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Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semi-final and final matches
Accepted Manuscript Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semi-final and final matches
Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki, Gustavo Drago, Alexandre Moreira PII: DOI: Reference:
S0031-9384(18)30900-4 doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.10.008 PHB 12337
To appear in:
Physiology & Behavior
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
26 May 2018 27 August 2018 14 October 2018
Please cite this article as: Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki, Gustavo Drago, Alexandre Moreira , Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semifinal and final matches. Phb (2018), doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.10.008
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semi-final and final matches
Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda 1, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki 2, Gustavo Drago1, Alexandre Moreira1,* [email protected] 1
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Department of Sport, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo,
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São Paulo, Brazil 2
Corresponding author at: School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao
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*
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School of Arts, Sciences, and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Brazil. Zip Code 05508-030.
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There were no conflicts of interest.
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Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 65, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of playing semi-final (SFM) and final (FM) matches on salivary testosterone (T) concentration, anxiety, session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) and perceived performance (PP) in elite male youth
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basketball players. Data from 25 players who participated ≥15 min in 6 assessed
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matches consisting of SFM (n=3; 1 match for each age-category [U15, U16, and U17]),
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and FM (n =3; 1 match for each age-category) were retained for analysis. Saliva sampling was conducted before and after the matches. Video recordings of the matches
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were conducted to assess the players match involvement (technical and tactical actions). Anxiety (CSAI-2) was assessed before pre-match saliva sampling, and session-RPE and
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PP were assessed post-matches. A significant increase in T from pre-to-post matches (SFM and FM; F=24.40, p<0.001) was observed, with no effect for condition (F=1.70,
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p=0.20) or interaction (F=0.006, p=0.93). No significant correlation between changes in
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salivary T (pre-to-post matches) and match involvement was observed (p>0.05).
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However, a higher anxiety, session-RPE and PP were observed for FM (p <0.05). The results of the present study suggest that while rising T in winners might be considered to
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be a hormonal response to support the expression of high-status signs, regardless of the playoff round (SFM or FM), the T and perceptual responses may be explained based on psychological aspects associated with the environment rather than by the technical demands or player's involvement in the match.
Keywords: saliva; endocrinology; social status; social hierarchy; behavior; team-sports.
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1. Introduction Participation in competitive tasks has been proposed to be a key factor for determining social status within a given hierarchy [1]. Status-relevant social interactions associated with the competitive sports environment influence hormonal responses (e.g.
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testosterone), and these changes may play a role in modulating social behaviors [2,3].
related to the gain or maintenance of high status [2].
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Indeed, testosterone concentration has been associated with dominance behaviors
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During a competitive task, the testosterone response seems to be modulated not
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only by the outcome per se (victory or defeat) but also influenced by physiological and contextual factors [4]. Accordingly, Zilioli et al. [4] suggest the instability hypothesis,
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which posits that the possession of an unstable low status position (e.g., defeat in a close match) should enhance testosterone and consequently encourage individuals to compete
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for improving their status; conversely, the unstable high-status position (e.g., winning a
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close victory) might be associated with avoidance of further contest. Zilioli et al. [4]
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reported an increase in salivary testosterone (T) for losers, compared to winners, during a narrow win or a narrow defeat in undergraduate females, competing in a laboratory
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task in which the outcome was manipulated. Moreover, Mehta et al. [5] showed that the salivary T change and propensity to compete in undergraduate males were positively correlated after a decisive victory (winner clearly dominates the loser), while they were negatively associated following a close win, during competitive tasks conducted in the laboratory. Despite the importance of these data from laboratory studies to promote a better understating regarding the effect of the contextual factor on the association of T and status-seeking behavior, it is imperative to examine the issue of status-social
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT interactions, status-seeking behavior, and hormonal responses in athletes participating in real competitive sports environment. This approach is essential for the advancing the scientific knowledge on this topic while providing evidence for practitioners about the effect of physiological and contextual factors in modulating hormonal responses and social behaviors.
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Basketball is a team sport stimulating a high physical and psychophysiological
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load [6, 7], which induced an important stress response indicated by an increased salivary cortisol (SC) level in both youth and professional players [8,9,10]. It is also
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worth mentioning that, in the sports setting, the perceived personal contribution of
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basketball players to the match outcome may modulate T concentration, rather than the match outcome alone [11]. These results suggest the importance of assessing the factors
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related to the perception of the individual with regard to the competitive environment, and that perceptual measures should be included in the investigations concerned with
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the association between T response and status-seeking behavior in athletes.
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The influence of contextual factors on T response and perceptual measures in
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team-sport athletes has recently been considered. For example, Arruda et al. [10] demonstrated a higher pre-match salivary T concentration in basketball players before
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their participation in easy, medium and hard matches, compared to training sessions. In this study, a lower perceived anxiety level was also reported in players during easy matches compared to moderate and hard matches, and lower self-confidence for hard matches compared to training sessions [10]. More recently, Arruda et al. [12] showed that the competition stage (playing regular vs final matches) is a contextual factor which can influence basketball players’ perceived performance (PP). A higher PP for playing the final matches was observed, when compared to playing regular matches. This result might suggest that a player would be no longer concerned about issues linked to social
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT dominance and status threats after final matches, but they might still be uncertain about their status after the regular match. Despite these findings, it is still unknown as to whether differences in psychobiological measures occur when basketball players participate in semi-final (SFM) versus final playoff matches (FM). Different from regular matches, FM is a
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condition in which winners can definitely gain a higher status in the social hierarchy,
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while no repeat chance is given to losers to regain this position of status. Indeed, this condition (FM) could also be expected to induce different T and behavior responses
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compared to SFM, as that for SFM, in most of the real sports competitions, losers will
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be given a chance to compete for a high-status during the battle for the 3 rd and 4th position. Examining these responses during these types of matches is important to add
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insightful knowledge about T response and status-seeking behavior in team-sports, as both the SFM and FM represent a real social context in which players will gain, lose, or
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maintain the higher status position depending on the outcome of these matches.
