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Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
SAFETY OF FOOD AND BEVERAGES
Safety of Organic Foods SU Fabiansson, Castlecrag, NSW, Australia r 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary Ecological balance A state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in which genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable, subject to gradual changes through natural succession. Genetically modified organisms The direct manipulation of an organism’s hereditary information using biotechnology. Herbicides Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds).
Introduction Organic food production systems provide clear benefits in relation to the environment and animal health and welfare. The European Commission states as a matter of fact that organic farmers use a range of techniques that help sustain ecosystems and reduce overall pollution. They also explain how organic farming contributes to the protection of natural resources, to biodiversity and animal welfare, and how it helps in the development of rural areas. In simple terms, organic farming is an agricultural system that seeks to provide fresh, tasty, and authentic food while respecting the natural life cycle systems. However, organic foods are often more expensive than their conventionally grown counterparts. This has led to the perception that organic production systems also provide foods that are more nutritious, safer, and have added health benefits, aspects which are very much open for debate. Looking back at the history of food production, organic farming was the prevailing cultivation method practised for 1000 years as the original type of agriculture. The beginning of the twentieth century saw simultaneous advances in engineering and biochemistry that rapidly and profoundly changed farming. Development of the combustion engine allowed the introduction of tractors and other mechanized farm implements. The chemicals industry developed synthetic fertilizers and a growing range of herbicides and insecticides for weed and insect control. Research in plant breeding led to the commercialization of hybrid seeds requiring more intensive inputs. Fields grew bigger and cropping became more specialized to make more efficient use of machinery. The reduced need for manual labor and work assistance from animals that machinery, herbicides, and fertilizers made possible created an era in which the mechanization of agriculture evolved rapidly. As a reaction to agriculture’s growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, organic farming was revitalized in the
Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Volume 3
Nanotechnology The manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nm. Organic certification An approval system run by a third party to convey the practices used in producing the organic food. Pesticides Substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest like the damaging influences of weeds, diseases, or insects.
1940s. The term organic farming was coined by Lord Northbourne in a book – Look to the Land – that was published in 1940. From his concept of the farm as an organism, he described a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming. He claimed that for this to be attained, the farm itself must have a biological completeness because every branch of work is interlocked with all others. He pointed to vegetables converted through animal digestion into manure that in turn supported the growth of new vegetables in a cycle of great complexity, and highly sensitive to any disturbance of its proper balance (Figure 1). In the 1970s, global movements concerned with pollution and environmental degradation increased their focus on organic farming. As a result the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was formed in France in 1972 dedicated to the spread and exchange of information on the principles and practices of organic agriculture across national and linguistic boundaries. In the 1980s, farming and consumer groups around the world began seriously pressuring for government regulation of organic
Figure 1 Organic farming in balance with nature.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-378612-8.00301-2
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Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
production. This led to legislation and certification standards being enacted starting in the 1990s. Since this time the retail market for organic farming in developed economies has been growing by approximately 20% annually due to increasing consumer demand. A recent set back seen in some countries due to the economic crisis is considered to be temporary.
Defining Organic Food The rise of organic farming was initially driven by small, independent producers and by consumers. However, the explosive organic market growth has encouraged the participation of larger agribusiness interests threatening the viability of small-scale dedicated organic farms. The meaning of organic farming as an agricultural method can easily be diluted and confused through an increasing commercial emphasis with a multitude of organic certification systems espousing different definitions. The basic principle of organic farming is to achieve optimum quantities of produce and food of high nutritional quality without the use of artificial fertilizers or synthetic chemicals like pesticides and herbicides. Organic farming does not support the use of genetically modified foods, growth promoters, or hormones. It has been suggested that the application of nanotechnology to food and agriculture is a further technology that needs to be excluded from organic food production. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products should come from animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic farmers attempt to rear animals with care and attention to their welfare by letting them grow and develop in the most natural and humane way possible. Organic farming emphasizes the need to maintain appropriate land management and aims to ecologically achieve the balance between animal life, the natural environment, and food crops. The produce that is produced through organic farming is thus supposed to be in its most natural form. Here are some key differences between conventional farming and organic farming as outlined by the Mayo Clinic scientists:
Conventional
Organic
Apply chemical fertilizers to promote plant growth
Apply natural fertilizers, such as manure or compost, to feed soil and plants Spray pesticides from natural sources; use beneficial insects and birds, mating disruption or traps to reduce pests and disease Use environmentally generated plant-killing compounds; rotate crops, till, hand weed, or mulch to manage weeds Give animals organic feed and allow them access to the outdoors. Use preventive measures – such as rotational grazing, a balanced diet, and clean housing – to help minimize disease
Spray synthetic insecticides to reduce pests and disease Use synthetic herbicides to manage weeds
Give animals antibiotics, growth hormones, and medications to prevent disease and spur growth
However, it must be made clear that the organic movement represents a spectrum of practices, attitudes, and philosophies. On the one hand are those organic practitioners who would not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides under any circumstances. These producers hold rigidly to their purist philosophy. At the other end of the spectrum, organic farmers advocate a more flexible approach. Although striving to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, these practitioners do not rule them out entirely. Instead, when absolutely necessary, some fertilizers and herbicides are very selectively and sparingly used as a second line of defense. Nevertheless, these farmers too consider themselves to be organic farmers. To clarify the basic understanding of organic farming and to develop a harmonized approach, a number of minimum objectives and principles were introduced. In 2005, the IFOAM approved a set of four principles to inspire the organic movement and to describe the purpose of organic agriculture to the wider world. The principles are intended to apply to agriculture in the broadest sense, including the way people tend soils, water, plants, and animals in order to produce, prepare, and distribute goods. They are concerned about the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another, and shape the legacy of future generations. The four principles of organic agriculture according to IFOAM are as follows: 1. The health principle – organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, and human as one and indivisible. 2. The ecology principle – organic agriculture should be based on the living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them, and help sustain them. 3. The fairness principle – organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. 4. The care principle – organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment. Following the above principles typical organic farming practices can be defined as including: 1. Wide crop rotation as a prerequisite for an efficient use of on-site resources. 2. Complete avoidance of or very strict limits on chemical synthetic pesticide and synthetic fertilizer use, livestock antibiotics, food additives and processing aids, and other inputs. 3. Absolute prohibition of the use of genetically modified organisms. 4. Use of on-site resources, such as livestock manure for fertilizer or feed produced on the farm. 5. Choosing plant and animal species that are resistant to disease and adapted to local conditions. 6. Raising livestock in free-range, open-air systems and providing them with organic feed. 7. Using animal husbandry practices appropriate to different livestock species. Implementation of the overall principles and practices will vary according to individual needs and ethical convictions.
Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
Marketing of produce defined as organic will require not only some objective description of parameters adhered to by the particular agricultural production system used, but also during food processing and further handling. Food processors need organic certification for both, their ingredients and facilities used. This means that buildings, where ingredients are stored, equipment used, product packaging, and storage areas, for final products must all meet set requirements. Cleaning products and solvents need special approval for use in organic food manufacturing or completely rinsed away before organic production. Pest management in organic operations should be dealt with through preventive practices such as exclusion, sanitation, removal of pest habitat, management of environmental factors, mechanical or physical controls, or lures/repellents. In case of mixed processing systems, commingling of organic and nonorganic food must be avoided. Ingredient storage must be dedicated to organic or any containers that have been in contact with nonorganic products or prohibited substances must be thoroughly cleaned so that they pose no risk of contaminating the organic product. Synthetic fungicides, preservatives, and fumigants may not be used in the facility.
Certification of Organic Production Systems Initially there was a direct communication link between farmers and consumers of organic foods. Early consumers interested in organic food had to buy it directly from growers or farmers markets – know your farmer, know your food was the motto. By talking to farmers and seeing farming activities and conditions, individual acceptance of what constituted organic production was the norm. As demand for organic food continued to increase, high volume sales through supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection. A system to convey the practices used in producing the organic food was needed. An organic certification system was the essential solution aimed at regulating and facilitating the sale of organic products to consumers. It was intended to assure quality and prevent fraud, and to promote commerce (Figure 2). In some countries, certification is overseen by the government, and commercial use of the term organic is legally restricted. Currently, the European Union, the US, Canada,
Figure 2 An example of a logo used for certified organic food.
