- Email: [email protected]
Sauces and seasonings
Sauces and seasonings David Titman Foodscape, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
12
12.1 Introduction It is well documented that high levels of dietary salt (NaCl) and specifically sodium, are associated with elevated blood pressure and hypertension. As hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including strokes and coronary heart disease, there is significant interest in reducing dietary salt as a public health initiative. The World Health Organisation global action plan for the prevention of non-communicable disease (2013) indicates that a salt intake of less than 5 g per day for adults helps to reduce blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and coronary heart attack. WHO Member States have been challenged to reduce the global population’s intake of salt by a relative 30% by 2025. Kloss et al. (2015) reported that in industrialised countries, approximately 75%– 80% of dietary salt is obtained through consumption of industrially processed foods and 10%–15% is added to foods at home either during cooking or at the table. In less developed countries, the contribution made by seasonings added directly by consumers is higher as the proportion of processed food in the diet is less. It was reported by Zandstra et al. (2016) that discretionary salt use accounted for only 5% of total intake in the United Kingdom, whereas in China, where soy sauce is frequently used as a table condiment, salt added by the consumer accounted for 78% of the total salt intake. Whether salt is added in processing or at the table, the widespread use of seasonings and sauces to impart, improve, and enhance the flavour of foods means that they are relevant both as an ingredient in manufactured foods and also as a finished product for consumers to add to their food at home. Within the scope of this chapter, generic seasonings as well as application specific seasonings in both wet and dry food systems will be discussed. The focus will be firmly on the impact that various salt reduction strategies have on taste and flavour perception of foods.
12.2 Salt in seasonings and sauces In this section, the role of salt in some specific types of seasonings, blends, condiments, and sauces is introduced.
12.2.1 Dry topical seasonings These are seasonings that are applied to the surface of a food prior to consumption. They are used widely to season dry foods such as salty snacks to add both saltiness Reducing Salt in Foods. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100890-4.00012-3 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
272
Reducing Salt in Foods
and flavour. In these cases, the salt remains undissolved in crystal form on the surface of the food until the product is eaten. These seasonings may be simple blend of salt, herbs, spices, etc. or may be more complex with the addition of small quantities of flavoured oils, oleoresins, and other liquid ingredients. It should be noted that in seasoning blends that do contain liquid oils, it is common practice to pre-mix these oils with the salt and other crystalline ingredients (e.g. sugars) to thinly coat or ‘plate’ the dry crystals before mixing with the non-crystalline ingredients (e.g. spice powders). This two-stage mixing process ensures even distribution of the wet ingredients throughout the dry mix. As altering the size and shape of salt crystals may be considered as a strategy for salt reduction, it is important to be aware that this might also have an impact on the interaction between the salt and the oils in these mixing procedures.
12.2.2 Recipe seasonings Recipe seasonings are used to add a specific flavour to, or to season specific recipes. These would typically be a blend of salt, herbs, and spices that are added to a recipe in either an industrial or domestic setting. An example of a recipe seasoning would be a Bolognese seasoning for a pasta sauce. The seasoning would be designed to add saltiness and key flavour characteristics. The salt would be dissolved throughout the food or portion of the food system that is seasoned.
12.2.3 Sauces Seasoning sauces typically contain salt and aromatic ingredients in an aqueous solution or the aqueous phase of an emulsion. Particularly for ready made sauces, it is important to note that the salt not only contributes to the taste and flavour but potentially also to the microbial stability of the food due to its antimicrobial properties and also its impact on water activity. Seasoning sauces may be used commercially or domestically and may be consumed mixed into a food or used as a dip or topping, etc.
12.3 Strategies for reducing salt in seasonings and sauces The following section reviews some of the key strategies that may be used singly or in combination to support the reduction of salt in seasonings and sauces. Table 12.1 indicates where each of the strategies is most likely to find success in application.
