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Sanitation and waste disposal systems
CHAPTER 4
Sanitation and waste disposal systems Introduction Global environmental pollution is mostly dependent on the traditional sanitation and waste disposal systems. In fact, these pollutants are having a serious impact on human health and destroying flora and fauna in aquatic environments [1–3]. Due to the development of mass urbanization throughout the world, conventional sanitation and waste disposal systems are increasing rapidly. Therefore, environmental pollution gathering massively on Earth to survive all living being on this planet near future [4, 5]. This environmentally vulnerable condition will continue exponentially until a sustainable sanitation and waste disposal system is developed [6, 7]. It is undoubtedly clear that the sanitation and waste disposal system in modern urban development needs advanced technology to secure a greener, cleaner environment for mass urban development through the deployment of sustainable technology for combatting environmental pollutants. In this paper, thus, a sustainable sanitation and waste disposal system technology has been proposed to recycle urban sanitation and biowaste through the building itself without any outsource connection. Hence, domestic biowaste, including human feces and the wastewater of the building, is to be chosen that can be collected in the solar energypowered closed detention tank in the cellar. Then, the waste can be separated as (i) wastewater, and (ii) human feces with solid waste into two different chambers. Then, the methanogenesis process would be allowed into the closed detention tank to produce bioenergy in context with domestic solid waste and human feces utilization. It is estimated that a person can produce an average of 0.4–0.5 kg/day of feces that can form 0.4 m3 biogas/day [8, 9]. This amount of biogas (0.4 m3/day) is good enough to cook three meals for a family of four in a day. On the other hand, treated wastewater onsite by applying all primary, secondary, and tertiary processes can be used for gardening and landscaping for a building. Application these sustainable technologies for urban sanitation and waste disposal systems for modern urban development would be an interesting science that is 100% clean and environmentally friendly. Sustainable Development for Mass Urbanization https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817690-0.00004-X
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Simulation and method Solar power implemented bioreactor To implement of solar energy for powering the bioreactor, exterior wall of the curtain wall has been utilized as acting PV panel as a source of selfproducing power for the bioreactor. The photovoltaic solar irradiance model that is naturally absorbed by the PV panel is being calculated mathematically, considering the transmission of maximum photon particles into the solar panel [10–12]. It has been necessary to calculate the accuracy of the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic parameters by describing the singlediode model of a PV cell circuit [8, 13, 14]. Subsequently, the efficiency of a solar energy conversion rate subject to be raised by the introduced conductive materials into the building walls’ exterior skin PV cell. These give it the ability to last for a longer period, among other critical PV panel abilities. Thus, this introduction of the conduction materials aims at creating an advanced PV panel for powering bioreactors to recycle the sanitation and biowaste of urban buildings [15–17]. Hence, the use of the PV array for powering the bioreactor is related to the number of parameters, including transformation rate, voltage proliferation, PVVI curves, and the active solar volt (Iv+) that is determined from a single-diode model, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Another step is the determination of PV current production for the bioreactor through an Ipv calculation from a single-model diode, as indicated in Fig. 4.2A, based on the relationship between I, V, and R in Fig. 4.2B. The photovoltaic array receives the illumination that converts the current from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC), which is used for voltage current demand for the bioreactor is bring calculated as following equation Ppv ¼ ηpvg Apvg Gt
(4.1)
where the photovoltaic-generation efficiency is denoted by ηpvg while the photovoltaic generator area (m2) is represented by Apvg. On the other hand, Gt is the titled module plane’s (W/m2) solar radiation. However, ηpvg may further be expressed as: ηpvg ¼ ηr ηpc ½1 βðTc Tcref Þ
(4.2)
where power conditioning efficiency is denoted by ηpc (equivalent to 1) upon applying MPPT, whereas β is the temperature coefficient of the bioreactor (0.004–0.006 in every °C). The reference module efficiency is
PWM
VPV
Filter and Trans.
AC load
DC/AC converter
D
IPV
Transformer
MPPT controller
(B)
Fig. 4.1 Diagram of PV system model, (A) The module flow chart once photovoltaic solar irradiance is on the PV modules, (B) Simulink block diagram of PV solar array source and the block data of its parameters, respectively.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
(A)
Electrical panel (150—225 Amp)
DC load
DC/DC converter
AC disconnect
Battery
Inverter (500 V DC & 240 V AC)
220 V, 50 Hz
Charger/ discharger
PV array
DC disconnect
Vref
– VLDC
G
Combiner box
+ PI
PV modules
27
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
IRseries
Current flow i
Rseries IL
+
V + IRseries
Rshunt IF
R=
I
I
V
Voltage
V
V i
Circuit resistance
R
Voltmeter
+
Rload V
Ammeter
A
I
Ish
+i
Linear value
I
II
R
I = IL – Is
e(V + IRs) V + IR –1 – R s exp mkBT sh IF
(A)
–V
Voltage
+V Current
Ish
III
(B)
IV –i
Fig. 4.2 Single-diode circuit of a photovoltaic (PV) cell modeled by MATLAB simulation, (A) the photovoltaic current production, (B) the model with a diode considering the I-V-R relationship for the conversion process of DC to AC to power the bioreactor.