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Japan, and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as organic within their borders. In the context of these regulations, organic food is food produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by national governments and international organizations. Some countries, like Australia, have compulsory export standards to assure overseas customers of the authenticity of the organic food whereas adherence to the standard is voluntary for the domestic market. In countries without specific legislation for organic food, consumers must rely on third party certification alone. In any case, certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural, food safety, and other government regulations that apply to noncertified producers. Nowadays, there are more than 385 organizations worldwide that certify organic food, each according to their specific standards. Requirements vary from country to country and between certification bodies, but all involve a set of production standards for growing, storing, processing, packaging, and shipping of the organic food. At a minimum the standards have to comply with government legislation if available, but some certification bodies set standards that exceed government regulations. In general, any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers, and restaurants. For organic businesses, certification identifies suppliers of products approved for use in their own certified operations. For a farmer to be certified as an organic producer he must know the relevant organic standards and farm facilities and production methods must comply with the specifics in the standards. Extensive documentation is required, detailing farm history and current set-up, and usually including the results of soil and water tests. A written annual production plan must be submitted, detailing everything from seed sources, field and crop locations, fertilization and pest control activities, harvest methods, and storage locations, for the sales of the organic produce. Annual on-farm inspections are required, with a physical tour, examination of records, and an oral interview. Written day-to-day farming and marketing records covering all activities, must be available for random inspection at any time. Certification for operations other than farms follows a similar process. The focus is on the quality of ingredients and other inputs, and processing and handling conditions. A transport company would be required to detail the use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage facilities, containers, and so forth. A restaurant would have its premises inspected and its suppliers verified as certified organic. The word organic is central to the certification process. Where organic laws exist, producers cannot use the term legally without certification. However, the organic labeling made possible by certification itself usually requires explanation. In countries without organic laws, government guidelines may or may not exist, although the actual certification is handled by nonprofit organizations and private companies. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term organic, and make buying organic food easier. Internationally, official equivalency negotiations are underway, with some agreements already in place, to harmonize certification between countries and facilitate international
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Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the IFOAM, working on harmonization efforts. In 2011, IFOAM introduced a new program that attempts to simplify harmonization. The vision is to establish the use of one single global reference defining compulsory input standards to be applied to organic production systems rather than focusing on bilateral agreements.
Quality of Organic Produce Although input standards for organic production systems can be established, the output quality of the resulting produce is much more difficult to define. There is a common perception that organic foods are of higher quality and provide added health benefits compared to conventionally grown alternatives. However, the weight of available scientific evidence has not shown a consistent and significant difference between organic and more conventionally grown food in terms of safety, nutritional value, or taste. This is not surprising when taking into account marked seasonal and geographical influences that might mask differences due to production methods. As an example, an extensive recent cross-sectional review of the available literature on nutrient composition and contaminant analysis studies and human trials found that there were no general differences in nutritional value or risk for bacterial contamination between organic and conventional foods. The studies covered unprocessed foods including fruits, vegetables, grains, milk, eggs, chicken, pork, and meat. Although organic food consumption reduced exposure to any detectable pesticide residues by approximately 30%, pesticide levels were generally within the allowable limits for safety anyway. However, free-range animal production systems might more easily be influenced by environmental contaminants. There are indications that free-range eggs might have slightly higher levels of dioxins, but with little consequence to the overall dioxin burden expected (Figure 3). Other findings suggested that the consumption of organic fruits and vegetables had no benefit over conventional foods in terms of improved health. No consistent differences were seen in the vitamin content of organic products, and only phosphorus was significantly higher in organic versus conventionally grown produce, but is of little clinical significance.
There was also no difference in the protein or fat content between organic and conventional milk, but there was some evidence that organic produce contained significantly higher levels of total phenolic compounds, which have antioxidant properties, and that organic milk and chicken contained higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Other studies have found minor differences in ascorbic acid, protein concentration, and several differences in the micronutrient content have been identified between organic and conventional foods, but it does not appear that these have any impact on human health. Some focus has been placed on the amount of nitrogen content in certain vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables and tubers, when grown organically as compared to conventionally. Although these vegetables, when grown organically, have been found to have lower nitrogen content, there is no consensus as to whether consumption of lower levels of nitrogen translates to improved health. Most of the research has looked at differences in nutrient availability whereas other health impact parameters have been only scarcely studied. Some results indicate that carrots grown under strict organic conditions improved the immune status by inducing changes in lymphocyte populations, including an increase in regulatory T cells, when fed to laboratory mice. Such findings will still need to be confirmed. Similarly, most studies that have compared the taste and organoleptic quality of organic and conventional foods report, no consistent or significant differences between organic and conventional produce. However, a few well-designed studies of fruits and vegetables have found minor differences, the majority in favor of organic produce. This might be due to the fact that some organic fruit seems to be drier than conventionally grown fruit. A slightly drier fruit may have a more intense flavor due to the higher concentration of nutrients, and as a result may be preferred by the consumer. There is also evidence that some organically grown fruits have a higher resistance to deterioration and better keeping quality, attributed to a lower moisture content. On the contrary, because organic fruits and vegetables are not treated with waxes or preservatives, they may spoil faster. Some organic produce may look less than perfect – odd shapes, varying colors, or smaller sizes. However, organic foods should meet the same quality and safety standards as those of conventional foods.