12.3.1 Incremental salt reduction over time This strategy requires simply making multiple small recipe changes over time to reduce the amount of salt in a product without consumers noticing any change in taste
Sauces and seasonings273
Table 12.1 Salt reduction strategies and their likely applications to seasonings and sauces Strategy
Topical seasonings
Recipe seasonings
Sauces
Incremental reduction Salt crystal size/morphology Mineral salt replacers Taste-taste interactions Taste-odour interactions Herbs and spices Taste heterogeneity Salt encapsulation Concentrating aqueous solutions
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – ✓
or flavour. Using this strategy alone, making any significant changes to salt levels may require making many imperceptible changes over a period of years (Liem et al., 2011). It is based on the principle that people will adapt to the lower salt content and that their preferences will similarly adapt (Beauchamp et al., 1983). Consumers need to be given time to adapt to one change before the next is made. In a 16-week longitudinal study by Bobowski et al. (2015), it was seen that a gradual reduction in salt in a salt-seasoned tomato juice was more effective than an abrupt reduction in maintaining acceptability throughout the study. It was also noticed that individuals identified as having a high hedonic sensitivity to salt and those who were unmotivated to reduce sodium found the reductions to be generally less acceptable than those who had either a lower hedonic sensitivity to salt or those who were motivated to reduce sodium intake. This indicates that there is unlikely to be a ‘one size fits all’ approach to this strategy and that consumer segmentation to better understanding how salt drives acceptability and consumer motivation to reduce salt should be integrated into its implementation. As this strategy is designed to be invisible to the consumer, opportunities to proactively manage consumer expectation or provide positive communications are limited. No ‘improvements’ to the recipe have been made and EU regulations require a 25% comparative reduction for ‘any reduced sodium’ or ‘reduced salt’ claims (European Commission) that are unlikely to be achieved without any perceived change to flavour. For this strategy to be acceptable, there needs to be an adaptation in the consumers’ perception of salt and saltiness (Dötsch et al., 2009). If the salt reduction is made too quickly and consumer preferences have not fully adapted, there may be the risk of increased use of table salt to compensate as seen by De Kock et al. (2016) in a study investigating acceptance of reduced-salt chicken stews.
12.3.2 Selecting size and morphology of salt crystals In food systems where seasoning (including salt) is delivered dry, the salt crystals need to be dissolved in the saliva before they can contribute to the perception of saltiness. The rate of dissolution is directly relevant to the perception of saltiness.
274
Reducing Salt in Foods
Rama et al. (2013) demonstrated that the size of salt crystals used to topically season potato chips significantly impacted the perception of saltiness and the rate of solution in saliva. The smallest crystal sizes, per unit of sodium, resulted in the highest perceived saltiness both in terms of peak intensity and overall saltiness. Additionally, it was noted that the smaller crystal sizes dissolved faster and were associated with a faster delivery of the salty taste on chewing but also a faster loss of saltiness after chewing. This indicates that although manipulation of salt crystal size may be useful in helping reduce the level of sodium required to attain peak and overall saltiness, the impact on overall taste and flavour delivery over the total eating time needs to be considered. In addition to particle size, crystal morphology can also impact on the rate at which salt dissolves in saliva. Quilaqueo et al. (2015) evaluated dissolution rate and perception of saltiness of a number of salts with different crystal structures. Crystal shapes with a higher surface area (e.g. highly agglomerated or flat) dissolved faster and gave a faster and more intense saltiness that crystals that were more cubic in shape. Selecting and combining specific sizes and shapes of salt crystals used in a seasoning may be a useful strategy to help reduce overall salt whilst still maintaining an acceptable profile of saltiness during eating of products like salty snacks. On a practical note, it should be considered that particle size and shape can also impact on the ability of the salt to adhere to the surface of the snack. Larger, heavier crystals have a greater tendency to fall off products, potentially causing operational and quality issues in plant.
12.3.3 Use of mineral salt replacers There are a number of alternative mineral salts that may offer some alternative to sodium chloride in imparting a salty taste to foods. The most popular of these is potassium chloride (Liem et al., 2011). The use of these alternative mineral salts in seasonings is limited due to the fact that although they have a generally salty taste, they also impart undesirable sensory characteristics (e.g. metallic and or bitter aftertastes). As a result, it is a common strategy to only partially replace sodium chloride with an alternative mineral salt. Israr et al. (2016) report that replacing up to 30% of NaCl with KCl in bread is achievable without a significant change in sensory properties, but much above that results in an unacceptable taste. The potential to use KCl or other mineral salts such as magnesium chloride or ammonium chloride in seasonings and sauces is highly dependent on their application. As we will discuss later in the chapter, the interaction of the flavours from the food being seasoned will have a significant impact on the perception of both saltiness and the off tastes associated with the salt replacers. Generally speaking, the stronger and more complex the flavours of the dish, the greater the level of salt replacer that can be tolerated. As a point of reference, the commercially available salt alternative LoSalt® contains a minimum of 66% KCl and a maximum of 33.3% NaCl.