represented by ηr while Tcref is the temperature of the reference cell (°C), which may be obtained from the following relation: NOCT 20 (4.3) Tc ¼ T a + Gt 800 From the equation, Ta denotes the ambient temperature (°C) and Gt is the tilted module plane’ (W/m2) solar irradiance. On the other hand, NOCT is the temperature of the standard operating cell (°C). The overall irradiance within the solar cell may be calculated using the following equation, taking into account the diffuse and standard solar irradiance into the bioreactor: It ¼ Ib Rb + Id Rd + ðIb + Id ÞRr
(4.4)
Electricity is to be produced by the solar cells (P-N junction semiconductor) through the photovoltaic effect, which is interrelated in a parallelseries configuration for the formation of a PV cell [10, 18]. The resulting PV energy efficiency can, however, be integrated into the photovoltaic module for purposes of improvement [12, 19]. The use of a single diode for an Np parallel-connected to a bioreactor array and the Ns series-connected array cells depends on the relationship between the cell voltage and cell current as: qðV + IRs Þ 1 (4.5) I ¼ Np Iph Irs exp AKTN s
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
29
where 3 T EG 1 1 exp Irs ¼ Irr AK Tr T Tr
(4.6)
T, q, K, and A in Eqs. (4.5), (4.6) denote cell temperature (K), electron charge (1.6109 °C), Boltzmann’s constant, and the diode idealist factor, respectively. On the other hand, Irs, Tr, EG, and Irr, represent cell reverse saturation current at temperature (T), cell referred temperature, semiconductor band-gap energy, and reverse saturation current at Tr, respectively. The following equation shows how the radiation and temperature of the cell vary with photo current Iph: S Iph ¼ ISCR + ki ðT Tr Þ (4.7) 100 where cell short-circuit current at irradiance and reference temperature are denoted by ISCR. On the other hand, S and ki are the solar irradiance (mW/cm2) and short-circuit current temperature coefficient, respectively. The I-V PV cell characteristics may be derived through the use of a single-diode model that comprises an additional shunt resistance, which is simultaneous to the model of the optimal shunt diode: I ¼ Iph I0
I ¼ Iph ID qðV + Rs I Þ V + Rs I exp 1 AKT Rsh
(4.8) (4.9)
where Iph, ID, I0, A, q, and K denote the photo current (A), diode current (A), inverse saturation current (A), diode constant, electron charge (1.6 109 °C), and Boltzmann’s constant, respectively. On the other hand, T, Rs, Rsh, I, and V represent cell temperature (°C), series resistance (ohm), shunt resistance (ohm), cell current (A), and cell voltage (V), respectively. The photovoltaic cell’s output current through the use of a diode model is expressed as the total power supply for a bioreactor: V + IRs (4.10) I ¼ IPV ID1 ID2 Rsh From Eq. (4.10):
ID1 ¼ I01
V + IRs 1 exp a1 VT 1
(4.11)
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
ID2 ¼ I02
V + IRs 1 exp a2 VT 2
(4.12)
From Eqs. (4.11), (4.12), diodes 1 and 2 reverse saturation currents are also denoted by I01 and I02, respectively, while the respective diodes’ thermal voltages are represented by VT1 and VT2 into the bioreactor to supply the power during the advised condition such as cloudy sunlight. Therefore, integrating a1 and a2 are the most ideal constants of the diode to simply equations as follows to in order to get energy for the bioreactor steadily and continuously throughout the year: voc ¼
Voc cK T=q
(4.13)
0 10 1 Voc Voc a ln + 0:72 B C Voc0 C To y G cK T =q cK T =q B1 Voc CB Pmax ¼ I @ A sc0 @ Voc A G0 T Go Voc 1 + β ln 1+ ISC G nK T =q (4.14)
From the equations, νoc is the normalized open-circuit voltage value associated with thermal voltage Vt ¼nkT/q while K, n, T, α, q, γ, and β denote the Boltzmann’s constant, idealist factor (1 < n < 2), PV module temperature (K), nonlinear effect factor depended upon by the photocurrent, electron charge, nonlinear temperature-voltage effect factor, and a photovoltaic module technology-specific dimensionless coefficient, respectively. The highest single PV module energy output is presented in Eq. (4.14). A valid system contains a number of photovoltaic modules that are connected in parallel and in series. The overall net power output (PM) equation for the bioreactor is being determined with parallel-connected Np cells and series-connected Ns cells by the following equation: Parray ¼ Ns Np PM
(4.15)
Finally, to capture the highest amount of sunlight in order to power the bioreactor for a year continuously, the basis of various directional angles is being considered, meaning the Cartesian coordinate system or the spherical coordinate system, as illustrated in Fig. 4.3. Here the x, y, and z represent the horizon conventions, the east-west, and the zenith in order to capture enough sunlight to produce sufficient solar energy to power the bioreactor. The celestial body position in the Cartesian coordinate system can be determined by the azimuth angle. On the other hand, the following protocol is
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
z
31
z P(x, y, z)
P(r, f, z)
z
z
y r
x
y
f
y x
x
(A)
(B)
Fig. 4.3 The Cartesian coordinate system. (A) Cartesian coordinate analysis shows the equatorial system and vector control, considering the effect of the placement of solar PV systems, (B) shows the interocular symmetry considering various angles of the right maximum solar irradiance to capture to operate the bioreactor.
used by the equatorial system whereby the z axis points to the North Pole, the y axis and the system horizon are identical, and the x axis is perpendicular to y and z. In addition, ω angle hours and δ decline can help in determining the position. Generally, the analysis results in vector control strategy insertion for regulating reactive and active power with regard to a combination of various controls that can be reproduced and applied in other sophisticated systems [20–22].