Safety of Organic Produce
Figure 3 Synthetic pesticides are not used in organic farming.
There continues to be widespread public belief in arguments that organic food is significantly safer for consumption than food grown conventionally, based mainly on anecdotal evidence and testimonials rather than scientific evidence. However, reviews of the available body of scientific literature have not found any significant differences between the two production systems in relation to safety. Firm conclusions about the relative safety of organic foods have been hampered by the difficulty in proper study design and relatively small number of studies directly comparing organic food to conventional food.
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lower risk of cancer because they are less likely to include compounds that might cause cancer is largely unknown.
Conclusion There seems to be little evidence that organic production systems provide healthier and safer food compared to conventionally grown food. However, looking beyond health effects, there are plenty of other reasons to buy organic food. Such reasons include sustainability of agricultural production systems and concerns about animal welfare and the environment. For a sustained growth of organic food, it is crucial to maintain the trust of consumers that organic production adheres to agreed principles through independent certification (Figure 4). Figure 4 Animal welfare aspects are important when buying organic food.
Claims of improved safety of organic food have largely focused on pesticide residues. Although studies have shown organically grown fruits and vegetables have significantly lower pesticide residue levels, the significance of this finding on actual health risk reduction is debatable as both conventional foods and organic foods generally have pesticide levels well below government established guidelines for what is considered safe. Reviews have noted that the risks from microbiological sources or natural toxins are likely to be much more significant than short-term or chronic risks from pesticide residues. There is an anticipated increased risk from microbiological contamination due to increased manure use as fertilizer from organisms like Escherichia coli O157:H7 during organic produce production, but little evidence of actual outbreaks that can be positively associated with organic food consumption. Other possible sources of increased safety risk from organic food consumption, like use of biological pesticides or the theoretical risk from mycotoxins from fungi grown on products due to the lack of effective organic compliant fungicides, have likewise not been confirmed by rigorous studies in the scientific literature. When evaluating environmental toxins such as heavy metals, it was noted that organically raised chicken may have lower arsenic levels, although literature reviews found no significant evidence that the levels of arsenic, cadmium, or other heavy metals differed significantly between organic and conventional food products. Organic regulations ban or severely restrict the use of food additives, processing aids (substances used during processing, but not added directly to food), and fortifying agents commonly used in nonorganic foods, including preservatives, artificial sweeteners, colorings, flavorings, and monosodium glutamate. The American Cancer Society (ACS) has noted that interest in organic food is partly derived from the perceived risk of cancer caused by additives not found in organic foods. The ACS has stated as their official position that whether organic foods carry a
Further Reading Australian Government (2004) The Australian Organic Industry. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. http:// www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/183192/ australian_organic_industry_summary.pdf (accessed on 12 January 2013). Bourn D and Prescott J (2002) A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 42(1): 1–34. Canavari, M, Asioli D, Bendini A, et al. (2009) Summary report on sensory-related socio-economic and sensory science literature about organic food products. Deliverable No. 1.2, ECROPOLIS Project (No. 218477-2), Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria agrarie, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, Switzerland. Available at: http://orgprints.org/17208/2/deliverable_1_2_ sensory_literature.pdf (accessed on 30 January 2013). Dangour AD, Lock K, Hayter A, Aikenhead A, Allen E, and Uauy R (2009) Nutritional quality of organic foods: A systematic review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92(1): 203–210. EFSA (2012) Update of the monitoring of levels of dioxins and PCBs in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority Journal 10(7): 2832–2914. http:// www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2832.htm (accessed on 30 January 2013). Environmental Protection Agency Organic Farming in the USA. http://www.epa.gov/ oecaagct/torg.html (accessed on 12 January 2013). Ohlsson T (2013) In: Motarjemi Y and Lelieveld HLM (eds.) Sustainability and Food Production in Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry. Elsevier. Smith–Spangler C, Brandeau ML, Hunter GE, et al. (2012) Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives? A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine 157(5): 348–366. USDA Organic Certification. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_certification (accessed on 12 January 2013). USDA Organic Food. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_food (accessed on 12 January 2013). USDA Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools. http:// www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml (accessed on 30 January 2013).
Relevant Websites http://www.ifoam.org International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/home_en Organic farming in the European Union.