12.3.4 Utilisation of taste-taste interactions The saltiness provided by seasonings is typically only one of the taste components that they impart on food. Often, complex seasonings will provide a blend of each of the five
Sauces and seasonings275
major taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (savoury). Understanding potential taste interactions may be an important factor in the development and modification of seasonings to enhance the perception of saltiness whilst managing levels of actual salt. Keast and Breslin (2003) reviewed the complex nature of taste-taste interactions that need to consider chemical and cognitive factors in addition to taste receptor/transduction mechanisms. They concluded their study with some general taste-taste interactions that could be useful in formulation development of lower salt seasonings. It was reported that at low-to-moderate levels, the addition of a sour taste could enhance the perception of saltiness. Adding an umami taste (either monosodium glutamate (MSG) or sodium salts of 5′-ribonucleotides) also appears to enhance saltiness at moderate concentrations, while suppressing sourness and bitterness. Citric acid (a relatively common ingredient in manufactured seasoning blends) has been shown to increase saltiness at low levels of sodium chloride (Breslin, 1996). The strategy of adding acids or acidic (sour) ingredients to sauces and seasoning blends in order to enhance saltiness without additional salt may be useful in many applications. The efficacy of using MSG to assist salt reduction in poories (traditional Indian fried bread) was investigated by Maheshwari et al. (2017). In this study, poories were made with varying levels of salt and MSG and assessed by a semi-trained sensory panel. The results indicated that the addition of MSG enhanced both the saltiness and the acceptability for products with lower salt. The wider study also included an evaluation of the impact of adding spices to the recipe, which also increased acceptability at low salt levels. The use of spices in salt reduced seasonings will be explored later on in this chapter. As the use of MSG may have a negative consumer perception, other sources of umami taste may be used in its place. Soy sauce, yeast extracts, nucleotides, hydrolysed vegetable proteins, and di‑calcium glutamate have all been reported as providers of umami taste to support salt reduction initiatives (Israr et al., 2016). Aqueous extracts of saltwort, sea tangle, and the dried fruit kukoshi have also been identified for potential use in salt reduction due to their umami taste (Lee, 2011). It is important to note the limitations of adding umami to enhance saltiness. Due to the nature of the umami taste, this strategy is most useful for seasonings destined for use in savoury products with a meaty/savoury flavour. Consumer desire for natural products may favour the plant extracts, but these also come with some specific taste and flavour attributes (e.g. seaweed flavour) that will limit their applications.
12.3.5 Utilisation of taste-odour interactions In daily life, seasonings and sauces are designed to impart and enhance an overall flavour rather than simply taste elements. The flavour of a food is generally accepted to be a broader integration of sensory experiences including taste and odour and it is known that both of these interact during eating to deliver what we perceive as flavour (Small and Prescott, 2005). The addition of salt-enhancing odours to a sauce or seasoning may be useful in various applications in new developments of salt reduction programmes other than reducing salt by stealth.
276
Reducing Salt in Foods
A study by Lawrence et al. (2009) demonstrated that the simultaneous exposure to specific odours can significantly enhance the perception of saltiness of a basic salt solution. The study found that the presence of odours such as anchovy, bacon, sardine, ham, and peanut all enhanced the perceived saltiness of a salt solution. The same study showed an association between the odours giving the greatest odour induced saltiness enhancement (OISE) and the associated saltiness intensity for the food represented by the odour. This indicates that the effect is influenced by cognitive interactions, supported by previous food experiences. In practical application, this means that the inclusion of aromatic ingredients such as a bacon or anchovy flavour may be incorporated into a sauce or seasoning blend to enhance or maintain the perception of saltiness without changing the actual levels of salt in the blend. In applying this strategy, it would be important to ensure that the aroma being added is congruent with the seasoning itself and the food(s) in which the seasoning is to be used. The odours that were demonstrated to have the greatest OISE generally tended to be meaty or fishy aromas although peanut and some salty cheeses were also shown to have an effect. It is interesting to note that the study by Lawrence et al. (2009) was carried out in France using French panellists. As the effect is influenced by existing cognitive links between known foods and saltiness, the efficacy of a specific odour in enhancing saltiness may well vary between cultures with different culinary exposures and experiences. For example, in cultures where cheese has less culinary significance, it is possible that the taste-odour interaction would be quite different. Subsequent studies by Nasri et al. (2013) have explored the potential to combine odour-taste and taste-taste interactions as strategies for reducing salt in model systems. The conclusion indicates that well-designed recipes could utilise both strategies effectively, although interactions may not be predictable in complex food systems.