The sustainable bioreactor The load-resistant factor design that basically distributed the sanitation water force load resistance capacity needs to be accounted for consideration the design of a sustainable bioreactor to regularly operate in a high pressure of water force. Thus, the bioreactor should comprise the following capacity to resist the water force load with a velocity of 379 mi/h with the drag coefficient and water pressure of 1.00 per square meter and a standard water density of 1.2 kg/m3. This helps in ensuring that the bioreactor panel is strongly resistant to the water force. Then, the water stagnation pressure shall be calculated by taking half the water density multiplied by the square of velocity, as shown in Eq. (4.16): pw ¼ 0:5ρCp vr2
(4.16)
where water pressure (Pa), air density(kg/m3), water velocity (m/s), and the water pressure coefficient at the height of the bioreactor are denoted
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
by pw, ρ, v2r , and Cp. As such, the water pressure may be calculated as Pw ¼0.5 1.2 kg/m3 3792 m/s, thus giving 86,185 Pa. Thus, net water force (F)¼ drag coefficient area stagnation pressure as shown in the equation below: F ¼ 1 m2 1:0 86; 185 ¼ 86;185 N ð8788 kgf Þ ¼ 19; 375 ibf
(4.17)
Once a solar power-assisted, structurally sound bioreactor is developed in the cellar of the building, then it has to be utilized to capture sanitation water and biowaste into its two chambers: (i) the wastewater tank, and (ii) the biowaste, including human feces. During this process, the wastewater needs to be treated by a preliminary treatment, a primary treatment, a secondary treatment, and disinfection. The whole treatment process can remove nearly 100% of the pollutants from the wastewater and disinfect the effluent. Furthermore, the final product can be utilized for local gardening and landscaping (Fig. 4.4). Apart from the treated wastewater, the resulting sludge is then to be taken into the anaerobic tank, where it is used for the production of bioenergy. This is a transformation process where electrochemically active carbon nanotube filters are used to adsorb and effectively oxidize the contaminant chemicals within the anode [23, 24]. It is a advanced system of waste treatment to combine both adsorption and oxidation at the anode CNT and further oxidation in situ generated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the cathode CNT in a small scale. Factors that affect the system’s oxidation mechanism and treatment efficiency are systematically studied. This calculation’s model indicated that electrode material, flow rate, cathode potential, oxygen dissolved, and pH can affect the hydrogen peroxide flow in order to remove the chemical contaminants [19, 25]. Additionally, phenol is being applied as an aromatic compound model to evaluate the system’s odor removal efficiency as well as its rate of oxidation directly correlated with the flow of hydrogen peroxide (Fig. 4.5). After this step, the product shall be stored in a closed chamber to allow the thermophilic anaerobic codigestion process to thicken. Then, the sludge is to be placed in free oxygen tanks called digesters and heated to at least 95°F for 10–15 days to stabilize the thickened sludge by converting much of the material into methane gas [9, 26]. It will therefore make it a safer environment for the bioreactor when waste is being discharged, which will stimulate the growth of anaerobic bacteria of Desulfovivrio and Methanecoccus. These consume organic matter in the sludge and thrive in a free anaerobic environment, which is different with bacteria in the aeration tanks.
Domestic watse including humane feces transformation into energy and useful Backwash return
Waste and waste water inlet
Equalization tank
Clarifier tank
Aeration tank
Tertlary filter
Disinfection zone
Returned activated sludge
Bioenergy
Biogas
Sludge holding tank
Sludge to bioreactor
Treated waste water
Landscaping
Fig. 4.4 Wastewater treatment process where effluent is used for gardening and the sludge is for a further process to produce biogas.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
Returned waste sludge
33
34
CO2
Biosynthesis 2e–
FdxH2 CHO–MF
Rnf
FdxH2
HdrABC
Ac-CoA
CH3OH
CH3–H4MPT
[CO]
Mcr
Methenyl-H4SPT
F420H2
2e–
Fpo
2e–
MPH2 HdrED
CH4
Methyl-amines
CoB-SH+CoM-SH
2e–
Methyl-H4SPT
Acetyl-CoA HS-CoA
Methyl-CoM
Methanol
CoB-SH CoB-S-S-CoM
(A)
2e–
Methylene-H4SPT
F420H2
Mtr CH3–CoM
CoM-SH
2e–
Formyl-H4SPT
– CH–H – 4MPT
Biosynthesis
2e–
Formyl-MF
CHO–H4MPT
CH2= H4MPT
CO2
Methyl-sulfides
–
2e
Acetyl-Pi ATP
Acetate
(B)
CH4
Fig. 4.5 Biochemical path of methanogenesis to a chain reaction for producing methane from domestic waste, including human feces where (A) Methanococcus and (B) Desulfovivrio bacteria are the main catalysts.
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Diagram of Methanococcus and Desulfovivrio reaction mechanism to produce methane
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
35
Results and discussion Solar power implemented bioreactor The implementation of sunlight energy is being taken into consideration due to photon flux movement and electromagnetic waves used in the solar panel for powering the bioreactor. This is because photo-induced charges are related to photophysical charges [1, 27]. As a matter of fact, the first order plays a key role in solar thermal energy application and solar cell antireflective coatings. On the other hand, the second order is essential in solar photochemistry and solar cells. Quantum electrodynamics (a very sophisticated and successful technology in the contemporary fields of physics) represent a combination of both views [28, 29]. Radiation is emitted by all hot bodies. Thus, the highest radiation quantities are emitted by a solar panel at a temperature of about 700°C. As the body color changes to white, orange (dark gray in print version), blue (black in print version), and yellow (light gray in print version), the overlapping load efficiencies are determined within the band gap as well as in the cells and the sun at temperatures of 300 and 6000 K, respectively [12]. The solar radiation energy density is estimated using classical statistical physics based on the frequency of the photon wave, as shown in Fig. 4.6. The highest solar energy formation is modeled using 27.77 MW/m2 eV of energy based on a photon excitation rate of 1.4 eV, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Because the solar irradiance intensity is the main energy source for converting solar energy into electricity for powering the bioreactor, thus the amount of light quanta of steady-state irradiance are being measured in respect to the specific polarization type of frequency of energy generation ranging from νr to νr + dνr [27, 30]. The highest solar radiation is achieved when the value is 27.77 mW/m2 eV at 1.4 eV with regard to five hours of mean solar irradiance harvested per day among the range of νr [18, 22, 31]. Due to physical principles, there are losses in the conversion of solar energy into DC power and converting direct current into alternating current (AC). This ratio of AC to DC is called the “derating factor,” which is typically 0.8 [11, 12, 23]. Thus, the surface texture of a selective solar panel is excellent in energy conversion because the current net conversion by solar panels is 125% higher with an efficiency of 80% [1, 30, 32] of solar panels, which means that (27,770 1.25 0.8) ¼ 27,770 kW/year or 7.6 kW/day. Energy remains equal to the solar initially what is before the introduction to the solar panel. Necessarily, the maximum solar irradiance is depicted as 1.4 eV with an energy value of 27.77 mW/m2 eV in Fig. 4.6 per year in an average of
36
IMP .VMP
PT
ISC .VOC
IMP PMAX
VMP VOC
V
Spectral radiance (W/(m2 sr mm))
PMAX
ISC
10
6
57
70
m
4
ax
10
K
(S
un
)
27
l
00
4
K
80
0K 28 8K
100 E=
hv
10–4 0.01
0.1 Ultraviolet
10 1 Wavelength (mm) Visible Infrared
2
(E
ar
th)
10
0K
100
Energy of oscillation (eV)
FF =
PT
Frequency (THz) 100
1000 108
0 1000 Far infrared
Fig. 4.6 The blackbody radiation in various temperatures at 5770 K power is 6.31 107 (W/m ); Peak E is 1.410 (eV); Peak λ is 0.88 (μm); and Peak μ is 2.81 107 (W/m2 eV). 2
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
I
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
37
five hours a day maximum levels for 365 days referents by solar panel [18, 31, 33]. A standard residential house requires an average of 6 kW/day [10, 12, 26]. Because the produced energy is equivalent to 27,770 kW/year or 7.6 kW/day, which in fact will meet the energy demand for a standard 5HP bioreactor required 6 kW/day by using only one solar panel 1 m2. In a large scale, the average energy consumption required monthly of a bioreactor of 50 HP in order to recycle of a building of 32 m 31 m with 30 m (10 floors), respectively [29, 34, 35]. In a calculation of a building with an average footprint of 32 m 31 m with a height of 30 m, the total installed 1 m2 PV panels require 1195 units (945 + 250) with the capacity of 7.6 kW/ unit energy production. This can provide total energy 1195 ¼ 9082 kW/ day to meet the daily energy demand of about 10,000 kW/day for a building to recycle the sanitation and domestic waste.
