabrook, 2013). Thus, it is believed that the HSE professionals can play an important part in achieving the sustainable aspirations of their organizations. The above discussion corroborates that safety is at the core of sustainable development; however, the safety-sustainability nexus has been ignored at the strategic level. There is no hidden reason for that, rather, as mentioned by Tom Cecich in one of his interviews: “Safety is perceived as an issue that occurs within four walls of an organization and only receives public attention when major

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tragedies occur, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf or the recent factory fires in Pakistan and Bangladesh” (ASSE, 2013) The recent recognition of the relationship between safety and sustainability by British Petroleum, Shell, Chevron, and Statoil is an encouraging first step (Hutton, 2014); however, the association between the two has not been extended to a level which can facilitate the operationalization of sustainability. The present work is a mixed method exploratory research which aims to answer the following three question: (i) How ignoring safety can have adverse consequences for sustainable development? (ii) How safety-related initiatives support the operationalization of sustainability? (iii) How the integration of safety at the design stage is the key to sustainable development? Following the introduction, a systematic literature review of safety-sustainability nexus is presented in the second section. The review updates the readers on the progress and gaps in the published literature. The third section offers a discussion through practical examples (case-studies) which together emphasize the role of safety in operationalizing sustainability. A commentary from the safety experts (in the field of nanotechnology) is also provided in the third section which confirms the need to address safety concerns before the responsible commercialization of new products. The final section concludes the discussion and identifies future research opportunities.

2. Systematic literature review In order to learn the status of safety-sustainability nexus in the literature, a systematic review is carried out. The methodology of

systematic review proposed by Tranfield et al. (2003) has been followed since this scientific stepwise approach makes the literature search transparent and reproducible. After selecting the relevant articles through systematic search, descriptive and thematic analysis is performed to assess the significance of this topic and themes of published work. Followed by the analysis, a critical review is carried out to explore the progress and gaps in the literature related to this field. 2.1. Method As a first step, non-structured snowball approach is used, primarily in Google Scholar, to identify the relevant keywords and most frequent publishers of sustainability-safety nexus (Morioka and de Carvalho, 2016). In parallel, a review-criteria is developed to screen the most relevant articles. The summary of the search parameters and criteria is provided in Table 1. The basic search limits the search result to peer review articles which are published in the English language from 1987 (the year when sustainability was first coined) to April 2018. Two screening criteria, initial and final, are applied to the results of the basic search. Initial criterion is limited to the review of titles and abstracts, while the final criterion covers the review of full articles. The basic search returned 750 articles which were reduced to 98 articles after applying the initial screening criteria. The final number of articles which passed both screening criteria is 65. However, this number was further reduced to 25 articles for the critical review. The details are explained in section 2.2. 2.2. Descriptive and thematic analysis As can be seen in Fig. 1, the number of articles published to link safety and sustainability increased over time. The highest number of articles are recorded in 2017, which highlights the significance, relevance, and timeliness of the topic under discussion. There are 48 journals which collectively published the 65

Table 1 Overview of systematic literature review. Steps performed during the systematic review

Description and results

1- Keywords sustain* AND safe* 2- Inclusion, Exclusion Basic Search Criteria  Language: English criteria  Timeline: 1987 to April 2018  Type: Peer review articles Initial Criteria  Articles that establish or emphasize the relationship between safety and sustainability (disciplinary, operational, academic) are included  Articles in which sustainability or safety are referred only to emphasize on the dictionary meaning are excluded  Articles with a focus on crime safety and security, clinical safety, patient safety, sexual safety, and food safety are excluded  Articles with various dimensions of sustainability and process safety, occupational H&S, accidental safety, chemical safety or organizational safety are included Final Criteria  Articles in which safety and sustainability are discussed but not linked are excluded 3- Search database Science Direct, Springer, Wiley, Sage, Taylor and Francis, JSTOR, Emerald, ACS Publications 4- Results Returned Science Direct (a) 302 Springer (b) 65 Wiley (c) 76 þ 31 (c) Sage 42 þ 15 Taylor and Francis (c) 51 þ 47 a JSTOR ( ) 97 Emerald (c) 3 þ 21 Step 5 e Number of articles selected after 98 initial screening Step 6 e Number of articles selected after 65 final screening a

The search was carried out in titles and keywords together. The search was carried out in titles only. c The search was carried out in titles and keywords separately. The option to search multiple phrases with Boolean operators was not available. Thus, separate searchers were carried out. However, duplication in selection was avoided. b

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77

Fig. 1. Distribution of articles over the years.

articles resulting from the systematic search. The number of publications by a journal, which published at least two or more articles, is shown in Fig. 2. There are only 8 journals that published two or more articles; the rest of 40 journals published one article each. Journal of Cleaner Production is at the top of the list with 10 publications and therefore, is a highly relevant journal in this area of research. The selected articles in the systematic review can be divided into 9 themes (Fig. 3). These include: alternative chemicals, materials and processes (11); construction and structural engineering (8); education and research (2); industrial (2); management, practices, and optimization (18); performance indicators and reporting (4); product and process development (2); safetysustainability overlap (11); and transportation (7). Since it is not possible to critically examine all 65 articles in a mixed method study, the authors decided to further limit the number of articles. Thus, the 65 articles are divided into three categories (Fig. 4): ‘isolated’; ‘semi-overlapping’; and ‘overlapping’. The isolated category represents articles in which safety and

sustainability are linked in silos (safety may be treated as one of the many components of sustainability). Semi overlapping category represents articles where although safety and sustainability are discussed in close connection, only one pillar of sustainability (mostly social pillar) is linked with safety. The overlapping category represents articles in which safety and sustainability are completely linked. The 25 articles falling under the ‘overlapping’ category are selected for the critical review.

Fig. 2. Distribution of articles over publication journals (when journal publication>1).

Fig. 3. Distribution of articles according to themes.

2.3. Critical review The list of selected articles for review is tabulated in Table 2. Majority of the articles fall under the ‘Safety-Sustainability Overlap’ theme. Among this category, most of the studies generally imply that the link between safety and sustainability must be established. Mcquaid (2000) was probably the first one to argue that organizational practices which improve the H&S settings are likely to find equal or more success in achieving sustainable development goals. The author discussed how inherent safety

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Fig. 4. Distribution of articles according to the extent of relationship between safety and sustainability.