12.3.6 Use of herbs and spices Herbs and spices have long been used as seasonings and their culinary use is largely based on their ability to improve and impart desirable flavours in food. Their heritage as natural, ‘clean label’ seasoning ingredients means that they are preferred tools in salt reduction approaches (Ghawi et al., 2014). Furthermore, there is now ample evidence that culinary herbs and spices are sources of constituents that possess numerous health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties (Opara, 2017). Despite the attraction and potential of using herbs and spices in salt reduction strategies, there is relatively little published research (Hoppu et al., 2017). Herbs and spices are typically strongly aromatic and provide a source of diverse flavour experiences. As food preferences are generally created through learned experience (Rozin and Vollmecke, 1986), selecting the herbs or spices used in seasonings needs to be considered within the context of consumer familiarity with the associated flavour and the context in which it is being used. Ghawi et al. (2014) explored the effect of herb blends in a low-salt tomato soup. The use of different herb blends identified three clusters of consumers who preferred
Sauces and seasonings277
the different versions based on either basil, cumin & coriander, or oregano. This illustrates the potential importance of considering customer segmentation in any salt reduction strategy. In this study, although the addition of the blends did not counter the drop in liking between a standard soup and a low salt soup, the addition of the oreganobased blend did lead to a significant improvement in liking over repeated exposure that was not seen in the basic low salt soup. Herbs and spices for use as domestic seasonings also potentially have a role in public health salt reduction initiatives. A multifactorial behavioural intervention that encouraged the use of herbs and spices in home cooking has been reported that it enabled a reduction in salt consumption greater than that achieved by individuals given standard sodium education material and asked to follow advice given by the US centres for disease control (CDC) (Anderson et al., 2015). In summary, the culinary use of herbs and spices as seasonings persists due to their ability to improve liking of a food, predominantly through flavour. Therefore, it is reasonable to state that an increase in liking due to skilful use of herbs and spices in a recipe may provide a clean label opportunity to offset a decrease in palatability and consumer acceptance often caused by decreasing salt content.
12.3.7 Taste heterogeneity The way that salt is distributed throughout a food has been shown to have a significant impact on the perceived saltiness. Creating foods with different portions containing different levels of salt, or products with ‘salty spots’ has been reported as achieving an overall perceived level of saltiness with less salt than in similar products where the salt is evenly distributed (Busch et al., 2013). Emorine et al. (2013) demonstrated that a salt reduction of 42% could be achieved in a layered snack through the management of salt distribution in the different layers. One of the challenges identified that would be particularly significant in the case of seasonings and sauces would be the control of diffusion of the salt throughout the product in cooking and storage. Encapsulating salt crystals in an appropriate fat matrix may be helpful in managing this. In dry systems, using fewer, larger salt crystals distributed through a product may provide a useful level of heterogeneity in enhancing saltiness. Distribution of the large crystals would have to be such that each bite would provide a different level of saltiness with some bites including the large crystals to provide the salt ‘hit’ that would influence perception. Depending on the food system, the impact of the heterogeneity would have to be considered alongside influence that the rate of dissolution of large crystals has on salt impact as discussed previously in this chapter. In wet sauces where the salt is dissolved this strategy needs to be approached differently. There are still opportunities, particularly if a sauce is destined for use as a component in a constructed product such as a sandwich or lasagnes for example. Differences in saltiness between the sauce and other layers in the build may be exploited to deliver heterogeneity in distribution of salt.
278
Reducing Salt in Foods
12.3.8 Salt encapsulation It is well documented that encapsulating salt in an appropriate fat can influence its rate of solution in both aqueous phase of a food system and also in saliva during eating. As such, it can be used as a strategy to control perceived saltiness directly as a result of its rate of solution but also as a tool to create heterogeneity in a food system. The ability of a high melting point fat to encapsulate salt and to protect the crystals during bread manufacture was demonstrated by Noort et al. (2012). The encapsulation allowed for the enhancement of saltiness by creating a heterogeneous product with large salt crystals spread out across the product. The resulting taste gradients in the bread increased the perception of saltiness in a sensory panel. In this case, the increase in saltiness unfortunately had an adverse effect on the liking the bread. However, it demonstrated the potential of combining encapsulation with crystal size management as a strategy for reducing salt in seasonings destined for use with baked goods. Lower melting point fats may be used for encapsulation of salt in seasonings destined for use in products stored at ambient temperatures. The encapsulating ‘shell’ needs to be based on fat crystals, which are stable during storage but melt appropriately at temperatures found within the mouth in order to release the salt in order that it can be dissolved in the saliva.
12.3.9 Concentrating aqueous solutions As most sauces are water based, the salt tends to be fully dissolved and therefore uniformly distributed through the sauce. This limits the use of any salt reduction strategy based on limiting the rate of solution of salt crystals in saliva or the creation of taste gradients to create heterogeneity. For emulsion-based sauces, it has been reported that the oil droplets can effectively act as a ‘filler’, concentrating the salt into the aqueous phase and increasing the perceived saltiness (Busch et al., 2013). In this case, increasing proportion of oil in the emulsion increased perceived saltiness when the total salt content of the food was unchanged. On a practical level, this strategy is likely to have the negative effects of adding significant cost and will also increase the fat content of the sauce. The potential use of double emulsions has been studied by Frasch-Melnik et al., 2010. In these double emulsions, large oil droplets containing droplets of a trapped aqueous phase can exist within a second continuous phase. The trapped water increases the volume of the oil droplets and allows for a reduced quantity of oil required to create droplets of a given size. Although stability of these double emulsions has proved challenging, their use in the development of double emulsions with the salt concentrated only in the continuous aqueous phase may be strategy of interest for both salt and fat reduction initiatives. Busch et al. (2013) also discuss the potential to use air as an alternative filler to oil. It was reported that similar to emulsions, the overall salt taste of foamed samples was mostly dependent the concentration of salt in the aqueous phase. Using either oil or air as ways to concentrate salt in an aqueous phase will very likely have a significant impact on sensory, physical, and commercial qualities of a sauce, which would need to be considered.