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Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of playing semi-final (SFM)
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and final (FM) matches on salivary T concentration, anxiety, session-RPE and PP in
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elite male youth basketball players.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Experimental methodology Data from 6 winning matches consisting of semi-final (SFM) (n=3; 1 match for each age-category [U15, U16, and U17]) and final play-off matches (FM) (n =3; 1 match for each age-category) were retained for analysis. Saliva sampling was conducted before and after the matches. The assessed SFM and FM were separated from each
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT other for a minimum of 7 days (U17) and a maximal of 14 days (U16). This schedule was then assumed as a non-congested schedule, limiting therefore the possible influence of accumulated fatigue from previous match exertion. The matches were performed at the reference teams’ venue (home venue) between 19:00 and 21:00 h. Video recordings of the assessed matches were conducted to assess the involvement of each players in the
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match according to the main technical and tactical actions performed during a basketball
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match. The three evaluated teams (reference teams) became champions of their respective age-category. The table 1 show the results of the assessed matches. The pre-
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match saliva collection occurred before the warm-up. Post-match saliva collection
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occurred within 15-20 min after the end of the match. Players’ anxiety (CSAI-2) was assessed before the pre-match saliva collection. After the post-match saliva collection,
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players were required to register their session-RPE, using the CR-10 scale [13]. The PP was registered immediately after the session-RPE, in accordance to previous studies
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[12, 14].
playoff round
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Table 1. Matches results for U15, U16, and U17 teams
Result
playoff round
Result
playoff round
Result
SFM
73-51(won)
SFM
73-62 (won)
SFM
71-53 (won)
FM
71-67 (won)
FM
84-65 (won)
FM
87-63 (won)
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U15
U16
U17
SFM = semi-final match; FM = final match.
2.2. Subjects Thirty-three elite male basketball players, belonging to U15, U16 and U17 teams of the same club, volunteered for this study. Data from 8 players were excluded from
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the analysis due to players’ limited participation in the assessed matches. Data from 25 players (8 from the U15, 8 from U16, and 9 from U17) who participated ≥15 min in the assessed matches (mean and SD for playing time = 25±7 min) were retained for analysis (mean ± SD; U15: age, 14.1±0.3 yrs; height, 186.6±6.9 cm; body mass, 78.3±12.2 kg, peak of height velocity, 2.1±0.5 yrs; U16: age, 15.2±0.4 yrs; height, 191.0±8.1 cm;
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body mass, 88.9±13.8 kg, peak of height velocity, 2.9±0.8 yrs; U17: age, 16.5±0.5 yrs,
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height, 191.5±7.2 cm; body mass, 89.7±18.9 kg; peak of height velocity, 3.2±0.9 yrs). Due to this criterion, the players' playing time was similar between SFM and FM,
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avoiding the influence of a possible confounding factor (playing time) on the results. As
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there was no difference among teams for salivary T concentration at the beginning of their competitive season (U15 = 518±112 pmol·L-1; U16 = 471±180 pmol·L-1; U17 =
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479±233 pmol·L-1), and there was no difference in training content (strength and conditioning, and tactical and technical training sessions) and training schedule between
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these age categories, the players were considered as a whole group, and data were
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therefore pooled for analysis. Players usually performed one or two (less often) training
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sessions per day (60-120 minutes per session), 4-5 days a week and participated in one official match every week. Training sessions consisted of basketball drills, tactics,
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sprints, intermittent running exercises and specific conditioning work, as well as weight training and plyometrics. None of the players assessed in one team participated in the matches of another assessed team. The State Championships in which players were participating represented the main National Competition for their age-category. Indeed, some players of the reference teams were members of the National Team. All the players were familiarized with sampling and survey procedures. Participants and their guardians provided written informed consent before the study commenced. The study was carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments involving humans, and all
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procedures received the approval of the University Ethics Committee.
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2.3. Salivary collection and assessments
Subjects provided saliva samples before the pre-match warm-up and within 15-
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20 min post-match. The 30-min-warm-up procedures comprising of light aerobic
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exercise, basketball and team drills, and dynamic stretching of the major muscle groups, as describe elsewhere [12]. Players were encouraged to drink water during the breaks to
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maintain appropriate hydration levels. No food was taken 1.5 hours before the first saliva sample to reduce the effect of food intake on the concentration of salivary
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markers [15]. Each player maintained their normal training schedule in the week leading
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up to each match. Saliva was collected in a sterile 15-ml centrifuge tube over a 5-min
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period and stored at -80ºC until assay. After thawing and centrifugation (1500g for 15 min), samples were tested for T concentration, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent
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assays (ELISA, Salimetrics™ expanded range kit), in accordance to previously described procedures [8,12,16]. The average intra-assay coefficient of variation was 4.6%.
2.4 Anxiety and self-confidence assessment The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) test was implemented [17] for estimating players’ cognitive and somatic anxiety, and their self-confidence level. The players fulfilled the CSAI-2 before providing pre-match saliva samples. As adopted
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in an earlier study with basketball players [10], it was assumed that cognitive anxiety refers to negative self-evaluations and self-doubts about an athlete’s ability to perform. Somatic anxiety is characterized by the athlete’s perception of physiological elements of anxiety, such as muscle tension and increased heart rate [18]. The CSAI-2 consists of 27 items, with 9 items for each subscale, denominated cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety,
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and self-confidence. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale. Thus, a score
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from 9 to 36 can be obtained for each subscale. A higher score related to cognitive and somatic anxiety indicates a higher level of anxiety. An elevated score on the self-
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confidence subscale corresponds to a higher level of self-confidence. As described
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previously [10], the players answered questions, such as “I am concerned about this competition (cognitive anxiety), “My body feels tense” (somatic anxiety), and “I am
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feeling self-confident” (self-confidence). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of internal consistency of 0.89 for cognitive anxiety, and 0.92 for somatic anxiety and self-
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confidence, have been previously reported [19]. All the players were familiarized with
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the questionnaire, which was used by coaching staff as part of the team’s monitoring
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2.5. Session-RPE
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system.
Players’ session-RPE was recorded ~30 min after each match using the adapted Borg 10-point scale (CR-10 scale) [13] to assess the player perceived intensity of the match. Session-RPE was derived by asking each player “How intense was the match?”. Players were already familiarized with the CR-10 scale before this study. The validity of using session-RPE for monitoring training and competition loads in basketball players has been previously demonstrated [8, 9, 16, 20, 21, 22].
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2.6. Perceived performance Player perceived performance (PP) was assessed using a simple ranking scale across all matches played (where 1= worst performance to 5 = best performance) based on several factors including: the opposition, the abilities of the team and their work rate
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within each match, adherence to game plan, errors and penalties conceded [14]. This
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scale was habitually filled out by players and the statistics were used routinely by the coaches and staff of the teams to evaluate players. The instrument adopted was
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SC
performed in accordance with previous studies [12,14].
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2.7. Video analysis and technical-tactical actions (Match Involvement) Video recordings of the assessed matches were collected using two cameras (Panasonic, 60Hz frequency acquisition). One was located 15 m above and to one side
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of the long axis of the court, and the other was placed 5 m to one side of the court to facilitate the players’ identification. Dartfish 9 TeamPro software (Fribourg,
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Switzerland) was used to code technical actions. The inter- and intra-reliability was found to be excellent when analyzing two trials for each match condition using two
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experienced analysts. The Kappa values for the analysed variables ranged between 0.981.0 (perfect) (intra-observer) to 0.96-0.99 (inter-observer). The technical and tactical actions were chosen to conform to those habitually analysed by the coaches while assessing the participation (Match Involvement) of a player in the match, notably for the main technical and tactical actions performed and analysed during a basketball match. The following actions were collected across all matches: 2-point field goals (made and missed), 3-point field-goals (made and missed), free-throws (made and missed), offensive rebounds, defensive rebounds, blocks, assists, steals, turnovers, and fouls
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (committed and received). To determine player's involvement in the match, the sum of all actions was considered; subsequently, a single measure of involvement was retained for analysis and named as “Match Involvement”.