design, risk assessment, and occupational health and safety (OHS) management can significantly help in attaining the sustainability objectives at the organizational level. Mcquaid's work received empirical support from other studies. For example, Hajmohammad and Vachon (2014) carried out a survey (n ¼ 251 Canadian plants) to explore the relationship between safety and productivity/profitability. The authors reported highest factor loading for ‘safety culture’ in direct correlation with ‘productivity/profitability’. To be more precise, it is the management commitment and employee participation which results in higher productivity and profitability. Besides Hajmohammad and Vachon (2014), Mcquaid's work was also supported by Meshkati (2007); the author offered similar results to Hajmohammad and Vachon (2014) based on the review of the Chernobyl nuclear accident. Since the nuclear energy systems (16% of global electricity generation) are one of the key sources of energy production in a sustainable economy, Meshkati (2007) emphasized on the importance of safety for sustainability. The author asserted through the Chernobyl case study that organizational safety culture plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety of sustainable energy systems. Moreover, human and organizational factors play a key role in developing the organizational safety culture. While Meshkati's work tries to connect safety and sustainability in the context of sustainable energy systems, the author has

generalized the results of a single case study to the whole sector, which some may not agree with. In order to overcome this shortcoming, a recent study assessed the risk of accidents in the modern low-carbon energy sector between 1950 and 2014 (Sovacool et al., 2016). The 686 accidents reported in the literature in the lowcarbon energy systems collectively caused 182,794 human fatalities and $265.1 billion loss in property damages. The sector-wise summary of these accidents is provided in Table 3. On an average, each accident occurring in the modern, low-carbon sustainable energy sector inflicted 267 fatalities and a mammoth loss of USD 389 million over the course of 65 years. Unfortunately, these numbers are representative of the scenario where only 21.6% of the global energy demand is met through low-carbon energy sector (Renewable Energy Policy Network, 2017). How high or low these numbers can go (in a scenario where 50% or 60% of global energy is harvested through low carbon sectors) is a matter of recognizing the role of safety in overall sustainable development. Presently, the society is more interested in finding new answers to the old problems without assessing the risk posed by those new solutions. Similar to the goals of Sovacool et al. (2016), Iavicoli and Boccuni (2009) tried to uncover the safety limitations of nanotechnology, which promises sustainable outcomes through the development of new materials. The authors highlighted significant progress in term of technological development on one hand but an equally significant gap between this technological progress and the research into the H&S aspects of nanomaterials on the other. The authors second the findings of Sovacool et al. (2016) and call for an integrated approach (research, partnership, and knowledge transfer) to connect the development of technology with policymaking in order to ensure safe and responsible commercialization of nanomaterials. Generally, the above shows that while we try to deal with the obvious risk factors, such as global warming and clean water, we tend to ignore the uncertain risk factors, or the invisible risk factors, such as H&S risks. In order to take that risk into account, Cunningham et al. (2010) performed a review of the literature to find that the interventions used for promoting environmental sustainability overlap with that of the occupational safety and health. However, it may be the behavioral difference among the practicing individuals which differentiates the two fields. While the behavioral difference is an important element of the disconnect between safety and sustainability, it is mainly the lack of risk-based thinking which holds back the two disciplines from benefitting

Table 2 List of articles selected for critical review (under the ‘overlapping’ category). Themes

Articles

Alternative Chemicals, Materials, and Processes Construction and Structural Engineering Performance Indicators and Reporting Research & Education Safety-Sustainability Overlap

(Bizzo et al., 2004), (Schulte et al., 2013), (Hedlund and Astad, 2015), (Roberts et al., 2015), (Ramirez-Tejeda et al., 2017) (Chow, 2003), (Rechenthin, 2004), (Chow and Chow, 2005), (Dewlaney and Hallowell, 2012), (Reyes et al., 2014), (Roberts et al., 2016) (Lewis, 2011), (Koskela, 2014) (Kitamura, 2014), (Reme et al., 2015) (Mcquaid, 2000), (Gilding et al., 2002), (Meshkati, 2007), (Iavicoli and Boccuni, 2009), (Cunningham et al., 2010), (Hajmohammad and Vachon, 2014), (Kishimoto, 2013), (Sovacool et al., 2016), (Jilcha and Kitaw, 2017), (Camuffo et al., 2017)

Note: Besides the systematically identified studies, three other articles have been discussed in the critical review section (Helland and Kastenholz, 2008; Silvestre et al., 2017;  te, _ 2018). These articles are relevant to this paper but were eliminated from the systematic search due to the screening criteria. Staniskiene_ and Stankevi ciu

Table 3 Accident statistics in low-carbon energy systems from 1950 to 2014 (Sovacool et al., 2016). Description

Hydro

Nuclear

Wind

Solar

Hydrogen

Biofuel

Biomass

Geothermal

Frequency (total number of accidents) Severity (fatalities) Damage (million USD, approx.)

26 177,665 21,080

172 4803 240,854

335 126 794

7 13 21

34 58 1065

52 32 451

56 97 878

4 0 0.8

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each other. Since this gap has been clearly identified by Sovacool et al. (2016) and Iavicoli and Boccuni (2009), Kishimoto (2013) highlighted the need of a common platform for developing new frameworks to deal with the invisible risks. The author demonstrated that the modern interventions which are used to counter global warming may lead to an increase in H&S risk unless frameworks for risk assessment are used in making sustainabilityrelated designs. For that, Kishimoto (2013) suggested an assessment of risk trade-offs to estimate acute, chronic, and long-term effects of interventions. The assessment of multilevel risk tradeoffs can significantly help in understanding the link between the obvious and uncertain risk factors, and thus can assist in making an informed policy decision. On a similar level to Mcquaid (2000), Gilding et al. (2002) supported the association between sustainability and safety, but the authors did not limit their discussion to the industrial or organizational settings. Gilding et al. (2002) identified at least eight reasons to demonstrate why safety is the preferred alternative to operationalizing sustainability: (i) synonymity of the concepts; (ii) our familiarity with safety; (iii) safety being a basic human need; (iv) both being a priority; (v) both being people-centric; (vi) hidden value creation and objectivity through safety; (vii) safety being actionable; and (viii) scalability to advance level. In contrast to Cunningham et al. (2010), Gilding et al. (2002) observed that the lack of operationalization of sustainability has less to do with the general motivation of individuals, rather it is the ‘what’ and ‘how’ which impedes sustainability in practice. In order to deeply explore these ‘whats’ and ‘hows’, Jilcha and Kitaw (2017) carried out an empirical study based on interviews and field surveys (n ¼ 18 manufacturing industries in Ethiopia). The authors reported a positive correlation between the workplace H&S innovation and sustainable development. Similar to the findings of Gilding et al. (2002), Jilcha and Kitaw (2017) concluded that improvements in H&S performance are directly linked to the sustainable development of industries. More support to Gilding et al. (2002) came from the work of Camuffo et al. (2017) who also found a positive correlation between safety and elements of organizational sustainability, including lean operations, involvement and empowerment of workforce, and capability development. In a similar attempt to the  te_ (2018) work of Camuffo et al. (2017), Staniskiene_ and Stankeviciu investigated the measures of social sustainability in organizations from an employee-perspective. The authors conducted an employee survey (n ¼ 120) and management interviews (n ¼ 10) in a CSR-committed organization in Lithuania. Staniskiene_ and  te_ (2018) found that ‘H&S’ is the most strongly correStankevi ciu lated factor to social sustainability in employees' opinion. These empirical evidences affirm the claims of Mcquaid (2000) and Gilding et al. (2002) that safety is the best alternative route to sustainable development. Since both disciplines widely overlap each other, and safety has become a corporate value after a long struggling phase, safety can complement the operationalization of sustainability to a large extent. After establishing the significance of safety in the operationalization of sustainability, we will now look into the other themes identified in the systematic literature search. The rest of the themes are more focused in comparison to the ‘safety-sustainability overlap’. For example, the ‘Construction and Structural Engineering’ theme emphasize on the importance of safety in the construction of buildings and infrastructure, which are relevant to the sustainable goals of the society. Specifically, much work has been done with regards to enhancing the safety protocols in the construction of green buildings. Chow (2003) was probably the first one to underscore the importance of safety in the design and construction of green and sustainable buildings. The author reviewed the green building characteristics in Hong Kong and the respective fire codes