Sauces and seasonings279
12.4 Conclusion The diverse nature of seasonings and sauces means that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to salt reduction. Depending on the type of seasoning being developed and its target use(s), one or more of the strategies discussed could be employed. The role of the seasoning in delivering a balance of saltiness, flavour, and flavour enhancement needs to be understood in each application. Complex seasonings that include salt in addition to other taste and aromatic ingredients allow for a greater level of flexibility in how salt reduction can be approached. Seasonings designed to be more versatile in use tend to be less restricted by consumer expectation of a specific flavour profile and may therefore have more scope for flavour change as salt is reduced. Pure blends of spices and other aromatic ingredients can provide a rich palate of flavours without added salt, but this may not provide the saltiness and depth of flavour desired of the seasoning. The addition of non‑sodium mineral salts may be able to provide some of that saltiness although the risk of associated bitter tastes means that some compromise may need to be made. The salt taste delivery of seasonings that are consumed either dry or before they have a chance to dissolve in a food system may be influenced by particle size, crystal morphology, or encapsulation. The impact, maximum intensity, and duration of the salt delivery will all need to be evaluated in the context of consumer acceptance to ensure that any modifications do not adversely affect overall consumer liking. The creation of salt taste gradients in food can influence perception of saltiness. Seasonings used in a way that allows salt to be heterogeneously distributed through food could assist with salt reduction. Examples may be concentrating salt in the continuous aqueous phase of an emulsion or concentrating salt in specific layers of a baked product. In all cases, the impact that salt has on consumer acceptance and food safety will guide the way forward. As consumers become more aware of the health implications of consuming high levels of sodium, acceptance of and adaption to products with lower perceived saltiness may become increasingly important. The use of salt for functional purposes rather than taste maybe the focus of the future.
References Anderson, C.A., Cobb, L.K., Miller III, E.R., Woodward, M., Hottenstein, A., Chang, A.R., Mongraw-Chaffin, M., White, K., Charleston, J., Tanaka, T., Thomas, L., 2015. Effects of a behavioral intervention that emphasizes spices and herbs on adherence to recommended sodium intake: results of the SPICE randomized clinical trial, 2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 102 (3), 671–679. Beauchamp, G.K., Bertino, M., Engelman, K., 1983. Modification of salt taste. Ann. Intern. Med. 98 (5_Part_2), 763–769. Bobowski, N., Rendahl, A., Vickers, Z., 2015. A longitudinal comparison of two salt reduction strategies: acceptability of a low sodium food depends on the consumer. Food Qual. Prefer. 40, 270–278.
280
Reducing Salt in Foods
Breslin, P.A., 1996. Interactions among salty, sour and bitter compounds. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 7 (12), 390–399. Busch, J.L., Yong, F.Y.S., Goh, S.M., 2013. Sodium reduction: optimizing product composition and structure towards increasing saltiness perception. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 29 (1), 21–34. De Kock, H.L., Zandstra, E.H., Sayed, N., Wentzel-Viljoen, E., 2016. Liking, salt taste perception and use of table salt when consuming reduced-salt chicken stews in light of South Africa's new salt regulations. Appetite 96, 383–390. Dötsch, M., Busch, J., Batenburg, M., Liem, G., Tareilus, E., Mueller, R., Meijer, G., 2009. Strategies to reduce sodium consumption: a food industry perspective. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 49 (10), 841–851. Emorine, M., Septier, C., Thomas-Danguin, T., Salles, C., 2013. Heterogeneous salt distribution in hot snacks enhances saltiness without loss of acceptability. Food Res. Int. 51 (2), 641–647. Frasch-Melnik, S., Norton, I.T., Spyropoulos, F., 2010. Fat-crystal stabilised w/o emulsions for controlled salt release. J. Food Eng. 98 (4), 437–442. Ghawi, S.K., Rowland, I., Methven, L., 2014. Enhancing consumer liking of low salt tomato soup over repeated exposure by herb and spice seasonings. Appetite 81, 20–29. Hoppu, U., Hopia, A., Pohjanheimo, T., Rotola-Pukkila, M., Mäkinen, S., Pihlanto, A., Sandell, M., 2017. Effect of salt reduction on consumer acceptance and sensory quality of food. Foods 6 (12), 103. Israr, T., Rakha, A., Sohail, M., Rashid, S., Shehzad, A., 2016. Salt reduction in baked products: strategies and constraints. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 51, 98–105. Keast, R.S., Breslin, P.A., 2003. An overview of binary taste–taste interactions. Food Qual. Prefer. 14 (2), 111–124. Kloss, L., Meyer, J.D., Graeve, L., Vetter, W., 2015. Sodium intake and its reduction by food reformulation in the European Union—a review. NFS J. 1, 9–19. Lawrence, G., Salles, C., Septier, C., Busch, J., Thomas-Danguin, T., 2009. Odour–taste interactions: a way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions. Food Qual. Prefer. 20 (3), 241–248. Lee, G.H., 2011. A salt substitute with low sodium content from plant aqueous extracts. Food Res. Int. 44 (2), 537–543. Liem, D.G., Miremadi, F., Keast, R.S., 2011. Reducing sodium in foods: the effect on flavor. Nutrients 3 (6), 694–711. Maheshwari, H.M., Prabhavathi, S.N., Devisetti, R., Prakash, J., 2017. Determining efficacy of monosodium glutamate for salt reduction in plain and spiced ‘poories’ through sensory responses. J. Exp. Food Chem. 3 (3), 1–9. Nasri, N., Septier, C., Beno, N., Salles, C., Thomas-Danguin, T., 2013. Enhancing salty taste through odour–taste–taste interactions: influence of odour intensity and salty tastants’ nature. Food Qual. Prefer. 28 (1), 134–140. Noort, M.W., Bult, J.H., Stieger, M., 2012. Saltiness enhancement by taste contrast in bread prepared with encapsulated salt. J. Cereal Sci. 55 (2), 218–225. Opara, E.I., 2017. Culinary herbs and spices: the challenge of determining their significance in the maintenance of health. Enliven: J. Diet Res. Nutr. 4 (2), e001. Quilaqueo, M., Duizer, L., Aguilera, J.M., 2015. The morphology of salt crystals affects the perception of saltiness. Food Res. Int. 76, 675–681. Rama, R., Chiu, N., Carvalho Da Silva, M., Hewson, L., Hort, J., Fisk, I.D., 2013. Impact of salt crystal size on in-mouth delivery of sodium and saltiness perception from snack foods. J. Texture Stud. 44 (5), 338–345.
Sauces and seasonings281
Rozin, P., Vollmecke, T.A., 1986. Food likes and dislikes. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6 (1), 433–456. Small, D.M., Prescott, J., 2005. Odor/taste integration and the perception of flavor. Exp. Brain Res. 166 (3–4), 345–357. Zandstra, E.H., Lion, R., Newson, R.S., 2016. Salt reduction: moving from consumer awareness to action. Food Qual. Prefer. 48, 376–381.
Further reading Christopher, D., Wallace, C.A., 2014. The food safety impact of salt and sodium reduction initiatives. Perspect. Public Health 134 (4), 216–224. World Health Organisation, Global action plan for the prevention and control of non communicable diseases. Viewed 13.03.2018
12
12.1 Introduction It is well documented that high levels of dietary salt (NaCl) and specifically sodium, are associated with elevated blood pressure and hypertension. As hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, including strokes and coronary heart disease, there is significant interest in reducing dietary salt as a public health initiative. The World Health Organisation global action plan for the prevention of non-communicable disease (2013) indicates that a salt intake of less than 5 g per day for adults helps to reduce blood pressure and risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, and coronary heart attack. WHO Member States have been challenged to reduce the global population’s intake of salt by a relative 30% by 2025. Kloss et al. (2015) reported that in industrialised countries, approximately 75%– 80% of dietary salt is obtained through consumption of industrially processed foods and 10%–15% is added to foods at home either during cooking or at the table. In less developed countries, the contribution made by seasonings added directly by consumers is higher as the proportion of processed food in the diet is less. It was reported by Zandstra et al. (2016) that discretionary salt use accounted for only 5% of total intake in the United Kingdom, whereas in China, where soy sauce is frequently used as a table condiment, salt added by the consumer accounted for 78% of the total salt intake. Whether salt is added in processing or at the table, the widespread use of seasonings and sauces to impart, improve, and enhance the flavour of foods means that they are relevant both as an ingredient in manufactured foods and also as a finished product for consumers to add to their food at home. Within the scope of this chapter, generic seasonings as well as application specific seasonings in both wet and dry food systems will be discussed. The focus will be firmly on the impact that various salt reduction strategies have on taste and flavour perception of foods.
12.2 Salt in seasonings and sauces In this section, the role of salt in some specific types of seasonings, blends, condiments, and sauces is introduced.