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2.8. Statistical analysis A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA two-way; condition [SFM and FM]
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and time-point assessments [pre-matches and -post-matches]) with repeated measures in
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the second factor were used after checking for data normality (Shapiro-Wilk’s test) and homoscedasticity (Levene’s test), for analysing salivary T concentration. The sphericity
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of data was assumed, according to the Mauchly’s test results. In the event of a
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significant difference, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was used to identify any localized effects. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare anxiety values, sessionRPE and PP between SFM and FM, and a paired t test was adopted to compare the
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Involvements in the SFM and FM, after checking for data normality (Shapiro-Wilk’s test). The relationship between changes (pre-to-post match) in salivary T and technical
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actions (Involvements), and changes in salivary T and PP was evaluated using Pearson’s product moment correlation. The data were converted to a Z-score calculated for each
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individual player before correlation analyses. A Z-score expresses a score in terms of the number of standard deviation units that the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution and is calculated using the following formula: (individual player score—individual players average)/individual players standard deviation (SD). The Zscores for salivary T change, Match Involvement and PP were calculated for each condition (SFM and FM) separately. For all statistical analyses, significance was set at p<0.05. Data were analysed using Statistica 13.0.
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3. Results A significant time effect (increase from pre-to-post match) was observed for salivary T = .116). However, no effect of condition
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(SFM and FM; F=24.40, p<0.001; ηp2
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(F=1.70, p=0.20; ηp2 = .000) or interaction (F=0.006, p=0.93; ηp2 = .000) was verified
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(Figure 1).
The values for anxiety and self-confidence are show in Figure 2. A significant
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difference was observed between conditions (SFM and FM) for cognitive anxiety
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(p<0.001; η2 = 0.444), and somatic anxiety (p=0.003; η2 = 0.321), with a higher value for FM. However, there was no difference between SFM and FM for self-confidence
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(p>0.005; η2 = 0.003) (Figure 2).
Figure 3 presents data for session-RPE (Figure 3A), PP (Figure 3B) and
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Involvements (technical and tactical actions; Figure 3C) for SFM and FM. A significant
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difference between SFM and FM was observed for session-RPE (p=0.006; η2 = 0.287) and PP (p=0.01; η2 = 0.212), with a higher value for FM, but there was no difference for Match Involvement (t=1.05; p=0.30; d = 0.157).
The results for the correlation analysis between the change in salivary T and PP and the change in salivary T and Match Involvement are presented in Table 2. No significant correlation was observed between the variables for SFM or FM.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2. Correlations between changes in salivary T and PP and Involvements SFM
Changes in T
FM
PP
Involvements
PP
Involvements
0.33 (p=0.12)
0.30 (p=0.16)
0.16 (p=0.44)
0.017 (p=0.93)
SFM = semi-final matches; FM = final matches; PP = perceived performance;
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p=p-value.
4. Discussion
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The main findings of the present study were: 1) the significant increase in T from pre-to-post matches for both SFM and FM; 2) a higher anxiety, session-RPE and
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PP for FM, compared to SFM; and 3) no significant correlation between changes in salivary T (pre-to-post matches) and PP and Match Involvement was observed.
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The increase in salivary T across matches corroborates previous studies
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conducted with youth basketball players [10,12,16]. This result reinforces the dynamics
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of salivary T response for official basketball matches presented in these previous studies, which seems not to be affected by the opponent’s standard, match-venue, stage
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of the competition, nor (as in the case of the present study) the round (SFM or FM) within a playoff stage.
Indeed, the rise in salivary T in the players assessed in the present investigation is in accordance with the assumption of the biosocial model of status (BMS). The BMS assumes that winning a competition is associated with a rise in social status, and that this increase in T may support the competitive and aggressive behavior to maintaining the achieved position in the hierarchy [2,23]. Moreover, the absence in difference in salivary T response between the SFM and FM is consistent with the results from a
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT recent study in which the contextual factor was the competition stage [12], and not the round within the same competition stage, which was the focus of the present investigation. Therefore, the current results add insightful information to the literature as, for the first time, data showed the salivary T increase in winning basketball players, regardless of the round of the match within the same playoff stage.
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Based on the present findings, and taking into account the relationship between
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T and dominance behavior intended to gain or maintain a high status [1,24,25], it seems likely that salivary T concentration increases from pre-match to post-match, possibly
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because players are concerned with maintaining their status after they have faced and
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defeated a high-level opponent. The opponent, on the other hand, would not be allowed to try to regain the status and the position in the hierarchy. As both the semi-final and
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final matches may be considered to be an unstable status hierarchy condition, the salivary T response in winning players may be associated with dominance behavior
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related to the achieved high status in that social hierarchy.
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This result corroborates the hypothesis that rising T in winners might be
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considered as a hormonal response to support the expression of high-status signs [26]. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that no significant correlation between the change
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in salivary T (T reactivity; pre-post matches) and the Match Involvement was observed. This result suggests that a change (increase) in salivary T during a real competitive basketball match may be largely moderated by psychological factors, rather than only due to the technical demand or player's involvement in the matches. Indeed, the present results suggest that a higher or lower participation of a player in the match was not a confounder factor when analysing salivary T change during official basketball matches played against a high standard opponent, during conditions in which players would
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT perceive the match as being decisive to definitely determine their position in a social hierarchy (i.e. semi-final and final matches). It should be highlighted that, when evaluating these responses during these types of basketball matches (playoff matches), it could be assumed that even the players that are potential substitutes (not on the court in a given moment of the match play) are
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always ready to play due to the game’s rule of no limitations for substitutions during the
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match. Therefore, regardless of their participation in the match, it is reasonable to assume that, at least in the match conditions evaluated (SFM and FM), all basketball
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players would be constantly very focused on the match dynamics and concerned with
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the development and the consequences of the outcome of the competition. This, in turn, may explain the no significant relationship between the change in T and the match
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involvement for both SFM and FM. However, this hypothesis should be investigated in future studies.