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to demonstrate that the latter does not address all elements of contemporary building design. For example, buildings with atriums are more vulnerable to fire safety and smoke than the conventional buildings. Chow and Chow (2005) built on that and empirically showed that the smoke spread and accumulation in the atrium make the modern building designs more vulnerable. Since atriums are more specifically a design feature of modern-day sustainable buildings, the prescriptive fire codes lack in addressing the risk associated with atriums. However, in a more recent study, Roberts et al. (2016) have shown some progress in the Green Codes, where minimum mandatory standards for fire safety are integrated with the sustainable construction codes. Nevertheless, the authors, similar to Kishimoto (2013), identified the interplay between sustainability and fire safety as non-obvious. While sustainability community tries to comply with the minimum safety requirements of the construction codes, the mere compliance misses out on several opportunities where inherent safety can enhance the design sophistication of green buildings. The work of Dewlaney and Hallowell (2012) also complements Chow (2003) e with the only difference that the former has called for a more holistic approach, i.e., beyond the fire codes, for the safety of green buildings. A life-cycle based approach is particularly important for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system because 12 LEED credits are proven to be associated with higher risks in comparison with the conventional building design. Dewlaney and Hallowell (2012) integrated the safety management practices in the LEED rating system. The contribution of Dewlaney and Hallowell (2012) is significant from the workers' safety perspective because it has been continuously ignored in the research related to the construction of green buildings. In order to analytically support the qualitative work of Dewlaney and Hallowell (2012), Reyes et al. (2014) incorporated the concepts of H&S throughout the building life-cycle. The authors developed a technical and economic H&S model and linked it with the sustainable building parameters obtained from the green building rating systems, such as LEED. The validation of the model revealed that improvements on 27 indicators at various stages of building life-cycle, including design, construction, and useful life, can ensure the safety and sustainability of the building at the same time. From the investors' perspective, incorporating the identified valuation criteria (27 indicators) throughout the building life-cycle can decrease the total investment on the project, without compromising the building's performance. Besides the cost, safety in the construction and project management sector can offer a competitive advantage as well since not many firms place equal importance on safety as they do for scoping, scheduling, and budgeting of the project. Rechenthin (2004) was probably the first to identify project safety as a sustainable competitive advantage for the firms. The author compared the real value of accidents, fatalities, and injuries and illnesses with the presumable (sustainability) reputation of the construction firms. Rechenthin (2004) found that “safe records impact morale, profitability, turnover, and productivity”. ‘Alternative Chemicals, Materials, and Processes’ is another important theme for the safety-sustainability nexus. It has been widely argued in the literature that finding alternatives for existing chemicals, materials and processes can significantly transform the conventional operations which are less safe for the people and environment. Schulte et al. (2013) carried out a review to underscore the converging areas of safety and sustainability, specifically for chemicals. Based on a life-cycle approach, the authors suggested the use of the hierarchy of controls and prevention through design principles in green chemistry. The most effective strategy in this regard is the elimination of hazards followed by the substitution of chemicals with alternatives (greener and safer). Nonetheless, this also applies to the existing sustainable options which should be

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continuously assessed for safer alternatives. From the green building perspective, for example, Roberts et al. (2015) emphasized on the importance of the choice of right thermal insulating materials since a single fire event can negate several (if not all) elements of green design. The authors developed a multi-objective optimization tool for the selection of thermal insulating material to ensure sustainability and safety of the green buildings simultaneously. According to Roberts et al. (2015), when cost, sustainability, and fire are used as objective functions in the developed optimization tool, polystyrene comes down as the worst performer among various options. Similarly, the use of renewable sources of energy for domestic cooking was not a common viewpoint in early 2000. Bizzo et al. (2004) probably argued for the first time that the conventional domestic fuels are not safe for cooking and hence should be replaced with more clean and renewable options. Nevertheless, the authors identified the unsafe characteristics of the clean fuels as well, which shows that safety is not an implied feature in sustainable options and therefore, should be taken into consideration when the alternatives of chemicals, materials, and processes are assessed. In another example, Hedlund and Astad (2015) examined the safety concerns related to the energy generation from solid biomass, which is considered a source of renewable energy. The authors used a Danish environmental program as a case study, which aims to convert the traditional coal-fired thermal power plants to solid biomass fuel. Hedlund and Astad (2015) found that the “unsafe properties of biomass have been largely overlooked in the haste to cut greenhouse gas emissions”; the biomass (wood) pellets generate combustible dust which can cause severe explosions in the moist and confined conditions. The authors concluded that attention should be paid when one technology or process is replaced with another since the resolution of one problem can create a new problem in another domain. Similar conclusions were reached by Helland and Kastenholz (2008) who maintained that while nanotechnology is widely seen as having huge potential for sustainable development, the application of these materials may raise new challenges with regards to safety. The authors emphasized the development of new policies and regulatory frameworks to ensure the safe use of nanotechnology in realizing the optimistic sustainable development goals. This situation is not limited to nanotechnology, rather other promising areas of sustainable development also suffer the same issues. For example, RamirezTejeda et al. (2017) highlighted the need to find better alternatives for the disposal of a high number of 'wind turbine blades in need of disposal'. Landfilling these blades, which is a common practice, poses serious harm to the safety of people and the environment. The authors suggested using alternative materials for the manufacturing of wind turbine blades (other than thermoset composites), which can later be recycled and reused to make the wind-energy industry truly sustainable. Many researchers tend to believe that the lack of acknowledgment of the natural relationship between safety and sustainability is primarily because of the missing link between these two at the graduate level ‘Research and Education’, which is one of the themes identified in this paper. Kitamura (2014) argued in favor of revamping the safety curriculum to integrate sustainability. The author proposed a model system for safety education, namely Education for Sustainable Development, to holistically cover the traffic, disaster and daily life challenges in a perspective of sustainable development. Kitamura's work is particularly important because there is a lack of uniformity and inefficient enforcement of safety practices which undermines the safety-case for sustainability at the practical level (Silvestre et al., 2017). The natural first step towards the integration of two disciplines is the harmonization and convergence of the safety and sustainability goals. And there is no