12.2.1 Dry topical seasonings These are seasonings that are applied to the surface of a food prior to consumption. They are used widely to season dry foods such as salty snacks to add both saltiness Reducing Salt in Foods. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100890-4.00012-3 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
272
Reducing Salt in Foods
and flavour. In these cases, the salt remains undissolved in crystal form on the surface of the food until the product is eaten. These seasonings may be simple blend of salt, herbs, spices, etc. or may be more complex with the addition of small quantities of flavoured oils, oleoresins, and other liquid ingredients. It should be noted that in seasoning blends that do contain liquid oils, it is common practice to pre-mix these oils with the salt and other crystalline ingredients (e.g. sugars) to thinly coat or ‘plate’ the dry crystals before mixing with the non-crystalline ingredients (e.g. spice powders). This two-stage mixing process ensures even distribution of the wet ingredients throughout the dry mix. As altering the size and shape of salt crystals may be considered as a strategy for salt reduction, it is important to be aware that this might also have an impact on the interaction between the salt and the oils in these mixing procedures.
12.2.2 Recipe seasonings Recipe seasonings are used to add a specific flavour to, or to season specific recipes. These would typically be a blend of salt, herbs, and spices that are added to a recipe in either an industrial or domestic setting. An example of a recipe seasoning would be a Bolognese seasoning for a pasta sauce. The seasoning would be designed to add saltiness and key flavour characteristics. The salt would be dissolved throughout the food or portion of the food system that is seasoned.
12.2.3 Sauces Seasoning sauces typically contain salt and aromatic ingredients in an aqueous solution or the aqueous phase of an emulsion. Particularly for ready made sauces, it is important to note that the salt not only contributes to the taste and flavour but potentially also to the microbial stability of the food due to its antimicrobial properties and also its impact on water activity. Seasoning sauces may be used commercially or domestically and may be consumed mixed into a food or used as a dip or topping, etc.
12.3 Strategies for reducing salt in seasonings and sauces The following section reviews some of the key strategies that may be used singly or in combination to support the reduction of salt in seasonings and sauces. Table 12.1 indicates where each of the strategies is most likely to find success in application.
12.3.1 Incremental salt reduction over time This strategy requires simply making multiple small recipe changes over time to reduce the amount of salt in a product without consumers noticing any change in taste
Sauces and seasonings273
Table 12.1 Salt reduction strategies and their likely applications to seasonings and sauces Strategy
Topical seasonings
Recipe seasonings
Sauces
Incremental reduction Salt crystal size/morphology Mineral salt replacers Taste-taste interactions Taste-odour interactions Herbs and spices Taste heterogeneity Salt encapsulation Concentrating aqueous solutions
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – – ✓
or flavour. Using this strategy alone, making any significant changes to salt levels may require making many imperceptible changes over a period of years (Liem et al., 2011). It is based on the principle that people will adapt to the lower salt content and that their preferences will similarly adapt (Beauchamp et al., 1983). Consumers need to be given time to adapt to one change before the next is made. In a 16-week longitudinal study by Bobowski et al. (2015), it was seen that a gradual reduction in salt in a salt-seasoned tomato juice was more effective than an abrupt reduction in maintaining acceptability throughout the study. It was also noticed that individuals identified as having a high hedonic sensitivity to salt and those who were unmotivated to reduce sodium found the reductions to be generally less acceptable than those who had either a lower hedonic sensitivity to salt or those who were motivated to reduce sodium intake. This indicates that there is unlikely to be a ‘one size fits all’ approach to this strategy and that consumer segmentation to better understanding how salt drives acceptability and consumer motivation to reduce salt should be integrated into its implementation. As this strategy is designed to be invisible to the consumer, opportunities to proactively manage consumer expectation or provide positive communications are limited. No ‘improvements’ to the recipe have been made and EU regulations require a 25% comparative reduction for ‘any reduced sodium’ or ‘reduced salt’ claims (European Commission) that are unlikely to be achieved without any perceived change to flavour. For this strategy to be acceptable, there needs to be an adaptation in the consumers’ perception of salt and saltiness (Dötsch et al., 2009). If the salt reduction is made too quickly and consumer preferences have not fully adapted, there may be the risk of increased use of table salt to compensate as seen by De Kock et al. (2016) in a study investigating acceptance of reduced-salt chicken stews.
12.3.2 Selecting size and morphology of salt crystals In food systems where seasoning (including salt) is delivered dry, the salt crystals need to be dissolved in the saliva before they can contribute to the perception of saltiness. The rate of dissolution is directly relevant to the perception of saltiness.