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In the present study, higher anxiety, better perceived performance and greater
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session-RPE score were observed for the FM. These results suggest that perceptual and
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behavioral responses may not necessarily be accompanied by salivary T concentration or a pre-to-post change in salivary T for these types of basketball matches. It is
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important to highlight that these subjective responses do not reflect other behaviors that have been showed to be associated with T concentration [2,24,25,27–31]. With regard to anxiety, the findings of the present study suggest that the FM represents a more challenging situation for the players, compared to the SFM. It might be suggested that players get more nervous and feel more tension before the FM, possibly due to a higher perceived threat to their hierarchy stability, as the output of the final match would definitely establish the position of the teams (and players) in that status hierarchy. The champion would be at the top of the hierarchy, while the losers would fell strongly
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT frustrated and would not be given the opportunity to regain their status. This result corroborates previous findings on anxiety responses of elite youth basketball players [10]. Arruda et al. [10], for example, demonstrated a significant difference between training sessions and official matches for both cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety ( a higher anxiety for official matches). In this study, it was also reported a lower anxiety
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level for “easy matches” compared to “medium” and “hard” matches. In conjunction,
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the current results and that reported by Arruda et al [10] strongly suggest the effect to the hierarchy stability, notably, the perceived threat to the status hierarchy, on pre-
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match anxiety level.
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It is also worth mentioning that a higher anxiety would represent the desire of the players to avoid feelings of frustration and inferiority after the match, should they be
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defeated. This seems reasonable to propose due to findings from previous studies [i.e. 10], and when taking into account the widely-accepted definition of anxiety, as
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proposed by Morris et al. [32] and adopted by Martens et al. [17] for the CSAI-2
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construct, which suggest that cognitive anxiety is associated with concerns about
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oneself, and the potential consequences of a given situation. Avoiding a potential consequence of losing the match and falling in the status hierarchy might lead to
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increased cognitive anxiety in the players before the FM. Moreover, somatic anxiety is thought to be linked to one's perception of autonomic arousal (physiological elements), such as increased heart hate and muscle tension, and unpleasant feelings, such as nervousness [17]. This additional stress, likely associated with the anticipation of a possible frustration after a defeat and the consequent perceived threat to the player’s position in the hierarchy, may in turn, increase both cognitive (i.e. personal concerns and doubts about player ability, the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT consequence of the match outcome) and somatic anxiety (i.e. unpleasant perception feelings). In association with the anxiety results, the PP was higher for the FM. However, the PP, in contrast to the pre-match anxiety level, is assessed after the end of the match. As mentioned, the final match (FM) is a condition in which winners can definitely gain
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a higher status in the social hierarchy, to become champions; no repeat chance is given
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to losers to regain this position of status. This result combines the status instability hypothesis [4] with the effect of the contextual factor of perceived status hierarchy.
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After the SFM, this instability in status hierarchy is expected be more pronounced,
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compared to after the FM, as players may express uncertainty about their superiority. On the other hand, after the FM, the opponent teams (which were defeated in the
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present study) are not allowed any attempt to regain status, as the competition is already finished. This is a contextual factor that suggests that players might no longer be
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concerned with issues linked to social dominance and status threats after FM, but they
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might be uncertain about their status hierarchy stability after the SFM, even after
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winning the matches. Moreover, the lack of significant correlation between the change in salivary T from pre-to-post matches and PP, for both SFM and FM, suggests that
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whether players are concerned, or not, with issues related to dominance, perceived status threat may not be a modulating factor in the relationship between salivary T reactivity and PP. This represents a novel finding of the present study that should be explored in further studies on this topic. The results of the session-RPE indicate that, within a playoff competition stage, players may perceive a higher intensity in the FM, compared to SFM. It may be suggested that they perceived a higher effort due to the relevance of the match, likely associated with the issue linked to social hierarchy stability. Interestingly, a higher
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT session-RPE was also reported by Moreira et al. [33] when evaluating elite youth volleyball players across 2 official matches over 3 weeks, during the competitive volleyball season. These authors compared the perceived effort of the players for a regular match versus a final match, played against the same opponent. The greater session-RPE observed in the FM suggests that the match importance affects the
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perception of effort in volleyball players. The present results and those reported by
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Moreira et al. [33] suggest that, in young team-sport athletes, a perceived effort would likely be modulated by the perceived importance of the match, which in turn would be
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related to the aim of definitely gaining status in the hierarchy.
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Despite the robustness of the current findings, some limitations, such as using three teams from the same club, the sample size, investigating only winning matches,
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the rank of the assessed teams (top-ranked teams), and the number of assessed matches should be highlighted in order to recommend caution in generalizing the present results.
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It is worth mentioning that the present results are related to teams composed of high-
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status individuals who won the assessed matches and were highly ranked in their
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respectively competitions. Even recognizing that they competed against high-top ranked opponents in the SFM and the FM (therefore representing a similar competitive level to
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their opponents), caution is needed when interpreting and generalizing this finding. The present results could not be replicated when assessing low-ranked individuals competing against highly-ranked opponents. Moreover, a lack of studies focusing primarily on evaluating PP validity and reproducibility in basketball players may be viewed as a limitation for the generalization of the results, despite the large familiarity of the players evaluated with this tool. Future studies with larger samples, different teams, distinct team levels, and in a variety of types of competition (e.g. state, national,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT international) could investigate this topic to corroborate or refute the findings of the present study.
5. Conclusion
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The main findings of the present study were the increase in T from pre-to-post
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matches for both SFM and FM, while a higher anxiety, session-RPE score and PP were observed for the FM, suggesting that the players’ perceived status threat affects their
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behavior. Moreover, the results of the present study suggest that the salivary T response
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observed during this type of basketball match (SFM and FM) may be explained based on psychological aspects associated with the environment, rather than on the matches’
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technical demands or players’ participation in actions with the ball.
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Conflict of Interests
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The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this
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paper.
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Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the committed participation of all the basketball players, research support staff, and coaches involved in this study, particularly those of Telma Tavernari, David Pelosini, and Luiz Carlos Souza Junior.
Funding
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT This work was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (São Paulo Research Foundation, grant: 2016/13325-3). The authors also wish to thank FAPESP for funding this research.
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
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Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT References
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 1. Salivary testosterone concentrations (mean±SD) for semi-final and final matches. *Significant difference from pre-to-post match; SFM = semi-final match; FM = final match.
Figure 2. Anxiety and self-confidence for semi-final and final matches (mean±SD).
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*Significant difference between semi-final and final matches; CA = cognitive
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anxiety; SA = somatic anxiety; SC = self-confidence.
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Figure 3. Ratings of perceived exertion, perceived performance and Match
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Involvements for semi-final and final matches (mean±SD). *Significant difference between semi-final and final matches; S-RPE = session-RPE; SFM = semi-final
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match; FM = final match; AU = arbitrary units; n = number of involvements.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Highlights A significant increase in T occurred from pre-to-post for both semi-final and final matches; Higher anxiety, session-RPE and perceived performance occurred in the final match;
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No significant correlations between T changes and match involvement were
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found.