better way than to start such intervention at the graduate research and education level. In this regard, Reme et al. (2015) maintained the proposal of Kitamura (2014) and advocated in support of transdisciplinary research and graduate level courses which can synchronize the viewpoints of safety and sustainability. The authors demonstrated their successful experience of running a transdisciplinary course at the graduate level and therefore, suggested similar programs for other universities and institutes. The last theme identified in the systematic search is the ‘Performance Indicators and Reporting’. The two articles identified under this theme emphasize on the importance of integrating safety in the sustainability performance indicators and reporting the safety practices in an objective manner, instead of merely complying with the minimum reporting requirements. Koskela (2014) assessed the OHS performance of three different companies, in three different sectors, through their CSR reports (n ¼ 15). The results show a positive response from these companies towards the call for integrating safety and sustainability; the companies reported results related to various performance indicators of occupational safety, as well as the processes behind those results. Nonetheless, the author found that, although safety has been reported in the CSR reports, the objective of safety practices has not been linked to sustainability, which limits the intention of the firms to comply with the minimum reporting requirements. In order to deal with this problem, Lewis (2011) advocated for stringent reporting standards for non-financial disclosures. Based on the Deepwater Horizon case study, the author highlighted the shortcomings of the current non-financial reporting standards. Lewis (2011) implied that without stringent reporting standards for non-financial disclosures, organizations will keep neglecting safety and will continue to create a false impression of following the sustainability best practices. 3. Discussion While the studies discussed in the systematic review acknowledge the role of safety in attaining sustainable development goals, there is a lack of practical examples around: (i) what will be the consequences of ignoring safety; and (ii) how this link can be operationalized. There are only three articles which have used the case study approach to demonstrate how safety-sustainability nexus cannot be ignored any further (Hedlund and Astad, 2015; Lewis, 2011; Meshkati, 2007). The cases discussed in these studies, however, are not very diverse (sector-wise) and therefore, do not comprehensively reflect on the extent of the challenge. In order to fill this gap, a few practical examples from diverse sectors will be discussed in this section with an aim to address the three research questions. The discussion themes, which are derived from the research questions (refer to Section 1), the title of examples, the justification of examples, and the relevance between discussion and literature themes are tabulated in Table 4. 3.1. Unrecognized role of safety in sustainability 3.1.1. The City Center of Las Vegas Green buildings, also called sustainable buildings, are considered advanced, environmentally responsible and resource efficient building designs which can be certified over various international standards. LEED certification is widely recognized in this regard. The building developers of the City Center of Las Vegas aimed to certify their design on LEED when the onsite construction first started in 2004. This 67 acres, USD 9.2 billion investment surpassed its original goal of LEED Silver certification to score an impressive six LEED Gold certifications (City Center Land LLC, 2009). With its grand opening in 2009, this largest privately funded construction

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Table 4 Selection and justification of case studies. Discussion Themes

Case Studies

Justification

Unrecognized role of safety in sustainability

Standardization and certification of management systems are widely considered as tools to manage sustainabilityrelated challenges. While these tools offer numerous benefits, excessive reliance on these may lead to a failure to City Center of Las realize the operational context of sustainability challenges. Vegas Thus, instead of solving the problems, the standardized tools may create new problems. Both examples under this theme deal with systems' certification, i.e., LEED and Social Accountability (SA) 8000. While certificates of conformance were awarded, the entities in both cases failed to recognize the objective significance of safety for sustainability. The KiK Textilien and Ali examples demonstrate the omission of safety from the sustainability realm in all parts of the world; one case Enterprise represents the multibillion-dollar investment in the United States while the other deals with the outsourced activities of a German enterprise in Pakistan.

The initiatives taken to make the firms more sustainable do not recognize the significance of safety for overall sustainability (Safety-Sustainability Overlap). The death of workers during the construction of a LEED certified building (Construction and Structural Engineering) and dependence on the lagging indicators for compliance (Performance Indicators and Reporting) show a failure to acknowledge the role of safety in the overall sustainable development.

Capitalizing on safety interventions to operationalize sustainability

Since safety and sustainability share the three pillars of development (economy, environment, and society), it is Al-Shaheen Oil Field interesting to learn the impact of safety initiatives on sustainability. The two examples discussed under this theme Gas Recovery and are related to the transformation of the safety practices in the Utilization Project oil and gas sector in the State of Qatar. It is important to investigate these two cases because these involve the oil and gas sector, which is believed to be adversely affecting the global sustainability performance. The two examples help in Jetty Boil-off Gas demonstrating that the transformation of conventional (JBOG) Recovery safety practices can not only benefit the sustainability Project performance of the firms, but it can also support the sustainability programs of the country.

The most important part in the transformation of any conventional process is the identification of more sustainable alternatives (Alternative Chemicals, Materials, and Processes). Both firms under this discussion theme have capitalized on safety interventions to achieve their sustainability objectives (Safety-Sustainability Overlap).

While innovation and technology are central for the sustainable development of the world, the human desire to adopt these technologies at an early stage, without extensively assessing its risks, can lead to major catastrophes, as witnessed in the past. We revisit the disastrous cases of TEL and CFCs and connect the premature Integration of safety for Chlorofluorocarbons commercialization of these products, and their derivatives, sustainability (CFCs) with the commercialization of ENMs. It is widely accepted that ENMs have a huge potential to play a key role in the development of sustainable products, however, marketing nanoproducts without completely understanding and Engineered Nanoaddressing the safety risks may lead us to the same mistake Materials (ENMs) which was made in case of TEL and CFCs.

In some cases where alternatives are selected to replace the conventional materials, it is important to comprehensively assess the risks associated with these alternatives (Alternative Chemicals, Materials, and Processes). For that, the ideal stage is research and development; so that the interventions are not made publicly available until these are proven to be safe (Research & Education).

Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL)

project in the United States became one of the largest LEEDcertified projects in the world. On the flip side, six workers lost their lives during the construction of this project (Gillen, 2012). All the deaths were recorded in a span of only 16 months (from February 2007 to May 2008) until the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) intervened. OSHA reported a pattern of improper fall protection systems, incorrect storage of flammable materials, the risk of electrical shock, faulty equipment, and problematic record-keeping. The administration placed a hold on the construction work until the reported issues were rectified. In light of these events, Fortunato et al. (2011) investigated the risks associated with the construction of modern building designs. The study highlighted that 14 LEED credentials may actually create an increased risk for the construction workers in comparison to the conventional construction practices. The increase in the risks may include (Fortunato et al., 2011):  41% for installing sustainable roofing  37% for installing PV panels  36% for the cuts and wounds from construction waste management  32% for the falls (especially for installing skylights and atriums)

Relevance with Literature Themes

Other researchers also argued that the modern construction sector, which is believed to be more sustainable, overlooks the safety features in many ways and which is why one single accident in the modern buildings can negate several, if not all, elements of the green design (Roberts et al., 2016, 2015). 3.1.2. KiK Textilien and Ali Enterprise Ali Enterprise, a textile factory in Pakistan, and a supplier of the German textile brand, KiK Textilien, burnt into flames on 11th September 2012, reporting 300 deaths and 55 injuries (Rehman et al., 2012). The investigation of the accident revealed that the safety protocols of Ali enterprise were not up to the mark. However, just three weeks before the accident, in August 2012, Ali Enterprise underwent a social audit and received its SA8000 certification. The certification of SA8000 shows, in contradiction to the accident investigation, that the firm met international standards in nine core areas, including H&S. Following the accident in 2012, it was expected that the KiK group would recognize the importance of safety in its sustainability report in 2013. However, apart from a condolence message from the board chairman, there was no mention of the lessons learned from this accident (KiK, 2013). In the report, improvement for the worker safety was linked with lagging indicators, such as the number of