Safety of Organic Foods SU Fabiansson, Castlecrag, NSW, Australia r 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Glossary Ecological balance A state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in which genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity remain relatively stable, subject to gradual changes through natural succession. Genetically modified organisms The direct manipulation of an organism’s hereditary information using biotechnology. Herbicides Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds).
Introduction Organic food production systems provide clear benefits in relation to the environment and animal health and welfare. The European Commission states as a matter of fact that organic farmers use a range of techniques that help sustain ecosystems and reduce overall pollution. They also explain how organic farming contributes to the protection of natural resources, to biodiversity and animal welfare, and how it helps in the development of rural areas. In simple terms, organic farming is an agricultural system that seeks to provide fresh, tasty, and authentic food while respecting the natural life cycle systems. However, organic foods are often more expensive than their conventionally grown counterparts. This has led to the perception that organic production systems also provide foods that are more nutritious, safer, and have added health benefits, aspects which are very much open for debate. Looking back at the history of food production, organic farming was the prevailing cultivation method practised for 1000 years as the original type of agriculture. The beginning of the twentieth century saw simultaneous advances in engineering and biochemistry that rapidly and profoundly changed farming. Development of the combustion engine allowed the introduction of tractors and other mechanized farm implements. The chemicals industry developed synthetic fertilizers and a growing range of herbicides and insecticides for weed and insect control. Research in plant breeding led to the commercialization of hybrid seeds requiring more intensive inputs. Fields grew bigger and cropping became more specialized to make more efficient use of machinery. The reduced need for manual labor and work assistance from animals that machinery, herbicides, and fertilizers made possible created an era in which the mechanization of agriculture evolved rapidly. As a reaction to agriculture’s growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, organic farming was revitalized in the
Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Volume 3
Nanotechnology The manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nm. Organic certification An approval system run by a third party to convey the practices used in producing the organic food. Pesticides Substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest like the damaging influences of weeds, diseases, or insects.
1940s. The term organic farming was coined by Lord Northbourne in a book – Look to the Land – that was published in 1940. From his concept of the farm as an organism, he described a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming. He claimed that for this to be attained, the farm itself must have a biological completeness because every branch of work is interlocked with all others. He pointed to vegetables converted through animal digestion into manure that in turn supported the growth of new vegetables in a cycle of great complexity, and highly sensitive to any disturbance of its proper balance (Figure 1). In the 1970s, global movements concerned with pollution and environmental degradation increased their focus on organic farming. As a result the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) was formed in France in 1972 dedicated to the spread and exchange of information on the principles and practices of organic agriculture across national and linguistic boundaries. In the 1980s, farming and consumer groups around the world began seriously pressuring for government regulation of organic
Figure 1 Organic farming in balance with nature.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-378612-8.00301-2
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Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
production. This led to legislation and certification standards being enacted starting in the 1990s. Since this time the retail market for organic farming in developed economies has been growing by approximately 20% annually due to increasing consumer demand. A recent set back seen in some countries due to the economic crisis is considered to be temporary.
Defining Organic Food The rise of organic farming was initially driven by small, independent producers and by consumers. However, the explosive organic market growth has encouraged the participation of larger agribusiness interests threatening the viability of small-scale dedicated organic farms. The meaning of organic farming as an agricultural method can easily be diluted and confused through an increasing commercial emphasis with a multitude of organic certification systems espousing different definitions. The basic principle of organic farming is to achieve optimum quantities of produce and food of high nutritional quality without the use of artificial fertilizers or synthetic chemicals like pesticides and herbicides. Organic farming does not support the use of genetically modified foods, growth promoters, or hormones. It has been suggested that the application of nanotechnology to food and agriculture is a further technology that needs to be excluded from organic food production. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products should come from animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic farmers attempt to rear animals with care and attention to their welfare by letting them grow and develop in the most natural and humane way possible. Organic farming emphasizes the need to maintain appropriate land management and aims to ecologically achieve the balance between animal life, the natural environment, and food crops. The produce that is produced through organic farming is thus supposed to be in its most natural form. Here are some key differences between conventional farming and organic farming as outlined by the Mayo Clinic scientists:
Conventional
Organic
Apply chemical fertilizers to promote plant growth
Apply natural fertilizers, such as manure or compost, to feed soil and plants Spray pesticides from natural sources; use beneficial insects and birds, mating disruption or traps to reduce pests and disease Use environmentally generated plant-killing compounds; rotate crops, till, hand weed, or mulch to manage weeds Give animals organic feed and allow them access to the outdoors. Use preventive measures – such as rotational grazing, a balanced diet, and clean housing – to help minimize disease
Spray synthetic insecticides to reduce pests and disease Use synthetic herbicides to manage weeds
Give animals antibiotics, growth hormones, and medications to prevent disease and spur growth
However, it must be made clear that the organic movement represents a spectrum of practices, attitudes, and philosophies. On the one hand are those organic practitioners who would not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides under any circumstances. These producers hold rigidly to their purist philosophy. At the other end of the spectrum, organic farmers advocate a more flexible approach. Although striving to avoid the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, these practitioners do not rule them out entirely. Instead, when absolutely necessary, some fertilizers and herbicides are very selectively and sparingly used as a second line of defense. Nevertheless, these farmers too consider themselves to be organic farmers. To clarify the basic understanding of organic farming and to develop a harmonized approach, a number of minimum objectives and principles were introduced. In 2005, the IFOAM approved a set of four principles to inspire the organic movement and to describe the purpose of organic agriculture to the wider world. The principles are intended to apply to agriculture in the broadest sense, including the way people tend soils, water, plants, and animals in order to produce, prepare, and distribute goods. They are concerned about the way people interact with living landscapes, relate to one another, and shape the legacy of future generations. The four principles of organic agriculture according to IFOAM are as follows: 1. The health principle – organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, and human as one and indivisible. 2. The ecology principle – organic agriculture should be based on the living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them, and help sustain them. 3. The fairness principle – organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and life opportunities. 4. The care principle – organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment. Following the above principles typical organic farming practices can be defined as including: 1. Wide crop rotation as a prerequisite for an efficient use of on-site resources. 2. Complete avoidance of or very strict limits on chemical synthetic pesticide and synthetic fertilizer use, livestock antibiotics, food additives and processing aids, and other inputs. 3. Absolute prohibition of the use of genetically modified organisms. 4. Use of on-site resources, such as livestock manure for fertilizer or feed produced on the farm. 5. Choosing plant and animal species that are resistant to disease and adapted to local conditions. 6. Raising livestock in free-range, open-air systems and providing them with organic feed. 7. Using animal husbandry practices appropriate to different livestock species. Implementation of the overall principles and practices will vary according to individual needs and ethical convictions.
Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
Marketing of produce defined as organic will require not only some objective description of parameters adhered to by the particular agricultural production system used, but also during food processing and further handling. Food processors need organic certification for both, their ingredients and facilities used. This means that buildings, where ingredients are stored, equipment used, product packaging, and storage areas, for final products must all meet set requirements. Cleaning products and solvents need special approval for use in organic food manufacturing or completely rinsed away before organic production. Pest management in organic operations should be dealt with through preventive practices such as exclusion, sanitation, removal of pest habitat, management of environmental factors, mechanical or physical controls, or lures/repellents. In case of mixed processing systems, commingling of organic and nonorganic food must be avoided. Ingredient storage must be dedicated to organic or any containers that have been in contact with nonorganic products or prohibited substances must be thoroughly cleaned so that they pose no risk of contaminating the organic product. Synthetic fungicides, preservatives, and fumigants may not be used in the facility.
Certification of Organic Production Systems Initially there was a direct communication link between farmers and consumers of organic foods. Early consumers interested in organic food had to buy it directly from growers or farmers markets – know your farmer, know your food was the motto. By talking to farmers and seeing farming activities and conditions, individual acceptance of what constituted organic production was the norm. As demand for organic food continued to increase, high volume sales through supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection. A system to convey the practices used in producing the organic food was needed. An organic certification system was the essential solution aimed at regulating and facilitating the sale of organic products to consumers. It was intended to assure quality and prevent fraud, and to promote commerce (Figure 2). In some countries, certification is overseen by the government, and commercial use of the term organic is legally restricted. Currently, the European Union, the US, Canada,
Figure 2 An example of a logo used for certified organic food.