Figure 1
Figure 2
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Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki, Gustavo Drago, Alexandre Moreira PII: DOI: Reference:
S0031-9384(18)30900-4 doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.10.008 PHB 12337
To appear in:
Physiology & Behavior
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
26 May 2018 27 August 2018 14 October 2018
Please cite this article as: Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki, Gustavo Drago, Alexandre Moreira , Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semifinal and final matches. Phb (2018), doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.10.008
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Salivary testosterone concentration, anxiety, perceived performance and ratings of perceived exertion in basketball players during semi-final and final matches
Ademir Felipe Schultz de Arruda 1, Marcelo Saldanha Aoki 2, Gustavo Drago1, Alexandre Moreira1,* [email protected] 1
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Department of Sport, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo,
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São Paulo, Brazil 2
Corresponding author at: School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao
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*
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School of Arts, Sciences, and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Brazil. Zip Code 05508-030.
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There were no conflicts of interest.
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Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil, Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 65, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of playing semi-final (SFM) and final (FM) matches on salivary testosterone (T) concentration, anxiety, session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) and perceived performance (PP) in elite male youth
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basketball players. Data from 25 players who participated ≥15 min in 6 assessed
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matches consisting of SFM (n=3; 1 match for each age-category [U15, U16, and U17]),
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and FM (n =3; 1 match for each age-category) were retained for analysis. Saliva sampling was conducted before and after the matches. Video recordings of the matches
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were conducted to assess the players match involvement (technical and tactical actions). Anxiety (CSAI-2) was assessed before pre-match saliva sampling, and session-RPE and
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PP were assessed post-matches. A significant increase in T from pre-to-post matches (SFM and FM; F=24.40, p<0.001) was observed, with no effect for condition (F=1.70,
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p=0.20) or interaction (F=0.006, p=0.93). No significant correlation between changes in
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salivary T (pre-to-post matches) and match involvement was observed (p>0.05).
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However, a higher anxiety, session-RPE and PP were observed for FM (p <0.05). The results of the present study suggest that while rising T in winners might be considered to
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be a hormonal response to support the expression of high-status signs, regardless of the playoff round (SFM or FM), the T and perceptual responses may be explained based on psychological aspects associated with the environment rather than by the technical demands or player's involvement in the match.
Keywords: saliva; endocrinology; social status; social hierarchy; behavior; team-sports.
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1. Introduction Participation in competitive tasks has been proposed to be a key factor for determining social status within a given hierarchy [1]. Status-relevant social interactions associated with the competitive sports environment influence hormonal responses (e.g.
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testosterone), and these changes may play a role in modulating social behaviors [2,3].
related to the gain or maintenance of high status [2].
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Indeed, testosterone concentration has been associated with dominance behaviors
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During a competitive task, the testosterone response seems to be modulated not
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only by the outcome per se (victory or defeat) but also influenced by physiological and contextual factors [4]. Accordingly, Zilioli et al. [4] suggest the instability hypothesis,
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which posits that the possession of an unstable low status position (e.g., defeat in a close match) should enhance testosterone and consequently encourage individuals to compete
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for improving their status; conversely, the unstable high-status position (e.g., winning a
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close victory) might be associated with avoidance of further contest. Zilioli et al. [4]
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reported an increase in salivary testosterone (T) for losers, compared to winners, during a narrow win or a narrow defeat in undergraduate females, competing in a laboratory
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task in which the outcome was manipulated. Moreover, Mehta et al. [5] showed that the salivary T change and propensity to compete in undergraduate males were positively correlated after a decisive victory (winner clearly dominates the loser), while they were negatively associated following a close win, during competitive tasks conducted in the laboratory. Despite the importance of these data from laboratory studies to promote a better understating regarding the effect of the contextual factor on the association of T and status-seeking behavior, it is imperative to examine the issue of status-social
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT interactions, status-seeking behavior, and hormonal responses in athletes participating in real competitive sports environment. This approach is essential for the advancing the scientific knowledge on this topic while providing evidence for practitioners about the effect of physiological and contextual factors in modulating hormonal responses and social behaviors.
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Basketball is a team sport stimulating a high physical and psychophysiological
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load [6, 7], which induced an important stress response indicated by an increased salivary cortisol (SC) level in both youth and professional players [8,9,10]. It is also
SC
worth mentioning that, in the sports setting, the perceived personal contribution of
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basketball players to the match outcome may modulate T concentration, rather than the match outcome alone [11]. These results suggest the importance of assessing the factors
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related to the perception of the individual with regard to the competitive environment, and that perceptual measures should be included in the investigations concerned with
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the association between T response and status-seeking behavior in athletes.
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The influence of contextual factors on T response and perceptual measures in
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team-sport athletes has recently been considered. For example, Arruda et al. [10] demonstrated a higher pre-match salivary T concentration in basketball players before
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their participation in easy, medium and hard matches, compared to training sessions. In this study, a lower perceived anxiety level was also reported in players during easy matches compared to moderate and hard matches, and lower self-confidence for hard matches compared to training sessions [10]. More recently, Arruda et al. [12] showed that the competition stage (playing regular vs final matches) is a contextual factor which can influence basketball players’ perceived performance (PP). A higher PP for playing the final matches was observed, when compared to playing regular matches. This result might suggest that a player would be no longer concerned about issues linked to social
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT dominance and status threats after final matches, but they might still be uncertain about their status after the regular match. Despite these findings, it is still unknown as to whether differences in psychobiological measures occur when basketball players participate in semi-final (SFM) versus final playoff matches (FM). Different from regular matches, FM is a
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condition in which winners can definitely gain a higher status in the social hierarchy,
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while no repeat chance is given to losers to regain this position of status. Indeed, this condition (FM) could also be expected to induce different T and behavior responses
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compared to SFM, as that for SFM, in most of the real sports competitions, losers will
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be given a chance to compete for a high-status during the battle for the 3 rd and 4th position. Examining these responses during these types of matches is important to add
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insightful knowledge about T response and status-seeking behavior in team-sports, as both the SFM and FM represent a real social context in which players will gain, lose, or
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maintain the higher status position depending on the outcome of these matches.