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sub-contractors audited, list of non-conformances raised, and percentage of participants in the safety committee meetings. Maybe it is the same reason that within a span of one year, KiK was linked with two other deadly disasters in the garment industry: the Tazreen factory fire in Bangladesh, killing about 120 workers (Manik and Yardley, 2012); and the Rana Plaza factory building collapse, also in Bangladesh, killing more than a thousand workers (Manik and Yardley, 2013). Nevertheless, KiK was not the only brand which was sourcing its materials from these factories, rather a number of other high street fashion brands were also doing business with them, including Benetton (Italy), H&M (Sweden), The Children's Place (US), Next (UK), Mango (Spain), Disney (US), Teddy Smith (France), Sears (US), and Primark (UK/Ireland). At the same time, some of these fashion brands market themselves as sustainable or green fashion producers. The above takes us back to an old and important question: whose responsibility is it to ensure safe practices in the supply chain of apparel industry (Levan, 2008)? While it may be true that above-mentioned firms have associated the safety performance of suppliers with their evaluation, the planning and implementation, and the assurance of achievement of safety goals are largely missing on part of the sourcing organizations. It is particularly true because there have not been many changes in the safety standards of apparel and textile factories in Bangladesh, the 2nd largest exporter of apparel in the world (Koopman et al., 2018), even after the deadliest disaster in the history of the garment industry (Stratford, 2018). Some of the apparel industry accidents in Bangladesh, after the Rana Plaza factory building collapse, are tabulated in Table 5. While the listed factories may not be the direct suppliers of sustainable fashion brands, some of these are the subcontractors of the suppliers of those brands (Sakhawat, 2017). Moreover, besides the listed accidents, there were 97 other accidents in the garment sector in Bangladesh (conservative estimate), which collectively resulted into 8 fatalities and 390 injuries between 2013 and 2017 (Solidarity Center, 2018). The repeated fatalities and injuries of workers in the garment industry in Bangladesh shows how far we are from realizing a sustainable fashion industry.

3.1.3. Commentary The safety-sustainability nexus is a matter of developing a culture where safety holds paramount for sustainability; but

unfortunately, such a viewpoint has not been received at the strategic and operational levels. The two examples discussed in section 3.1 corroborate how the role of safety has been overlooked in sustainability. While we do not aim to take away the promised benefits of the sustainable construction design offered by LEED, the scientific evidence stress on revisiting the standardized construction systems and practices. As observed in the case of the City Center of Las Vegas, despite using modern construction techniques, there was an increased risk of accidents among construction workers. If this risk cannot be reflected in the standardized practices, the standard may become a burden than utility; it may never be able to offer the promised sustainable outcomes for the construction industry. What is important to understand is that standardization generally requires an organization to comply with the bare minimum, whereas sustainability is context specific and does not have an ultimate final objective. That is why organizations interested in sustainable development should consider continuous improvement through leading indicators in their sustainability journey. In contrast, the fire incident involving KiK group shows that the enterprise heavily relied on the lagging and weak indicators, and hence paid the price. Similarly, standards and certifications, such as SA8000, cannot guarantee sustainable outcomes; these standards are not designed to cater the sustainability concerns in organizations, rather these can offer only minimum support to the organizations interested in sustainable development. Similarly, the accident statistics in the garment and apparel industry of Bangladesh highlight the need to integrate safety for realizing sustainable fashion industry. We should not wait for more incidents like the Tazreen factory, Rana Plaza, and Ali Enterprise before taking serious steps. While it is true that there may be bureaucratic hurdles which impede the integration of safety and sustainability, both examples discussed above highlight our inability to understand the importance of safety for sustainability.

3.2. Capitalizing on safety interventions to operationalize sustainability Both cases discussed in this sub-section are related to the reduction of gas flaring in the State of Qatar. Gas flaring is the controlled burning of natural gas and is a common safety protocol in the oil and gas sector. The purpose of gas flaring in the process industry is to operate the plant safely by maintaining the optimum

Table 5 Selected H&S accidents in the garment industry of Bangladesh after Rana Plaza accident e up to 2017 (Solidarity Center, 2018). Factory Name

City

Date of Accident

Cause of Occurrence

Fatalities

Injuries

Tung Hai Sweater Limited Bandu Design Limited Aswad Composite Mills Reza Fashions Limited Aman Spinning Mills Ltd. Mondol Group's garment factory Karnaphuli Knitting Medlar Apparels Limited Mayer Doha Mega Yarn Dyeing Mills Limited Next Collection Agami Washing Limited Mom Tex Continental Group Garment Factory Beacon Knitwears Anlima Textiles Pakiza Knit Composite Ltd. Multifabs Limited Ideal Textile Mills Plummy Fashions Ltd.

Mirpur Ashulia Gazipur Ashulia Ashulia Ashulia Chittagong Dhaka Dhaka Gazipur Savar Gazipur Narsingdi District Savar

8th May 2013 22nd May 2013 8th October 2013 26th October 2013 25th November 2013 25th November 2013 11th May 2014 20th June 2014 10th July 2014 28th September 2014 1st March 2015 24th April 2015 21st May 2016 23rd November 2016

Fire from electric short-circuiting Stampede following fire from unknown source Fire from faulty machine Stampede following false fire alarm Fire from unknown source Stampede following fire from unknown source Fire from electric short-circuiting Stampede following fire from short-circuiting Fire from unknown source Fire from electric short-circuiting Stampede following false fire alarm Fire from gas leakage Fire from short-circuiting accelerated by the flammable chemicals Stampede following fire from drill machine

8 0 10 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 3 3 0

3 20 50 50 25 15 0 50 3 4 30 4 5 25

Gazipur Dhaka Savar Gazipur Munshiganj Narayanganj

12th December 2016 22nd January 2017 1st June 2017 3rd July 2017 20th September 2017 9th November 2017

Stampede following fire from short-circuiting Stampede following fire from a dying machine Fire from unknown source Boiler blast Fire from sparks of welding accelerated by the flammable chemicals Fire from electric short-circuiting

0 0 0 13 6 1

55 15 21 50 0 0

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operational conditions and to release the excess gas pressure in case of emergency. On the downside, gas flaring results in continuous emissions on one hand and a waste of valued resources (lightweight associated gases) on the other. For example, global gas flaring contributes to 0.6% of world's CO2 emissions every year, however, this 110 bcm of flared gas, worth USD 40 billion, is enough to fulfill the combined annual consumption of natural gas of Germany and France (Ismail and Umukoro, 2012; Smith, 2012). The State of Qatar was reportedly flaring, 3 bcm of associated gases per year, between 1997 and 2003, which was double the monthly demand of natural gas of the country (Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership, 2011). In 2004, Qatar was ranked 6th on the list of countries with the highest volume of gas flaring in the world (Gervet, 2007). To address the environmental concerns and waste of resources, the government of Qatar initiated two projects for flare gas recovery, namely Al-Shaheen Oil field gas recovery and utilization project (in 2006) and Jetty boil-off gas (JBOG) recovery project (in 2014).

Recovery project was to recover the low-pressure natural gas released during the loading of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) to the carriers (QatarGas, 2014). LNG is the liquefied form of natural gas which is preferred over the gaseous form due to storage and transportation benefits. The liquefaction of natural gas is carried out by cooling the gas below its boiling point which is about 162  C. Liquefaction reduces the volume of natural gas by a factor of 650 and changes its state from gas to liquid. However, during the loading of LNG to the carrier, around 1% of the LNG boils-off as soon as it comes in contact with the warmer ship tank (at ambient temperature). Before the commissioning of the JBOG recovery project, these boil-off gases were used to be flared to ensure safe and uninterrupted LNG loading. However, with this USD 1 billion investment in the JBOG recovery project, the low-pressure boil-off gases are now recovered and utilized (QatarGas, 2012). The key sustainability outcomes of this project are as following (QatarGas, 2014, 2012):

3.2.1. Al-Shaheen oil field gas recovery and utilization project Almost 20% of Qatar's total gas flaring was associated with the Al-Shaheen oil field2 before the initiation of flaring reduction project (HSE Regulation and Enforcement Directorate, 2012). Around 97% of associated gases at Al-Shaheen oil field were flared every day, while only 3% were utilized on-site (Abdelraouf, 2009). The government of Qatar initiated the gas recovery and utilization project at Al-Shaheen oil field in 2006. The aim of this USD 26 million project was to reduce the gas flaring to the minimum possible level and utilize the recovered gas for useful purposes. The state government registered this project under an approved Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) category and hence received Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits through the United Nations Programs (UNFCCC, 2006). The project received various awards and its success was recognized on Global platforms. Some of the sustainability highlights of this project are as following (Qatar Petrolerum, 2012):

 The project recovers more than 90% of the flared gases.  It is estimated that 600,000 tonnes per annum of natural gas will be recovered through this project, which is sufficient to power 300,000 homes (750 megawatts).  The project reduces 1.6 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year.