The sustainable bioreactor The solar-generated energy should then be introduced to the bioreactor to continuously power it for an entire year in order to recycle sanitation and biowaste where H2O2 plays a vital role in this process. The maximum flow H2O2 of 1.38 mol/L/m2 C is being achieved CNT L1 m2 with an applied cathodic potential V 0.4 (vs Ag/AgCl), a pH of 6.46, a rate flow of 1.5 mL/ min, and a DO influent flow of 1.95 mol/L/m2 in order to remove the contaminants from the biowaste. Furthermore, phenol can be used as an aromatic compound model for assessing the removal efficiency of the odor into the system and its oxidation rate correlated with the H2O2 flow. H2O2 shall react with a phenol anodically activated to itself, which is the reason why the H2O2 radical form cannot remove phenol efficiently. In addition, the formation of an electrochemical polymer through chain reaction of phenolic radicals can also contribute to nearly 100% of contaminant removal. A stable removal efficiency of 87.0 phenol 1.8% to 4 h of continuous operation can be achieved with an average rate of oxidation of 0.059 0.001 mol/h/m2 in order to remove the contaminant by nearly 100% [16, 25]. The electrochemical CNT filtering system thus developed with H2O2 generated in situ for a new application of filters in this process, where carbon nanotubes are being used as an effective treatment for removing contaminant pollutants nearly 100%. Then, the process of methanogenesis immediately began in the bioreactor once the contaminant pollutant was removed completely from the sludge through the CNT and H2O2 treatment because anaerobic codigestions started
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Production rate (mmol/m3/year)
Concentration (mM) 0
0
100
2
4
6
8
C1/C2 10
103
104
105
106
0 Rate
d13C
Depth (mbsi)
AIKTotal
C1/C2
50
CH4(model)
100
CH4(model) AIKobsvd
150 0
(A)
(B)
50 Concentration (mM)
100 –80
(C)
–70
–60
d13C methane (%°)
Fig. 4.7 (A) The effects of the depth of biowaste to produce bioenergy (CH4), (B) the production rate of bioenergy (CH4) considering the concentration of biowaste, and (C) net biogas production (CH4) during the continuous anaerobic digestion of the waste.
to work on the sludge immediately in the bioreactor to generate bioenergy (CH4). The net bioenergy production rate in the bioreactor is being analyzed using a computerized gas chromatograph (Fig. 4.7). Finally, this evolved bioenergy (CH4) can be stored and utilized for running HVAC and cooking equipment for that building.
Conclusion The development of mass urbanization around the world has accelerated exponentially over the last few decades. Consequently, urban sanitation and waste management problems are increasing rapidly due to the conventional application of urban sanitation and waste systems. The traditional urban sanitation and waste management system is creating severe environmental pollution, causing damage to human health as well as harm to flora and fauna in the aquatic environment. Here, this innovative technology could be the cutting-edge science to solve the urban sanitation and waste management problems. This innovative technology could mitigate urban sanitation and waste management system problems by recycling the domestic biowaste onsite to produce useful biogas. That would, in fact, be the most innovative technology to develop a sustainable urbanization.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by Green Globe Technology under grant RD-02018-01 to build a better environment. Any findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this paper are solely those of the author, who confirms that the article has no conflicts of interest for publication in a suitable journal.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
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[21] M. D€ urr, A. Cruden, S. Gair, J. McDonald, Dynamic model of a lead acid battery for use in a domestic fuel cell system, J. Power Sources 161 (2) (2006) 1400–1411. [22] A. Gaillard, P. Poure, S. Saadate, M. Machmoum, Variable speed DFIG wind energy system for power generation and harmonic current mitigation, Renew. Energy 34 (6) (2009) 1545–1553. [23] J.C. Maxwell, A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Reprinted by Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1864. (32) (1996). [24] J. Romero-Garcı´a, A. Sanchez, G. Rendo´n-Acosta, J. Martı´nez-Patin˜o, E. Ruiz, G. Magan˜a, E. Castro, An olive tree pruning biorefinery for co-producing high value-added bioproducts and biofuels: economic and energy efficiency analysis, BioEnergy Res. 9 (4) (2016) 1070–1086. [25] D. Rekioua, E. Matagne, Modeling of solar irradiance and cells, in: Optimization of Photovoltaic Power Systems. Green Energy and Technology, Springer, London, 2012. [26] H. Bethe, Energy production in stars, Phys. Rev. 55 (1) (1939) 103. [27] B. Liu, R. Jordan, The interrelationship and characteristic distribution of direct, diffuse and total solar radiation, Sol. Energy 4 (3) (1960) 1–19. [28] M. Hossain, Green science: advanced building design technology to mitigate energy and environment, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 81 (2018) 3051–3060. [29] M. Hossain, Photonic thermal control to naturally cool and heat the building, Appl. Therm. Eng. 131 (2018) 576–586. [30] C. Gopal, M. Mohanraj, P. Chandramohan, P. Chandrasekar, Renewable energy source water pumping systems—a literature review, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 25 (2013) 351–370. [31] E. Madani, S. Assailian, An experiment in linguistic synthesis with a fuzzy logic controller, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud. 51 (2) (1999) 135–147. [32] M. Gr€atzel, Photoelectrochemical cells, Nature 414 (6861) (2001) 338–344. [33] L. Duan, S. Sun, L. Yue, W. Qu, J. Bian, Study on different zero CO2 emission IGCC systems with CO2 capture by integrating OTM, Int. J. Energy Res. 40 (10) (2016) 1410–1427. [34] M. Hossain, Solar energy integration into advanced building design for meeting energy demand and environment problem, Int. J. Energy Res. 40 (9) (2016) 1293–1300. [35] R. King, D. Law, K. Edmondson, C. Fetzer, G. Kinsey, H. Yoon, R. Sherif, N. Karam, 40% efficient metamorphic GaInP / GaInAs /Ge multijunction solar cells, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90 (18) (2007) 183516.