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Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effect of playing semi-final (SFM)
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and final (FM) matches on salivary T concentration, anxiety, session-RPE and PP in
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elite male youth basketball players.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Experimental methodology Data from 6 winning matches consisting of semi-final (SFM) (n=3; 1 match for each age-category [U15, U16, and U17]) and final play-off matches (FM) (n =3; 1 match for each age-category) were retained for analysis. Saliva sampling was conducted before and after the matches. The assessed SFM and FM were separated from each
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT other for a minimum of 7 days (U17) and a maximal of 14 days (U16). This schedule was then assumed as a non-congested schedule, limiting therefore the possible influence of accumulated fatigue from previous match exertion. The matches were performed at the reference teams’ venue (home venue) between 19:00 and 21:00 h. Video recordings of the assessed matches were conducted to assess the involvement of each players in the
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match according to the main technical and tactical actions performed during a basketball
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match. The three evaluated teams (reference teams) became champions of their respective age-category. The table 1 show the results of the assessed matches. The pre-
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match saliva collection occurred before the warm-up. Post-match saliva collection
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occurred within 15-20 min after the end of the match. Players’ anxiety (CSAI-2) was assessed before the pre-match saliva collection. After the post-match saliva collection,
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players were required to register their session-RPE, using the CR-10 scale [13]. The PP was registered immediately after the session-RPE, in accordance to previous studies
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[12, 14].
playoff round
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Table 1. Matches results for U15, U16, and U17 teams
Result
playoff round
Result
playoff round
Result
SFM
73-51(won)
SFM
73-62 (won)
SFM
71-53 (won)
FM
71-67 (won)
FM
84-65 (won)
FM
87-63 (won)
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U15
U16
U17
SFM = semi-final match; FM = final match.
2.2. Subjects Thirty-three elite male basketball players, belonging to U15, U16 and U17 teams of the same club, volunteered for this study. Data from 8 players were excluded from
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT the analysis due to players’ limited participation in the assessed matches. Data from 25 players (8 from the U15, 8 from U16, and 9 from U17) who participated ≥15 min in the assessed matches (mean and SD for playing time = 25±7 min) were retained for analysis (mean ± SD; U15: age, 14.1±0.3 yrs; height, 186.6±6.9 cm; body mass, 78.3±12.2 kg, peak of height velocity, 2.1±0.5 yrs; U16: age, 15.2±0.4 yrs; height, 191.0±8.1 cm;
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body mass, 88.9±13.8 kg, peak of height velocity, 2.9±0.8 yrs; U17: age, 16.5±0.5 yrs,
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height, 191.5±7.2 cm; body mass, 89.7±18.9 kg; peak of height velocity, 3.2±0.9 yrs). Due to this criterion, the players' playing time was similar between SFM and FM,
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avoiding the influence of a possible confounding factor (playing time) on the results. As
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there was no difference among teams for salivary T concentration at the beginning of their competitive season (U15 = 518±112 pmol·L-1; U16 = 471±180 pmol·L-1; U17 =
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479±233 pmol·L-1), and there was no difference in training content (strength and conditioning, and tactical and technical training sessions) and training schedule between
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these age categories, the players were considered as a whole group, and data were
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therefore pooled for analysis. Players usually performed one or two (less often) training
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sessions per day (60-120 minutes per session), 4-5 days a week and participated in one official match every week. Training sessions consisted of basketball drills, tactics,
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sprints, intermittent running exercises and specific conditioning work, as well as weight training and plyometrics. None of the players assessed in one team participated in the matches of another assessed team. The State Championships in which players were participating represented the main National Competition for their age-category. Indeed, some players of the reference teams were members of the National Team. All the players were familiarized with sampling and survey procedures. Participants and their guardians provided written informed consent before the study commenced. The study was carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments involving humans, and all
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procedures received the approval of the University Ethics Committee.
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2.3. Salivary collection and assessments
Subjects provided saliva samples before the pre-match warm-up and within 15-
SC
20 min post-match. The 30-min-warm-up procedures comprising of light aerobic
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exercise, basketball and team drills, and dynamic stretching of the major muscle groups, as describe elsewhere [12]. Players were encouraged to drink water during the breaks to
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maintain appropriate hydration levels. No food was taken 1.5 hours before the first saliva sample to reduce the effect of food intake on the concentration of salivary
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markers [15]. Each player maintained their normal training schedule in the week leading
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up to each match. Saliva was collected in a sterile 15-ml centrifuge tube over a 5-min
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period and stored at -80ºC until assay. After thawing and centrifugation (1500g for 15 min), samples were tested for T concentration, using enzyme-linked immunosorbent
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assays (ELISA, Salimetrics™ expanded range kit), in accordance to previously described procedures [8,12,16]. The average intra-assay coefficient of variation was 4.6%.
2.4 Anxiety and self-confidence assessment The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) test was implemented [17] for estimating players’ cognitive and somatic anxiety, and their self-confidence level. The players fulfilled the CSAI-2 before providing pre-match saliva samples. As adopted
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT in an earlier study with basketball players [10], it was assumed that cognitive anxiety refers to negative self-evaluations and self-doubts about an athlete’s ability to perform. Somatic anxiety is characterized by the athlete’s perception of physiological elements of anxiety, such as muscle tension and increased heart rate [18]. The CSAI-2 consists of 27 items, with 9 items for each subscale, denominated cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety,
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and self-confidence. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale. Thus, a score
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from 9 to 36 can be obtained for each subscale. A higher score related to cognitive and somatic anxiety indicates a higher level of anxiety. An elevated score on the self-
SC
confidence subscale corresponds to a higher level of self-confidence. As described
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previously [10], the players answered questions, such as “I am concerned about this competition (cognitive anxiety), “My body feels tense” (somatic anxiety), and “I am
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feeling self-confident” (self-confidence). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of internal consistency of 0.89 for cognitive anxiety, and 0.92 for somatic anxiety and self-
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confidence, have been previously reported [19]. All the players were familiarized with
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the questionnaire, which was used by coaching staff as part of the team’s monitoring
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2.5. Session-RPE
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system.
Players’ session-RPE was recorded ~30 min after each match using the adapted Borg 10-point scale (CR-10 scale) [13] to assess the player perceived intensity of the match. Session-RPE was derived by asking each player “How intense was the match?”. Players were already familiarized with the CR-10 scale before this study. The validity of using session-RPE for monitoring training and competition loads in basketball players has been previously demonstrated [8, 9, 16, 20, 21, 22].
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2.6. Perceived performance Player perceived performance (PP) was assessed using a simple ranking scale across all matches played (where 1= worst performance to 5 = best performance) based on several factors including: the opposition, the abilities of the team and their work rate
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within each match, adherence to game plan, errors and penalties conceded [14]. This
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scale was habitually filled out by players and the statistics were used routinely by the coaches and staff of the teams to evaluate players. The instrument adopted was
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SC
performed in accordance with previous studies [12,14].
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2.7. Video analysis and technical-tactical actions (Match Involvement) Video recordings of the assessed matches were collected using two cameras (Panasonic, 60Hz frequency acquisition). One was located 15 m above and to one side
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of the long axis of the court, and the other was placed 5 m to one side of the court to facilitate the players’ identification. Dartfish 9 TeamPro software (Fribourg,
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Switzerland) was used to code technical actions. The inter- and intra-reliability was found to be excellent when analyzing two trials for each match condition using two
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experienced analysts. The Kappa values for the analysed variables ranged between 0.981.0 (perfect) (intra-observer) to 0.96-0.99 (inter-observer). The technical and tactical actions were chosen to conform to those habitually analysed by the coaches while assessing the participation (Match Involvement) of a player in the match, notably for the main technical and tactical actions performed and analysed during a basketball match. The following actions were collected across all matches: 2-point field goals (made and missed), 3-point field-goals (made and missed), free-throws (made and missed), offensive rebounds, defensive rebounds, blocks, assists, steals, turnovers, and fouls
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (committed and received). To determine player's involvement in the match, the sum of all actions was considered; subsequently, a single measure of involvement was retained for analysis and named as “Match Involvement”.