 The gas flaring at Al-Shaheen oil field was reduced by 90%.  The greenhouse gas emissions from the Al-Shaheen oil field were reduced by 2,987,982 tonnes of CO2 (e) annually (HSE Regulation and Enforcement Directorate, 2012). The total emissions from the site are now 662,054 tonnes of CO2 (e) annually.  It was estimated that $10 billion will be generated over the life of this project (at $42/barrel oil equivalent) (HSE Regulation and Enforcement Directorate, 2012).  Through the emission trading scheme, Qatar can trade its CO2 credits at a rate of $4.17/ton CO2 (e) (HSE Regulation and Enforcement Directorate, 2005).  Qatar's gas flaring intensity reduced by 50% in two years; from 0.023bcm per million-ton energy produced, in 2008, to 0.011bcm per million-ton energy production in 2010 (Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning, 2012).  The ranking of Qatar in the list of countries with the highest volume of gas flaring improved from 6th to 10th in 2007, and to 17th in 2012 (Global Gas Flaring Reduction, 2007; Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership, 2015).

3.2.2. JBOG recovery project Operational since 2014, the primary purpose of the JBOG

2 Operational since 1994, the Al-Shaheen oil field meets one-third of domestic oil demand and thus, has a unique significance for the country (Maersk Oil, 2012).

3.2.3. Commentary As mentioned earlier, the fundamental pillars of safety and sustainability are the same, and that is why any advancement in one of these disciplines is also reflected in the performance of the other. As seen through the two examples in section 3.2, the improvements and modifications in the conventional safety practices also improved the sustainability performance of the firms. The reduction in gas flaring not only reduced the emissions but also provided an alternative mean of economic support through the sale of recovered gas. Commitment from the leadership is another lesson to be learned from these examples. Irrespective of the size of the country, its leadership's commitment plays a central role in setting up the precedent. While Qatar heavily relies on its oil and gas reserves, the country does not resist to devote its natural resources to achieve sustainable outcomes. These projects were only made possible because of the government's commitment e demonstrated through the Qatar National Development Strategy (2011e2016), which identified gas flaring as a risk and opportunity for the sustainable development of the country.

3.3. Integration of safety for sustainability 3.3.1. The history of Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL) The benefits of TEL were first realized in 1921 when chemist Thomas Midgley, led by Charles F. Kettering, added TEL to the fuel in a laboratory engine (Kovarik, 1994). The experiment was a success as TEL not only increased the octane rating of the fuel but also helped in reducing the internal wear and tear of the engine valves’ seat. However, shortly after its discovery, the adverse effects of TEL started to appear. In 1923, fatalities of workers working in TEL manufacturing plants came in the headlines (Needleman, 2000). The Public Health Service (PHS) immediately stopped the production of TEL. Thomas Midgley, in defense of the commercialization of TEL, noted some of the benefits of the lead additive, which, in all respects, are no less than the benefits we seek in the modern sustainable designs and products. Midgley (1925) noted:

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“It may not be amiss, however, to mention broadly the advantages to the public which will follow upon its (TEL's) general use. These are:  Conservation of petroleum due to increased milage obtainable by using a non-knocking gasoline in a high compression motor;  Reduction of carbon monoxide contamination of the atmosphere due to increased efficiency of combustion; and  Reduced first cost of automotive apparatus. So far as science knows at the present time, tetraethyl lead is the only material available which can bring about these results, and the results are of such vital importance to the continued economical use of all automotive equipment that, unless a grave and inescapable hazard exists in the manufacture of tetraethyl lead, its abandonment cannot be justified.” After investigating this matter, PHS, in 1926, declared TEL to be generally safe conditioned to the use of PPEs and exposure to a certain allowable concentration (3 cm3/gallon). With that, and partly due to World War II and fear of oil shortage, the opposition to the use of TEL disappeared for the next 35 years (Needleman, 2000). In 1959, a geochemist, Clair Patterson, gave the first warning about the negative health effects of the TEL (O’Brien and Damon, 2011). The author later wrote the famous article “contaminated and natural lead environments of man”, in 1965, to empirically argue against the use of TEL. It started a debate in the US, which later led to the constitution of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970. In the same year, President Nixon signed the Clean Air Act and made it more difficult for the TEL manufacturers to stay in the business. Meanwhile, symposiums and talks on the use of TEL increased the public pressure against leaded petrol. In 1975, EPA made the use of unleaded catalytic converters mandatory for the road vehicles (O’Brien and Damon, 2011). This was the time when the TEL business started to die down, as other safer methods for increasing the anti-knocking characteristics of fuel were discovered. Gradually, the manufacturing and use of TEL phased out and, eventually, a complete ban on the leaded petrol was imposed in the U.S. in 1995 (O’Brien and Damon, 2011). The use of TEL in gasoline was banned almost throughout the world by 2000. Tsai and Hatfield (2011) estimated the annual global impact of leaded fuel, and reported the following consequences:    

Close to 1.1 million deaths A loss of 322 million IQ points Close to 60 million crime cases Economic loss of USD 2.4 trillion per year (4% of global GDP)

It is worth noting that the discovery of TEL was wellintentioned, but its consequences were simply uncontrollable. 3.3.2. The history of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) CFCs were first synthesized in 1928. The major benefit of CFCs was that these chemicals could replace more toxic and expensive refrigerants, such as ammonia, methyl chloride, and sulfur dioxide at the time of their discovery. ‘Freon’ was the first CFC to be invented. It was straightaway commercialized due to its unique characteristics; non-flammable and non-toxic coolant for refrigeration (Maxwell and Briscoe, 1997). Shortly after, the use of CFCs for other purposes was also realized, including cleaning and foaming agents, and propellants for aerosol sprays. The CFC industry grew tremendously in the next three decades and reached its peak in the 1960s, as the annual global sale of CFCs touched USD 1 billion with the sale volume of more than one million metric tons (Elkins, 1999).