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Japan, and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as organic within their borders. In the context of these regulations, organic food is food produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by national governments and international organizations. Some countries, like Australia, have compulsory export standards to assure overseas customers of the authenticity of the organic food whereas adherence to the standard is voluntary for the domestic market. In countries without specific legislation for organic food, consumers must rely on third party certification alone. In any case, certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural, food safety, and other government regulations that apply to noncertified producers. Nowadays, there are more than 385 organizations worldwide that certify organic food, each according to their specific standards. Requirements vary from country to country and between certification bodies, but all involve a set of production standards for growing, storing, processing, packaging, and shipping of the organic food. At a minimum the standards have to comply with government legislation if available, but some certification bodies set standards that exceed government regulations. In general, any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers, and restaurants. For organic businesses, certification identifies suppliers of products approved for use in their own certified operations. For a farmer to be certified as an organic producer he must know the relevant organic standards and farm facilities and production methods must comply with the specifics in the standards. Extensive documentation is required, detailing farm history and current set-up, and usually including the results of soil and water tests. A written annual production plan must be submitted, detailing everything from seed sources, field and crop locations, fertilization and pest control activities, harvest methods, and storage locations, for the sales of the organic produce. Annual on-farm inspections are required, with a physical tour, examination of records, and an oral interview. Written day-to-day farming and marketing records covering all activities, must be available for random inspection at any time. Certification for operations other than farms follows a similar process. The focus is on the quality of ingredients and other inputs, and processing and handling conditions. A transport company would be required to detail the use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage facilities, containers, and so forth. A restaurant would have its premises inspected and its suppliers verified as certified organic. The word organic is central to the certification process. Where organic laws exist, producers cannot use the term legally without certification. However, the organic labeling made possible by certification itself usually requires explanation. In countries without organic laws, government guidelines may or may not exist, although the actual certification is handled by nonprofit organizations and private companies. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term organic, and make buying organic food easier. Internationally, official equivalency negotiations are underway, with some agreements already in place, to harmonize certification between countries and facilitate international
420
Safety of Food and Beverages: Safety of Organic Foods
trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the IFOAM, working on harmonization efforts. In 2011, IFOAM introduced a new program that attempts to simplify harmonization. The vision is to establish the use of one single global reference defining compulsory input standards to be applied to organic production systems rather than focusing on bilateral agreements.
Quality of Organic Produce Although input standards for organic production systems can be established, the output quality of the resulting produce is much more difficult to define. There is a common perception that organic foods are of higher quality and provide added health benefits compared to conventionally grown alternatives. However, the weight of available scientific evidence has not shown a consistent and significant difference between organic and more conventionally grown food in terms of safety, nutritional value, or taste. This is not surprising when taking into account marked seasonal and geographical influences that might mask differences due to production methods. As an example, an extensive recent cross-sectional review of the available literature on nutrient composition and contaminant analysis studies and human trials found that there were no general differences in nutritional value or risk for bacterial contamination between organic and conventional foods. The studies covered unprocessed foods including fruits, vegetables, grains, milk, eggs, chicken, pork, and meat. Although organic food consumption reduced exposure to any detectable pesticide residues by approximately 30%, pesticide levels were generally within the allowable limits for safety anyway. However, free-range animal production systems might more easily be influenced by environmental contaminants. There are indications that free-range eggs might have slightly higher levels of dioxins, but with little consequence to the overall dioxin burden expected (Figure 3). Other findings suggested that the consumption of organic fruits and vegetables had no benefit over conventional foods in terms of improved health. No consistent differences were seen in the vitamin content of organic products, and only phosphorus was significantly higher in organic versus conventionally grown produce, but is of little clinical significance.
There was also no difference in the protein or fat content between organic and conventional milk, but there was some evidence that organic produce contained significantly higher levels of total phenolic compounds, which have antioxidant properties, and that organic milk and chicken contained higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Other studies have found minor differences in ascorbic acid, protein concentration, and several differences in the micronutrient content have been identified between organic and conventional foods, but it does not appear that these have any impact on human health. Some focus has been placed on the amount of nitrogen content in certain vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables and tubers, when grown organically as compared to conventionally. Although these vegetables, when grown organically, have been found to have lower nitrogen content, there is no consensus as to whether consumption of lower levels of nitrogen translates to improved health. Most of the research has looked at differences in nutrient availability whereas other health impact parameters have been only scarcely studied. Some results indicate that carrots grown under strict organic conditions improved the immune status by inducing changes in lymphocyte populations, including an increase in regulatory T cells, when fed to laboratory mice. Such findings will still need to be confirmed. Similarly, most studies that have compared the taste and organoleptic quality of organic and conventional foods report, no consistent or significant differences between organic and conventional produce. However, a few well-designed studies of fruits and vegetables have found minor differences, the majority in favor of organic produce. This might be due to the fact that some organic fruit seems to be drier than conventionally grown fruit. A slightly drier fruit may have a more intense flavor due to the higher concentration of nutrients, and as a result may be preferred by the consumer. There is also evidence that some organically grown fruits have a higher resistance to deterioration and better keeping quality, attributed to a lower moisture content. On the contrary, because organic fruits and vegetables are not treated with waxes or preservatives, they may spoil faster. Some organic produce may look less than perfect – odd shapes, varying colors, or smaller sizes. However, organic foods should meet the same quality and safety standards as those of conventional foods.