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems Introduction Global environmental pollution is mostly dependent on the traditional sanitation and waste disposal systems. In fact, these pollutants are having a serious impact on human health and destroying flora and fauna in aquatic environments [1–3]. Due to the development of mass urbanization throughout the world, conventional sanitation and waste disposal systems are increasing rapidly. Therefore, environmental pollution gathering massively on Earth to survive all living being on this planet near future [4, 5]. This environmentally vulnerable condition will continue exponentially until a sustainable sanitation and waste disposal system is developed [6, 7]. It is undoubtedly clear that the sanitation and waste disposal system in modern urban development needs advanced technology to secure a greener, cleaner environment for mass urban development through the deployment of sustainable technology for combatting environmental pollutants. In this paper, thus, a sustainable sanitation and waste disposal system technology has been proposed to recycle urban sanitation and biowaste through the building itself without any outsource connection. Hence, domestic biowaste, including human feces and the wastewater of the building, is to be chosen that can be collected in the solar energypowered closed detention tank in the cellar. Then, the waste can be separated as (i) wastewater, and (ii) human feces with solid waste into two different chambers. Then, the methanogenesis process would be allowed into the closed detention tank to produce bioenergy in context with domestic solid waste and human feces utilization. It is estimated that a person can produce an average of 0.4–0.5 kg/day of feces that can form 0.4 m3 biogas/day [8, 9]. This amount of biogas (0.4 m3/day) is good enough to cook three meals for a family of four in a day. On the other hand, treated wastewater onsite by applying all primary, secondary, and tertiary processes can be used for gardening and landscaping for a building. Application these sustainable technologies for urban sanitation and waste disposal systems for modern urban development would be an interesting science that is 100% clean and environmentally friendly. Sustainable Development for Mass Urbanization https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817690-0.00004-X
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Simulation and method Solar power implemented bioreactor To implement of solar energy for powering the bioreactor, exterior wall of the curtain wall has been utilized as acting PV panel as a source of selfproducing power for the bioreactor. The photovoltaic solar irradiance model that is naturally absorbed by the PV panel is being calculated mathematically, considering the transmission of maximum photon particles into the solar panel [10–12]. It has been necessary to calculate the accuracy of the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic parameters by describing the singlediode model of a PV cell circuit [8, 13, 14]. Subsequently, the efficiency of a solar energy conversion rate subject to be raised by the introduced conductive materials into the building walls’ exterior skin PV cell. These give it the ability to last for a longer period, among other critical PV panel abilities. Thus, this introduction of the conduction materials aims at creating an advanced PV panel for powering bioreactors to recycle the sanitation and biowaste of urban buildings [15–17]. Hence, the use of the PV array for powering the bioreactor is related to the number of parameters, including transformation rate, voltage proliferation, PVVI curves, and the active solar volt (Iv+) that is determined from a single-diode model, as shown in Fig. 4.1. Another step is the determination of PV current production for the bioreactor through an Ipv calculation from a single-model diode, as indicated in Fig. 4.2A, based on the relationship between I, V, and R in Fig. 4.2B. The photovoltaic array receives the illumination that converts the current from direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC), which is used for voltage current demand for the bioreactor is bring calculated as following equation Ppv ¼ ηpvg Apvg Gt
(4.1)
where the photovoltaic-generation efficiency is denoted by ηpvg while the photovoltaic generator area (m2) is represented by Apvg. On the other hand, Gt is the titled module plane’s (W/m2) solar radiation. However, ηpvg may further be expressed as: ηpvg ¼ ηr ηpc ½1 βðTc Tcref Þ
(4.2)
where power conditioning efficiency is denoted by ηpc (equivalent to 1) upon applying MPPT, whereas β is the temperature coefficient of the bioreactor (0.004–0.006 in every °C). The reference module efficiency is
PWM
VPV
Filter and Trans.
AC load
DC/AC converter
D
IPV
Transformer
MPPT controller
(B)
Fig. 4.1 Diagram of PV system model, (A) The module flow chart once photovoltaic solar irradiance is on the PV modules, (B) Simulink block diagram of PV solar array source and the block data of its parameters, respectively.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
(A)
Electrical panel (150—225 Amp)
DC load
DC/DC converter
AC disconnect
Battery
Inverter (500 V DC & 240 V AC)
220 V, 50 Hz
Charger/ discharger
PV array
DC disconnect
Vref
– VLDC
G
Combiner box
+ PI
PV modules
27
28
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
IRseries
Current flow i
Rseries IL
+
V + IRseries
Rshunt IF
R=
I
I
V
Voltage
V
V i
Circuit resistance
R
Voltmeter
+
Rload V
Ammeter
A
I
Ish
+i
Linear value
I
II
R
I = IL – Is
e(V + IRs) V + IR –1 – R s exp mkBT sh IF
(A)
–V
Voltage
+V Current
Ish
III
(B)
IV –i
Fig. 4.2 Single-diode circuit of a photovoltaic (PV) cell modeled by MATLAB simulation, (A) the photovoltaic current production, (B) the model with a diode considering the I-V-R relationship for the conversion process of DC to AC to power the bioreactor.