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2.8. Statistical analysis A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA two-way; condition [SFM and FM]
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and time-point assessments [pre-matches and -post-matches]) with repeated measures in
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the second factor were used after checking for data normality (Shapiro-Wilk’s test) and homoscedasticity (Levene’s test), for analysing salivary T concentration. The sphericity
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of data was assumed, according to the Mauchly’s test results. In the event of a
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significant difference, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was used to identify any localized effects. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare anxiety values, sessionRPE and PP between SFM and FM, and a paired t test was adopted to compare the
TE
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Involvements in the SFM and FM, after checking for data normality (Shapiro-Wilk’s test). The relationship between changes (pre-to-post match) in salivary T and technical
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actions (Involvements), and changes in salivary T and PP was evaluated using Pearson’s product moment correlation. The data were converted to a Z-score calculated for each
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individual player before correlation analyses. A Z-score expresses a score in terms of the number of standard deviation units that the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution and is calculated using the following formula: (individual player score—individual players average)/individual players standard deviation (SD). The Zscores for salivary T change, Match Involvement and PP were calculated for each condition (SFM and FM) separately. For all statistical analyses, significance was set at p<0.05. Data were analysed using Statistica 13.0.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
3. Results A significant time effect (increase from pre-to-post match) was observed for salivary T = .116). However, no effect of condition
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(SFM and FM; F=24.40, p<0.001; ηp2
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(F=1.70, p=0.20; ηp2 = .000) or interaction (F=0.006, p=0.93; ηp2 = .000) was verified
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(Figure 1).
The values for anxiety and self-confidence are show in Figure 2. A significant
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difference was observed between conditions (SFM and FM) for cognitive anxiety
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(p<0.001; η2 = 0.444), and somatic anxiety (p=0.003; η2 = 0.321), with a higher value for FM. However, there was no difference between SFM and FM for self-confidence
TE
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(p>0.005; η2 = 0.003) (Figure 2).
Figure 3 presents data for session-RPE (Figure 3A), PP (Figure 3B) and
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Involvements (technical and tactical actions; Figure 3C) for SFM and FM. A significant
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difference between SFM and FM was observed for session-RPE (p=0.006; η2 = 0.287) and PP (p=0.01; η2 = 0.212), with a higher value for FM, but there was no difference for Match Involvement (t=1.05; p=0.30; d = 0.157).
The results for the correlation analysis between the change in salivary T and PP and the change in salivary T and Match Involvement are presented in Table 2. No significant correlation was observed between the variables for SFM or FM.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2. Correlations between changes in salivary T and PP and Involvements SFM
Changes in T
FM
PP
Involvements
PP
Involvements
0.33 (p=0.12)
0.30 (p=0.16)
0.16 (p=0.44)
0.017 (p=0.93)
SFM = semi-final matches; FM = final matches; PP = perceived performance;
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p=p-value.
4. Discussion
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The main findings of the present study were: 1) the significant increase in T from pre-to-post matches for both SFM and FM; 2) a higher anxiety, session-RPE and
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PP for FM, compared to SFM; and 3) no significant correlation between changes in salivary T (pre-to-post matches) and PP and Match Involvement was observed.
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The increase in salivary T across matches corroborates previous studies
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conducted with youth basketball players [10,12,16]. This result reinforces the dynamics
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of salivary T response for official basketball matches presented in these previous studies, which seems not to be affected by the opponent’s standard, match-venue, stage
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of the competition, nor (as in the case of the present study) the round (SFM or FM) within a playoff stage.
Indeed, the rise in salivary T in the players assessed in the present investigation is in accordance with the assumption of the biosocial model of status (BMS). The BMS assumes that winning a competition is associated with a rise in social status, and that this increase in T may support the competitive and aggressive behavior to maintaining the achieved position in the hierarchy [2,23]. Moreover, the absence in difference in salivary T response between the SFM and FM is consistent with the results from a
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT recent study in which the contextual factor was the competition stage [12], and not the round within the same competition stage, which was the focus of the present investigation. Therefore, the current results add insightful information to the literature as, for the first time, data showed the salivary T increase in winning basketball players, regardless of the round of the match within the same playoff stage.
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Based on the present findings, and taking into account the relationship between
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T and dominance behavior intended to gain or maintain a high status [1,24,25], it seems likely that salivary T concentration increases from pre-match to post-match, possibly
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because players are concerned with maintaining their status after they have faced and
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defeated a high-level opponent. The opponent, on the other hand, would not be allowed to try to regain the status and the position in the hierarchy. As both the semi-final and
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final matches may be considered to be an unstable status hierarchy condition, the salivary T response in winning players may be associated with dominance behavior
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related to the achieved high status in that social hierarchy.
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This result corroborates the hypothesis that rising T in winners might be
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considered as a hormonal response to support the expression of high-status signs [26]. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that no significant correlation between the change
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in salivary T (T reactivity; pre-post matches) and the Match Involvement was observed. This result suggests that a change (increase) in salivary T during a real competitive basketball match may be largely moderated by psychological factors, rather than only due to the technical demand or player's involvement in the matches. Indeed, the present results suggest that a higher or lower participation of a player in the match was not a confounder factor when analysing salivary T change during official basketball matches played against a high standard opponent, during conditions in which players would
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT perceive the match as being decisive to definitely determine their position in a social hierarchy (i.e. semi-final and final matches). It should be highlighted that, when evaluating these responses during these types of basketball matches (playoff matches), it could be assumed that even the players that are potential substitutes (not on the court in a given moment of the match play) are
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always ready to play due to the game’s rule of no limitations for substitutions during the
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match. Therefore, regardless of their participation in the match, it is reasonable to assume that, at least in the match conditions evaluated (SFM and FM), all basketball
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players would be constantly very focused on the match dynamics and concerned with
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the development and the consequences of the outcome of the competition. This, in turn, may explain the no significant relationship between the change in T and the match
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involvement for both SFM and FM. However, this hypothesis should be investigated in future studies.