James Lovelock was the first scientist to discover the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere (Lovelock et al., 1973). Through his invention of the electron capture detector, James determined that nearly all the CFCs released due to human activities remained in the atmosphere. A year after James’ discovery, two scientists theorized that a large amount of chlorine that remained in the atmosphere may react with and reduce the concentration of the stratospheric ozone layer (Molina and Rowland, 1974). This can result in reduced protection of earth from the ultraviolet radiations of the sun. The article initiated a debate among the environmentalists, who demanded a ban on CFCs. The Federal Agencies recommended EPA to restrict the use of CFCs. Meanwhile, DuPont, the largest CFC manufacturer in the U.S. at that time, contributed $3e5 million, together with other manufacturers, to initiate academic research which sought to obtain credible scientific evidence of the catastrophic effects of CFCs on the atmosphere (Dotto and Schiff, 1978). Although it may be wellintentioned, the CFC manufacturing industry definitely bought some time to work on the replacement of CFCs. The manufacturers also used this time for lobbying and creating a perception that the complete ban on CFCs will result in the layoffs of 200,000 workers working in the CFC related industry, in addition to the loss of USD 8 billion to the U.S. economy (Maxwell and Briscoe, 1997). The research results of National Academy of Science (NAS) were published in 1982 and 1983, which suggested that the depletion of the ozone layer was in the range of 2e4% rather than 16% (Maxwell and Briscoe, 1997). The low numbers reduced the pressure on the CFC manufacturers, however, a replacement as cheap as CFCs could not be identified. The fall in the demand of the CFCs damaged the position of the CFC manufacturers. It was the spring of 1985 when things started to change dramatically for the CFC industry; British scientists confirmed a hole in the Ozone layer over the Antarctic region (Farman et al., 1985). Other independent studies and NASA also verified these findings. Subsequently, an international treaty, the Montreal Protocol, was signed by 197 countries to agree on the global phase-out and ban on the ozone-depleting substances, including CFCs (United Nations, 1987). 3.3.3. The case of engineered nano-materials (ENMs) The perceived benefits of TEL and CFCs until around 1960s were immense, including low cost, less pollution, high efficiency and performance. The nature of these outcomes fits well within the modern definition of sustainable development. Nobody knew in those days that there will be a need to phase out these products. The take home from these case studies is accurately described by Landrigan (2002): “Precaution is the lesson to be learned from the history of lead in petrol. The worldwide dissemination of tetraethyl-lead is a classic example of our excessive willingness to adopt a promising but unproven new technology without heed to its possible consequences. We made the same error with chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), and we are at risk of making it again …” Although Landrigan was referring to the ‘fuel additives containing manganese’ towards the end, other products, such as ENMs, can also be related to it. Nanotechnology offers considerable techno-economic benefits, particularly in an era troubled with water, energy, environment and healthcare crisis (Palmberg et al., 2007). Due to the advantages nano-technology and ENMs offer, the application of such materials has become quite common. For example, in the case of clean water supply, use of nano-materials is common as nanosorbents, nanocatalysts, redox-active nanoparticles, and nano-structured filters

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and membranes (Mamadou and Brinker, 2011). Similarly, for sustainable energy supplies, the application of nanomaterials include nanostructured photovoltaics, nanostructures for energy storage, and solid-state lighting and heating systems (Shapira and Youtie, 2015). Furthermore, nanomaterials are applied in the food sector as molecular imprinted polymers, fertilizers for plants, drugs for livestock, and new food packaging materials (Mamadou and Brinker, 2011). The use of nanomaterial extends to the healthcare system for disease diagnostic and screening, medical image enhancement, nano-capsules, and nanoparticles for glucose (Fabio et al., 2005). Despite these benefits, the knowledge around characteristics and properties of ENMs is limited. There are unanswered questions about the unintended impacts of nanomaterials on human health and the environment (Kim et al., 2012; Meili, 2006). The health hazards of nano-materials were initially realizedin the first decade when a few nano-products were already in the market. The confirmed occupational health risks associated with the nanoparticle production and handling include (Savolainen et al., 2010):     

Translocation of ENMs into the body Pulmonary inflammation induced by ENMs Genotoxicity of ENMs Carcinogenic effects of ENMs Effects of ENMs on blood circulation

Other hazards of nano-technology include process-related fire and explosion from combustible nanoparticles dust; a problem that is usually encountered during the production and handling (Bouillard, 2015; Holbrow et al., 2010; Wu et al., 2009). In the present work, authors will place an emphasis on the process hazards of ENMs because the risk of fire and explosion from nanoparticles has been ignored in the past. The fire and explosion hazards of ENMs are underestimated because of the lack of data to understand this phenomenon. Since there are not many accidents recorded or reported, it has become convenient to believe that the process related risks from these materials are minimum. In our personal communications with experts in this area, it was learned that the details of the accidents in this field are not readily available in the literature. One potential reason could be that these accidents are under-reported since these may not be as severe as other process accidents. “That's (recent industrial accidents linked with the dust explosion of nanoparticles) a shortcoming in the literature. We are looking for those incidents ourselves.” (Dr. P. Amyotte, personal communication, January 22, 2017) In a personal communication with Dr. L. Turkevich (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Applied Research and Technology), it was learned that ENMs are probably not manufactured and processed in large enough quantities, which can lead to the usual explosion scenarios (Dr. L. Turkevich, personal communication, January 23, 2017). On the other hand, Eckhoff (2011) suggests that the nanoparticles may not exhibit extreme explosion sensitivity and severity due to agglomeration effect,3 however, the lack of empirical data holds researchers back from making any conclusions (Amyotte, 2014). Some of the potential reasons for not being able to make

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general conclusions based on laboratory experiments may be: (i) poor sample preparation; (ii) poor characterization of inhomogeneous non-carbonaceous materials which makes it near to impossible to reproduce the explosion results; and (iii) use of small size equipment (smaller than 20 L) for carrying out nanoparticle dust explosion experiments (Dr. L. Turkevich, personal communication, January 23, 2017). Research results suggest that the severity of the consequences from the nano-dust explosion may not be significantly different than that of its micro counterparts, however, the likelihood of nano-dust explosion is greater than the microparticles (Dastidar et al., 2013). Dr. Faisal Khan (Professor, Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland) has pointed out towards the need of well-designed experiments in future to come to a general conclusion: “While it is true engineered Nanoparticle do have tendency to form conglomerate, which may affect consequences. However, NP (nanoparticles) have significant effect on minimum ignition energy and also on dispersion. NP also have impact on minimum concentration. These effects are unique to material, and it is my understanding (needs to be proven) that at NP level many of such characteristics such as Minimum ignition, concentration, oxidant requirement, dispersion could be generalized (given combustibility of the dust). These are worth investigation. This will help to develop safety protocols to deal with NP in generalized form and also specific safeguards given unique composition of the dust.” (Dr. Faisal Khan, personal communication, January 22, 2017).

3.3.4. Commentary The discussion highlights that the human desire to adopt new technologies and products, at an early stage of development, without comprehensively assessing the associated risks, led to various catastrophes in the past. The two most disastrous cases in this regard are TEL and CFCs. If appropriate safety measures were taken before the commercialization of TEL and CFCs, this world might have been a different place today. Nevertheless, it seems we have not learned much from our mistakes in the past, which is evident from the lack of safety knowledge related to nanomaterials. Strong advocacy in favor of nano-regulations extends from academia, and researchers are proposing regulation frameworks (Bowman and Hodge, 2007; Falkner and Jaspers, 2012; Marchant et al., 2009); however, governments seem slow in responding to the challenges (Bowman and Hodge, 2007). Marchant et al. (2009) noted: “At the very time that (nano) technology is accelerating, both legislative and regulatory decision-making institutions seem to be bogging down and becoming slower” Since the application of nano-materials offers remarkable advancements in solving sustainability issues, we must capitalize on it and should not let H&S concerns be an excuse to abandon this multibillion-dollar industry, as we did in case of TEL and CFCs. This goal can be achieved through the worldwide collaboration of stakeholders on an urgent basis, but most importantly, it requires a mindset to acknowledge the nexus between safety and sustainability; no process can be sustainable unless it is safe. 4. Conclusion

3

The inter-particle forces among the nanoparticles are strong enough that the dispersion of nano-dust would result in accumulation of small particles together, referred to as agglomeration effect (Eckhoff, 2011).