represented by ηr while Tcref is the temperature of the reference cell (°C), which may be obtained from the following relation: NOCT 20 (4.3) Tc ¼ T a + Gt 800 From the equation, Ta denotes the ambient temperature (°C) and Gt is the tilted module plane’ (W/m2) solar irradiance. On the other hand, NOCT is the temperature of the standard operating cell (°C). The overall irradiance within the solar cell may be calculated using the following equation, taking into account the diffuse and standard solar irradiance into the bioreactor: It ¼ Ib Rb + Id Rd + ðIb + Id ÞRr
(4.4)
Electricity is to be produced by the solar cells (P-N junction semiconductor) through the photovoltaic effect, which is interrelated in a parallelseries configuration for the formation of a PV cell [10, 18]. The resulting PV energy efficiency can, however, be integrated into the photovoltaic module for purposes of improvement [12, 19]. The use of a single diode for an Np parallel-connected to a bioreactor array and the Ns series-connected array cells depends on the relationship between the cell voltage and cell current as: qðV + IRs Þ 1 (4.5) I ¼ Np Iph Irs exp AKTN s
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
29
where 3 T EG 1 1 exp Irs ¼ Irr AK Tr T Tr
(4.6)
T, q, K, and A in Eqs. (4.5), (4.6) denote cell temperature (K), electron charge (1.6109 °C), Boltzmann’s constant, and the diode idealist factor, respectively. On the other hand, Irs, Tr, EG, and Irr, represent cell reverse saturation current at temperature (T), cell referred temperature, semiconductor band-gap energy, and reverse saturation current at Tr, respectively. The following equation shows how the radiation and temperature of the cell vary with photo current Iph: S Iph ¼ ISCR + ki ðT Tr Þ (4.7) 100 where cell short-circuit current at irradiance and reference temperature are denoted by ISCR. On the other hand, S and ki are the solar irradiance (mW/cm2) and short-circuit current temperature coefficient, respectively. The I-V PV cell characteristics may be derived through the use of a single-diode model that comprises an additional shunt resistance, which is simultaneous to the model of the optimal shunt diode: I ¼ Iph I0
I ¼ Iph ID qðV + Rs I Þ V + Rs I exp 1 AKT Rsh
(4.8) (4.9)
where Iph, ID, I0, A, q, and K denote the photo current (A), diode current (A), inverse saturation current (A), diode constant, electron charge (1.6 109 °C), and Boltzmann’s constant, respectively. On the other hand, T, Rs, Rsh, I, and V represent cell temperature (°C), series resistance (ohm), shunt resistance (ohm), cell current (A), and cell voltage (V), respectively. The photovoltaic cell’s output current through the use of a diode model is expressed as the total power supply for a bioreactor: V + IRs (4.10) I ¼ IPV ID1 ID2 Rsh From Eq. (4.10):
ID1 ¼ I01
V + IRs 1 exp a1 VT 1
(4.11)
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
ID2 ¼ I02
V + IRs 1 exp a2 VT 2
(4.12)
From Eqs. (4.11), (4.12), diodes 1 and 2 reverse saturation currents are also denoted by I01 and I02, respectively, while the respective diodes’ thermal voltages are represented by VT1 and VT2 into the bioreactor to supply the power during the advised condition such as cloudy sunlight. Therefore, integrating a1 and a2 are the most ideal constants of the diode to simply equations as follows to in order to get energy for the bioreactor steadily and continuously throughout the year: voc ¼
Voc cK T=q
(4.13)
0 10 1 Voc Voc a ln + 0:72 B C Voc0 C To y G cK T =q cK T =q B1 Voc CB Pmax ¼ I @ A sc0 @ Voc A G0 T Go Voc 1 + β ln 1+ ISC G nK T =q (4.14)
From the equations, νoc is the normalized open-circuit voltage value associated with thermal voltage Vt ¼nkT/q while K, n, T, α, q, γ, and β denote the Boltzmann’s constant, idealist factor (1 < n < 2), PV module temperature (K), nonlinear effect factor depended upon by the photocurrent, electron charge, nonlinear temperature-voltage effect factor, and a photovoltaic module technology-specific dimensionless coefficient, respectively. The highest single PV module energy output is presented in Eq. (4.14). A valid system contains a number of photovoltaic modules that are connected in parallel and in series. The overall net power output (PM) equation for the bioreactor is being determined with parallel-connected Np cells and series-connected Ns cells by the following equation: Parray ¼ Ns Np PM
(4.15)
Finally, to capture the highest amount of sunlight in order to power the bioreactor for a year continuously, the basis of various directional angles is being considered, meaning the Cartesian coordinate system or the spherical coordinate system, as illustrated in Fig. 4.3. Here the x, y, and z represent the horizon conventions, the east-west, and the zenith in order to capture enough sunlight to produce sufficient solar energy to power the bioreactor. The celestial body position in the Cartesian coordinate system can be determined by the azimuth angle. On the other hand, the following protocol is
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
z
31
z P(x, y, z)
P(r, f, z)
z
z
y r
x
y
f
y x
x
(A)
(B)
Fig. 4.3 The Cartesian coordinate system. (A) Cartesian coordinate analysis shows the equatorial system and vector control, considering the effect of the placement of solar PV systems, (B) shows the interocular symmetry considering various angles of the right maximum solar irradiance to capture to operate the bioreactor.
used by the equatorial system whereby the z axis points to the North Pole, the y axis and the system horizon are identical, and the x axis is perpendicular to y and z. In addition, ω angle hours and δ decline can help in determining the position. Generally, the analysis results in vector control strategy insertion for regulating reactive and active power with regard to a combination of various controls that can be reproduced and applied in other sophisticated systems [20–22].