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In the present study, higher anxiety, better perceived performance and greater
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session-RPE score were observed for the FM. These results suggest that perceptual and
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behavioral responses may not necessarily be accompanied by salivary T concentration or a pre-to-post change in salivary T for these types of basketball matches. It is
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important to highlight that these subjective responses do not reflect other behaviors that have been showed to be associated with T concentration [2,24,25,27–31]. With regard to anxiety, the findings of the present study suggest that the FM represents a more challenging situation for the players, compared to the SFM. It might be suggested that players get more nervous and feel more tension before the FM, possibly due to a higher perceived threat to their hierarchy stability, as the output of the final match would definitely establish the position of the teams (and players) in that status hierarchy. The champion would be at the top of the hierarchy, while the losers would fell strongly
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT frustrated and would not be given the opportunity to regain their status. This result corroborates previous findings on anxiety responses of elite youth basketball players [10]. Arruda et al. [10], for example, demonstrated a significant difference between training sessions and official matches for both cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety ( a higher anxiety for official matches). In this study, it was also reported a lower anxiety
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level for “easy matches” compared to “medium” and “hard” matches. In conjunction,
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the current results and that reported by Arruda et al [10] strongly suggest the effect to the hierarchy stability, notably, the perceived threat to the status hierarchy, on pre-
SC
match anxiety level.
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It is also worth mentioning that a higher anxiety would represent the desire of the players to avoid feelings of frustration and inferiority after the match, should they be
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defeated. This seems reasonable to propose due to findings from previous studies [i.e. 10], and when taking into account the widely-accepted definition of anxiety, as
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proposed by Morris et al. [32] and adopted by Martens et al. [17] for the CSAI-2
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construct, which suggest that cognitive anxiety is associated with concerns about
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oneself, and the potential consequences of a given situation. Avoiding a potential consequence of losing the match and falling in the status hierarchy might lead to
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increased cognitive anxiety in the players before the FM. Moreover, somatic anxiety is thought to be linked to one's perception of autonomic arousal (physiological elements), such as increased heart hate and muscle tension, and unpleasant feelings, such as nervousness [17]. This additional stress, likely associated with the anticipation of a possible frustration after a defeat and the consequent perceived threat to the player’s position in the hierarchy, may in turn, increase both cognitive (i.e. personal concerns and doubts about player ability, the
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT consequence of the match outcome) and somatic anxiety (i.e. unpleasant perception feelings). In association with the anxiety results, the PP was higher for the FM. However, the PP, in contrast to the pre-match anxiety level, is assessed after the end of the match. As mentioned, the final match (FM) is a condition in which winners can definitely gain
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a higher status in the social hierarchy, to become champions; no repeat chance is given
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to losers to regain this position of status. This result combines the status instability hypothesis [4] with the effect of the contextual factor of perceived status hierarchy.
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After the SFM, this instability in status hierarchy is expected be more pronounced,
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compared to after the FM, as players may express uncertainty about their superiority. On the other hand, after the FM, the opponent teams (which were defeated in the
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present study) are not allowed any attempt to regain status, as the competition is already finished. This is a contextual factor that suggests that players might no longer be
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concerned with issues linked to social dominance and status threats after FM, but they
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might be uncertain about their status hierarchy stability after the SFM, even after
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winning the matches. Moreover, the lack of significant correlation between the change in salivary T from pre-to-post matches and PP, for both SFM and FM, suggests that
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whether players are concerned, or not, with issues related to dominance, perceived status threat may not be a modulating factor in the relationship between salivary T reactivity and PP. This represents a novel finding of the present study that should be explored in further studies on this topic. The results of the session-RPE indicate that, within a playoff competition stage, players may perceive a higher intensity in the FM, compared to SFM. It may be suggested that they perceived a higher effort due to the relevance of the match, likely associated with the issue linked to social hierarchy stability. Interestingly, a higher
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT session-RPE was also reported by Moreira et al. [33] when evaluating elite youth volleyball players across 2 official matches over 3 weeks, during the competitive volleyball season. These authors compared the perceived effort of the players for a regular match versus a final match, played against the same opponent. The greater session-RPE observed in the FM suggests that the match importance affects the
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perception of effort in volleyball players. The present results and those reported by
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Moreira et al. [33] suggest that, in young team-sport athletes, a perceived effort would likely be modulated by the perceived importance of the match, which in turn would be
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related to the aim of definitely gaining status in the hierarchy.
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Despite the robustness of the current findings, some limitations, such as using three teams from the same club, the sample size, investigating only winning matches,
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the rank of the assessed teams (top-ranked teams), and the number of assessed matches should be highlighted in order to recommend caution in generalizing the present results.
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It is worth mentioning that the present results are related to teams composed of high-
TE
status individuals who won the assessed matches and were highly ranked in their
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respectively competitions. Even recognizing that they competed against high-top ranked opponents in the SFM and the FM (therefore representing a similar competitive level to
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their opponents), caution is needed when interpreting and generalizing this finding. The present results could not be replicated when assessing low-ranked individuals competing against highly-ranked opponents. Moreover, a lack of studies focusing primarily on evaluating PP validity and reproducibility in basketball players may be viewed as a limitation for the generalization of the results, despite the large familiarity of the players evaluated with this tool. Future studies with larger samples, different teams, distinct team levels, and in a variety of types of competition (e.g. state, national,
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT international) could investigate this topic to corroborate or refute the findings of the present study.
5. Conclusion
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The main findings of the present study were the increase in T from pre-to-post
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matches for both SFM and FM, while a higher anxiety, session-RPE score and PP were observed for the FM, suggesting that the players’ perceived status threat affects their
SC
behavior. Moreover, the results of the present study suggest that the salivary T response
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observed during this type of basketball match (SFM and FM) may be explained based on psychological aspects associated with the environment, rather than on the matches’
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technical demands or players’ participation in actions with the ball.
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Conflict of Interests
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The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this
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paper.
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Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the committed participation of all the basketball players, research support staff, and coaches involved in this study, particularly those of Telma Tavernari, David Pelosini, and Luiz Carlos Souza Junior.
Funding
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT This work was supported by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (São Paulo Research Foundation, grant: 2016/13325-3). The authors also wish to thank FAPESP for funding this research.
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
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EP
TE
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MA
NU
SC
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Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT References
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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figure 1. Salivary testosterone concentrations (mean±SD) for semi-final and final matches. *Significant difference from pre-to-post match; SFM = semi-final match; FM = final match.
Figure 2. Anxiety and self-confidence for semi-final and final matches (mean±SD).
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*Significant difference between semi-final and final matches; CA = cognitive
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anxiety; SA = somatic anxiety; SC = self-confidence.
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Figure 3. Ratings of perceived exertion, perceived performance and Match
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Involvements for semi-final and final matches (mean±SD). *Significant difference between semi-final and final matches; S-RPE = session-RPE; SFM = semi-final
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match; FM = final match; AU = arbitrary units; n = number of involvements.
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Highlights A significant increase in T occurred from pre-to-post for both semi-final and final matches; Higher anxiety, session-RPE and perceived performance occurred in the final match;
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No significant correlations between T changes and match involvement were
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found.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3