The debate to operationalize sustainability and bring this concept to life is getting louder. One of the many possible ways to

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operationalize sustainability is to seek support from another established discipline which is similar to sustainability in its scope, objectives, and design. We argue through this paper that better understanding of the safety-sustainability nexus can facilitate the operationalization of sustainable development. Since safety, as a discipline, share the three pillars with sustainability, i.e., financial stability, environmental responsibility, and social protection, it can be a good starting point for the operationalization of the latter. Although the safety-sustainability link is acknowledged by the industries and experts, it is usually disregarded at the strategic and operational level. The primary reason for ignoring this fundamental relationship is the lack of safety culture. The safety culture in the societies and organizations, globally, has not evolved up to the expectations; safety is still presumed as a burden until an accident occurs. The safety culture is particularly important in organizational settings because it spurs the riskbased thinking at all levels, which subsequently helps in capturing development opportunities through risk management and minimization. Without the culture, the benefits of the safetysustainability nexus cannot be realized. In fact, it may never be possible to operationalize sustainability if a culture of collective progress is not developed. Secondly, the tendency to assume that ‘the accidents cannot happen in my backyard’ restricts the vision of the management to the day-to-day business and it also indicates the reluctance of the leadership to think outside the box. This mindset does not allow the organizational actors to realize value creation beyond the monetary rewards and benefits. Although, it seems to be a cultural issue again, challenging the status quo is also the responsibility of stakeholders and thus, the recognition of the association between safety and sustainability should also come from the stakeholders. Moreover, a firm commitment from the leadership is necessary to connect the missing links and encourage the relevant actors to adopt a risk-based approach for sustainable development. Thirdly, the conventional safety measures are although wellintentioned, these can be improved further with the help of modern and innovative designs and technologies. For example, as seen in the case of Al-Shaheen project and JBOG recovery project in Qatar, conventional safety techniques of gas flaring are transformed to take economic and environmental advantage. Similarly, the literature review and the case of City Center of Las Vegas together emphasize the need to transform the modern building designs, which probably pose a higher risk to the construction workers presently. Lastly, the use of alternative products or the commercialization of new products should be conditioned to a comprehensive safety assessment, no matter how sustainable these may seem. Particularly, this has caused severe damages to the life on earth only because we want a product in the market at the earliest possible stage of its development. Meanwhile, nano-regulations should be enforced until substantial evidence of safe commercialization is obtained. Like any other study, there are a few limitations of this research as well. First, since our aim was to start a deeper conversation on the role of safety in sustainability, we have discussed cases in Section 3 from several different sectors. While it supports our argument that safety has been overlooked in the context of sustainability in various sectors, it does not explain safetysustainability nexus in any one sector in detail. In the future, more focused studies should be carried out to create sector-specific relevance between safety and sustainability. Secondly, the discussion carried out with the experts in this paper is non-structured and generic. More structured empirical studies should be carried out in the future to strengthen the conclusions of this work.

Acknowledgments We wish to thank Dr. Rolf Kristian Eckhoff (University of Bergen), Dr. Paul Amyotte (Dalhousie University), Dr. Faisal Khan (Memorial University of Newfoundland), and Dr. Leonid Turkevich (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S.) for the helpful discussion. We also sincerely thank Ms. Alisha Basha for proofreading this article. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. References Abdelraouf, M., 2009. Past and Future of CDM in the Arab World. Beirut. Amponsah-Tawiah, K., 2013. Occupational health and safety and sustainable development in Ghana. Int. J. Bus. Adm. 4, 5. Amponsah-Tawiah, K., Mensah, J., 2015. Harmonising stakeholder interests: the role of occupational health and safety. Afr. J. Bus. Manag. 9, 394e401. Amyotte, P.R., 2014. Some myths and realities about dust explosions. Process Saf. Environ. Protect. 92, 292e299. ASSE, 2013. Integrating Safety into Sustainability: Q&A with Tom Cecich, Board Chair for the Center of Safety & Health Sustainability. Bizzo, W.A., de Calan, B., Myers, R., Hannecart, T., 2004. Safety issues for clean liquid and gaseous fuels for cooking in the scope of sustainable development. Energy Sustain. Dev. 8, 60e67. Bouillard, J.X., 2015. Fire and explosion of nanopowders. In: Dolez, P.I. (Ed.), Nanoengineering: Global Approaches to Health and Safety Issues. Elsevier, pp. 112e148. Bowman, D.M., Hodge, G.A., 2007. A small matter of regulation: an international review of nanotechnology regulation. Columbia Sci. Technol. Law Rev. 8, 32. Camuffo, A., De Stefano, F., Paolino, C., 2017. Safety reloaded: lean operations and high involvement work practices for sustainable workplaces. J. Bus. Ethics 143, 245e259. Chow, W.K., 2003. Fire safety in green or sustainable buildings: application of the fire engineering approach in Hong Kong. Architect. Sci. Rev. 46, 297e303. Chow, W.K., Chow, C.L., 2005. Evacuation with smoke control for atria in green and sustainable buildings. Build. Environ. 40, 195e200. City Center Land LLC, 2009. Las Vegas' city center one of the world's largest green developments. URL. http://www2.citycenter.com/press_room/press_room_ items.aspx?ID¼845. accessed 4.25.17. Cunningham, T.R., Galloway-Williams, N., Geller, E.S., 2010. Protecting the planet and its people: how do interventions to promote environmental sustainability and occupational safety and health overlap? J. Saf. Res. 41, 407e416. Dastidar, A.G., et al., 2013. Explosibility of nano-sized metal powders. In: AIChE Spring Meeting and 9th Global Congress on Process Safety. AIChE, Texas, p. 16. Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, 1997. Glossary of Environment Statistics (No. No. 67), Series F. New York. Dewlaney, K.S., Hallowell, M., 2012. Prevention through design and construction safety management strategies for high performance sustainable building construction. Constr. Manag. Econ. 30, 165e177. Dotto, L., Schiff, H., 1978. The Ozone War, first ed. Doubleday. Eckhoff, R.K., 2011. Are enhanced dust explosion hazards to be foreseen in production, processing and handling of powders consisting of nano-size particles? J. Phys. 304. Elkins, J.W., 1999. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The Chapman and Hall Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Kluwer Academic Publ, Boston, pp. 78e80. Fabio, S.-B., Persad, D.L., Martin, D.K., Daar, A.S., Singer, P.A., 2005. Nanotechnology and the developing world. PLoS Med. 2. Falkner, R., Jaspers, N., 2012. Regulating nanotechnologies: risk, uncertainty and the global governance gap. Glob. Environ. Politics 12, 30e55. Farman, J., Gardiner, B., Shanklin, J., 1985. Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction. Nature 315, 207e210. ~ iz, B., Montes-Peo
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