The sustainable bioreactor The load-resistant factor design that basically distributed the sanitation water force load resistance capacity needs to be accounted for consideration the design of a sustainable bioreactor to regularly operate in a high pressure of water force. Thus, the bioreactor should comprise the following capacity to resist the water force load with a velocity of 379 mi/h with the drag coefficient and water pressure of 1.00 per square meter and a standard water density of 1.2 kg/m3. This helps in ensuring that the bioreactor panel is strongly resistant to the water force. Then, the water stagnation pressure shall be calculated by taking half the water density multiplied by the square of velocity, as shown in Eq. (4.16): pw ¼ 0:5ρCp vr2
(4.16)
where water pressure (Pa), air density(kg/m3), water velocity (m/s), and the water pressure coefficient at the height of the bioreactor are denoted
32
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
by pw, ρ, v2r , and Cp. As such, the water pressure may be calculated as Pw ¼0.5 1.2 kg/m3 3792 m/s, thus giving 86,185 Pa. Thus, net water force (F)¼ drag coefficient area stagnation pressure as shown in the equation below: F ¼ 1 m2 1:0 86; 185 ¼ 86;185 N ð8788 kgf Þ ¼ 19; 375 ibf
(4.17)
Once a solar power-assisted, structurally sound bioreactor is developed in the cellar of the building, then it has to be utilized to capture sanitation water and biowaste into its two chambers: (i) the wastewater tank, and (ii) the biowaste, including human feces. During this process, the wastewater needs to be treated by a preliminary treatment, a primary treatment, a secondary treatment, and disinfection. The whole treatment process can remove nearly 100% of the pollutants from the wastewater and disinfect the effluent. Furthermore, the final product can be utilized for local gardening and landscaping (Fig. 4.4). Apart from the treated wastewater, the resulting sludge is then to be taken into the anaerobic tank, where it is used for the production of bioenergy. This is a transformation process where electrochemically active carbon nanotube filters are used to adsorb and effectively oxidize the contaminant chemicals within the anode [23, 24]. It is a advanced system of waste treatment to combine both adsorption and oxidation at the anode CNT and further oxidation in situ generated hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the cathode CNT in a small scale. Factors that affect the system’s oxidation mechanism and treatment efficiency are systematically studied. This calculation’s model indicated that electrode material, flow rate, cathode potential, oxygen dissolved, and pH can affect the hydrogen peroxide flow in order to remove the chemical contaminants [19, 25]. Additionally, phenol is being applied as an aromatic compound model to evaluate the system’s odor removal efficiency as well as its rate of oxidation directly correlated with the flow of hydrogen peroxide (Fig. 4.5). After this step, the product shall be stored in a closed chamber to allow the thermophilic anaerobic codigestion process to thicken. Then, the sludge is to be placed in free oxygen tanks called digesters and heated to at least 95°F for 10–15 days to stabilize the thickened sludge by converting much of the material into methane gas [9, 26]. It will therefore make it a safer environment for the bioreactor when waste is being discharged, which will stimulate the growth of anaerobic bacteria of Desulfovivrio and Methanecoccus. These consume organic matter in the sludge and thrive in a free anaerobic environment, which is different with bacteria in the aeration tanks.
Domestic watse including humane feces transformation into energy and useful Backwash return
Waste and waste water inlet
Equalization tank
Clarifier tank
Aeration tank
Tertlary filter
Disinfection zone
Returned activated sludge
Bioenergy
Biogas
Sludge holding tank
Sludge to bioreactor
Treated waste water
Landscaping
Fig. 4.4 Wastewater treatment process where effluent is used for gardening and the sludge is for a further process to produce biogas.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
Returned waste sludge
33
34
CO2
Biosynthesis 2e–
FdxH2 CHO–MF
Rnf
FdxH2
HdrABC
Ac-CoA
CH3OH
CH3–H4MPT
[CO]
Mcr
Methenyl-H4SPT
F420H2
2e–
Fpo
2e–
MPH2 HdrED
CH4
Methyl-amines
CoB-SH+CoM-SH
2e–
Methyl-H4SPT
Acetyl-CoA HS-CoA
Methyl-CoM
Methanol
CoB-SH CoB-S-S-CoM
(A)
2e–
Methylene-H4SPT
F420H2
Mtr CH3–CoM
CoM-SH
2e–
Formyl-H4SPT
– CH–H – 4MPT
Biosynthesis
2e–
Formyl-MF
CHO–H4MPT
CH2= H4MPT
CO2
Methyl-sulfides
–
2e
Acetyl-Pi ATP
Acetate
(B)
CH4
Fig. 4.5 Biochemical path of methanogenesis to a chain reaction for producing methane from domestic waste, including human feces where (A) Methanococcus and (B) Desulfovivrio bacteria are the main catalysts.