Safety of Organic Produce
Figure 3 Synthetic pesticides are not used in organic farming.
There continues to be widespread public belief in arguments that organic food is significantly safer for consumption than food grown conventionally, based mainly on anecdotal evidence and testimonials rather than scientific evidence. However, reviews of the available body of scientific literature have not found any significant differences between the two production systems in relation to safety. Firm conclusions about the relative safety of organic foods have been hampered by the difficulty in proper study design and relatively small number of studies directly comparing organic food to conventional food.
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lower risk of cancer because they are less likely to include compounds that might cause cancer is largely unknown.
Conclusion There seems to be little evidence that organic production systems provide healthier and safer food compared to conventionally grown food. However, looking beyond health effects, there are plenty of other reasons to buy organic food. Such reasons include sustainability of agricultural production systems and concerns about animal welfare and the environment. For a sustained growth of organic food, it is crucial to maintain the trust of consumers that organic production adheres to agreed principles through independent certification (Figure 4). Figure 4 Animal welfare aspects are important when buying organic food.
Claims of improved safety of organic food have largely focused on pesticide residues. Although studies have shown organically grown fruits and vegetables have significantly lower pesticide residue levels, the significance of this finding on actual health risk reduction is debatable as both conventional foods and organic foods generally have pesticide levels well below government established guidelines for what is considered safe. Reviews have noted that the risks from microbiological sources or natural toxins are likely to be much more significant than short-term or chronic risks from pesticide residues. There is an anticipated increased risk from microbiological contamination due to increased manure use as fertilizer from organisms like Escherichia coli O157:H7 during organic produce production, but little evidence of actual outbreaks that can be positively associated with organic food consumption. Other possible sources of increased safety risk from organic food consumption, like use of biological pesticides or the theoretical risk from mycotoxins from fungi grown on products due to the lack of effective organic compliant fungicides, have likewise not been confirmed by rigorous studies in the scientific literature. When evaluating environmental toxins such as heavy metals, it was noted that organically raised chicken may have lower arsenic levels, although literature reviews found no significant evidence that the levels of arsenic, cadmium, or other heavy metals differed significantly between organic and conventional food products. Organic regulations ban or severely restrict the use of food additives, processing aids (substances used during processing, but not added directly to food), and fortifying agents commonly used in nonorganic foods, including preservatives, artificial sweeteners, colorings, flavorings, and monosodium glutamate. The American Cancer Society (ACS) has noted that interest in organic food is partly derived from the perceived risk of cancer caused by additives not found in organic foods. The ACS has stated as their official position that whether organic foods carry a
Further Reading Australian Government (2004) The Australian Organic Industry. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. http:// www.daff.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/183192/ australian_organic_industry_summary.pdf (accessed on 12 January 2013). Bourn D and Prescott J (2002) A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 42(1): 1–34. Canavari, M, Asioli D, Bendini A, et al. (2009) Summary report on sensory-related socio-economic and sensory science literature about organic food products. Deliverable No. 1.2, ECROPOLIS Project (No. 218477-2), Dipartimento di Economia e Ingegneria agrarie, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, Switzerland. Available at: http://orgprints.org/17208/2/deliverable_1_2_ sensory_literature.pdf (accessed on 30 January 2013). Dangour AD, Lock K, Hayter A, Aikenhead A, Allen E, and Uauy R (2009) Nutritional quality of organic foods: A systematic review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 92(1): 203–210. EFSA (2012) Update of the monitoring of levels of dioxins and PCBs in food and feed. European Food Safety Authority Journal 10(7): 2832–2914. http:// www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2832.htm (accessed on 30 January 2013). Environmental Protection Agency Organic Farming in the USA. http://www.epa.gov/ oecaagct/torg.html (accessed on 12 January 2013). Ohlsson T (2013) In: Motarjemi Y and Lelieveld HLM (eds.) Sustainability and Food Production in Food Safety Management: A Practical Guide for the Food Industry. Elsevier. Smith–Spangler C, Brandeau ML, Hunter GE, et al. (2012) Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives? A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine 157(5): 348–366. USDA Organic Certification. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_certification (accessed on 12 January 2013). USDA Organic Food. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_food (accessed on 12 January 2013). USDA Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools. http:// www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml (accessed on 30 January 2013).
Relevant Websites http://www.ifoam.org International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements. http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/home_en Organic farming in the European Union.