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Diagram of Methanococcus and Desulfovivrio reaction mechanism to produce methane
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
35
Results and discussion Solar power implemented bioreactor The implementation of sunlight energy is being taken into consideration due to photon flux movement and electromagnetic waves used in the solar panel for powering the bioreactor. This is because photo-induced charges are related to photophysical charges [1, 27]. As a matter of fact, the first order plays a key role in solar thermal energy application and solar cell antireflective coatings. On the other hand, the second order is essential in solar photochemistry and solar cells. Quantum electrodynamics (a very sophisticated and successful technology in the contemporary fields of physics) represent a combination of both views [28, 29]. Radiation is emitted by all hot bodies. Thus, the highest radiation quantities are emitted by a solar panel at a temperature of about 700°C. As the body color changes to white, orange (dark gray in print version), blue (black in print version), and yellow (light gray in print version), the overlapping load efficiencies are determined within the band gap as well as in the cells and the sun at temperatures of 300 and 6000 K, respectively [12]. The solar radiation energy density is estimated using classical statistical physics based on the frequency of the photon wave, as shown in Fig. 4.6. The highest solar energy formation is modeled using 27.77 MW/m2 eV of energy based on a photon excitation rate of 1.4 eV, as shown in Fig. 4.6. Because the solar irradiance intensity is the main energy source for converting solar energy into electricity for powering the bioreactor, thus the amount of light quanta of steady-state irradiance are being measured in respect to the specific polarization type of frequency of energy generation ranging from νr to νr + dνr [27, 30]. The highest solar radiation is achieved when the value is 27.77 mW/m2 eV at 1.4 eV with regard to five hours of mean solar irradiance harvested per day among the range of νr [18, 22, 31]. Due to physical principles, there are losses in the conversion of solar energy into DC power and converting direct current into alternating current (AC). This ratio of AC to DC is called the “derating factor,” which is typically 0.8 [11, 12, 23]. Thus, the surface texture of a selective solar panel is excellent in energy conversion because the current net conversion by solar panels is 125% higher with an efficiency of 80% [1, 30, 32] of solar panels, which means that (27,770 1.25 0.8) ¼ 27,770 kW/year or 7.6 kW/day. Energy remains equal to the solar initially what is before the introduction to the solar panel. Necessarily, the maximum solar irradiance is depicted as 1.4 eV with an energy value of 27.77 mW/m2 eV in Fig. 4.6 per year in an average of
36
IMP .VMP
PT
ISC .VOC
IMP PMAX
VMP VOC
V
Spectral radiance (W/(m2 sr mm))
PMAX
ISC
10
6
57
70
m
4
ax
10
K
(S
un
)
27
l
00
4
K
80
0K 28 8K
100 E=
hv
10–4 0.01
0.1 Ultraviolet
10 1 Wavelength (mm) Visible Infrared
2
(E
ar
th)
10
0K
100
Energy of oscillation (eV)
FF =
PT
Frequency (THz) 100
1000 108
0 1000 Far infrared
Fig. 4.6 The blackbody radiation in various temperatures at 5770 K power is 6.31 107 (W/m ); Peak E is 1.410 (eV); Peak λ is 0.88 (μm); and Peak μ is 2.81 107 (W/m2 eV). 2
Sustainable development for mass urbanization
I
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
37
five hours a day maximum levels for 365 days referents by solar panel [18, 31, 33]. A standard residential house requires an average of 6 kW/day [10, 12, 26]. Because the produced energy is equivalent to 27,770 kW/year or 7.6 kW/day, which in fact will meet the energy demand for a standard 5HP bioreactor required 6 kW/day by using only one solar panel 1 m2. In a large scale, the average energy consumption required monthly of a bioreactor of 50 HP in order to recycle of a building of 32 m 31 m with 30 m (10 floors), respectively [29, 34, 35]. In a calculation of a building with an average footprint of 32 m 31 m with a height of 30 m, the total installed 1 m2 PV panels require 1195 units (945 + 250) with the capacity of 7.6 kW/ unit energy production. This can provide total energy 1195 ¼ 9082 kW/ day to meet the daily energy demand of about 10,000 kW/day for a building to recycle the sanitation and domestic waste.
The sustainable bioreactor The solar-generated energy should then be introduced to the bioreactor to continuously power it for an entire year in order to recycle sanitation and biowaste where H2O2 plays a vital role in this process. The maximum flow H2O2 of 1.38 mol/L/m2 C is being achieved CNT L1 m2 with an applied cathodic potential V 0.4 (vs Ag/AgCl), a pH of 6.46, a rate flow of 1.5 mL/ min, and a DO influent flow of 1.95 mol/L/m2 in order to remove the contaminants from the biowaste. Furthermore, phenol can be used as an aromatic compound model for assessing the removal efficiency of the odor into the system and its oxidation rate correlated with the H2O2 flow. H2O2 shall react with a phenol anodically activated to itself, which is the reason why the H2O2 radical form cannot remove phenol efficiently. In addition, the formation of an electrochemical polymer through chain reaction of phenolic radicals can also contribute to nearly 100% of contaminant removal. A stable removal efficiency of 87.0 phenol 1.8% to 4 h of continuous operation can be achieved with an average rate of oxidation of 0.059 0.001 mol/h/m2 in order to remove the contaminant by nearly 100% [16, 25]. The electrochemical CNT filtering system thus developed with H2O2 generated in situ for a new application of filters in this process, where carbon nanotubes are being used as an effective treatment for removing contaminant pollutants nearly 100%. Then, the process of methanogenesis immediately began in the bioreactor once the contaminant pollutant was removed completely from the sludge through the CNT and H2O2 treatment because anaerobic codigestions started
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Sustainable development for mass urbanization
Production rate (mmol/m3/year)
Concentration (mM) 0
0
100
2
4
6
8
C1/C2 10
103
104
105
106
0 Rate
d13C
Depth (mbsi)
AIKTotal
C1/C2
50
CH4(model)
100
CH4(model) AIKobsvd
150 0
(A)
(B)
50 Concentration (mM)
100 –80
(C)
–70
–60
d13C methane (%°)
Fig. 4.7 (A) The effects of the depth of biowaste to produce bioenergy (CH4), (B) the production rate of bioenergy (CH4) considering the concentration of biowaste, and (C) net biogas production (CH4) during the continuous anaerobic digestion of the waste.
to work on the sludge immediately in the bioreactor to generate bioenergy (CH4). The net bioenergy production rate in the bioreactor is being analyzed using a computerized gas chromatograph (Fig. 4.7). Finally, this evolved bioenergy (CH4) can be stored and utilized for running HVAC and cooking equipment for that building.
Conclusion The development of mass urbanization around the world has accelerated exponentially over the last few decades. Consequently, urban sanitation and waste management problems are increasing rapidly due to the conventional application of urban sanitation and waste systems. The traditional urban sanitation and waste management system is creating severe environmental pollution, causing damage to human health as well as harm to flora and fauna in the aquatic environment. Here, this innovative technology could be the cutting-edge science to solve the urban sanitation and waste management problems. This innovative technology could mitigate urban sanitation and waste management system problems by recycling the domestic biowaste onsite to produce useful biogas. That would, in fact, be the most innovative technology to develop a sustainable urbanization.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by Green Globe Technology under grant RD-02018-01 to build a better environment. Any findings, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in this paper are solely those of the author, who confirms that the article has no conflicts of interest for publication in a suitable journal.
Sanitation and waste disposal systems
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