274
Reducing Salt in Foods
Rama et al. (2013) demonstrated that the size of salt crystals used to topically season potato chips significantly impacted the perception of saltiness and the rate of solution in saliva. The smallest crystal sizes, per unit of sodium, resulted in the highest perceived saltiness both in terms of peak intensity and overall saltiness. Additionally, it was noted that the smaller crystal sizes dissolved faster and were associated with a faster delivery of the salty taste on chewing but also a faster loss of saltiness after chewing. This indicates that although manipulation of salt crystal size may be useful in helping reduce the level of sodium required to attain peak and overall saltiness, the impact on overall taste and flavour delivery over the total eating time needs to be considered. In addition to particle size, crystal morphology can also impact on the rate at which salt dissolves in saliva. Quilaqueo et al. (2015) evaluated dissolution rate and perception of saltiness of a number of salts with different crystal structures. Crystal shapes with a higher surface area (e.g. highly agglomerated or flat) dissolved faster and gave a faster and more intense saltiness that crystals that were more cubic in shape. Selecting and combining specific sizes and shapes of salt crystals used in a seasoning may be a useful strategy to help reduce overall salt whilst still maintaining an acceptable profile of saltiness during eating of products like salty snacks. On a practical note, it should be considered that particle size and shape can also impact on the ability of the salt to adhere to the surface of the snack. Larger, heavier crystals have a greater tendency to fall off products, potentially causing operational and quality issues in plant.
12.3.3 Use of mineral salt replacers There are a number of alternative mineral salts that may offer some alternative to sodium chloride in imparting a salty taste to foods. The most popular of these is potassium chloride (Liem et al., 2011). The use of these alternative mineral salts in seasonings is limited due to the fact that although they have a generally salty taste, they also impart undesirable sensory characteristics (e.g. metallic and or bitter aftertastes). As a result, it is a common strategy to only partially replace sodium chloride with an alternative mineral salt. Israr et al. (2016) report that replacing up to 30% of NaCl with KCl in bread is achievable without a significant change in sensory properties, but much above that results in an unacceptable taste. The potential to use KCl or other mineral salts such as magnesium chloride or ammonium chloride in seasonings and sauces is highly dependent on their application. As we will discuss later in the chapter, the interaction of the flavours from the food being seasoned will have a significant impact on the perception of both saltiness and the off tastes associated with the salt replacers. Generally speaking, the stronger and more complex the flavours of the dish, the greater the level of salt replacer that can be tolerated. As a point of reference, the commercially available salt alternative LoSalt® contains a minimum of 66% KCl and a maximum of 33.3% NaCl.
12.3.4 Utilisation of taste-taste interactions The saltiness provided by seasonings is typically only one of the taste components that they impart on food. Often, complex seasonings will provide a blend of each of the five
Sauces and seasonings275
major taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (savoury). Understanding potential taste interactions may be an important factor in the development and modification of seasonings to enhance the perception of saltiness whilst managing levels of actual salt. Keast and Breslin (2003) reviewed the complex nature of taste-taste interactions that need to consider chemical and cognitive factors in addition to taste receptor/transduction mechanisms. They concluded their study with some general taste-taste interactions that could be useful in formulation development of lower salt seasonings. It was reported that at low-to-moderate levels, the addition of a sour taste could enhance the perception of saltiness. Adding an umami taste (either monosodium glutamate (MSG) or sodium salts of 5′-ribonucleotides) also appears to enhance saltiness at moderate concentrations, while suppressing sourness and bitterness. Citric acid (a relatively common ingredient in manufactured seasoning blends) has been shown to increase saltiness at low levels of sodium chloride (Breslin, 1996). The strategy of adding acids or acidic (sour) ingredients to sauces and seasoning blends in order to enhance saltiness without additional salt may be useful in many applications. The efficacy of using MSG to assist salt reduction in poories (traditional Indian fried bread) was investigated by Maheshwari et al. (2017). In this study, poories were made with varying levels of salt and MSG and assessed by a semi-trained sensory panel. The results indicated that the addition of MSG enhanced both the saltiness and the acceptability for products with lower salt. The wider study also included an evaluation of the impact of adding spices to the recipe, which also increased acceptability at low salt levels. The use of spices in salt reduced seasonings will be explored later on in this chapter. As the use of MSG may have a negative consumer perception, other sources of umami taste may be used in its place. Soy sauce, yeast extracts, nucleotides, hydrolysed vegetable proteins, and di‑calcium glutamate have all been reported as providers of umami taste to support salt reduction initiatives (Israr et al., 2016). Aqueous extracts of saltwort, sea tangle, and the dried fruit kukoshi have also been identified for potential use in salt reduction due to their umami taste (Lee, 2011). It is important to note the limitations of adding umami to enhance saltiness. Due to the nature of the umami taste, this strategy is most useful for seasonings destined for use in savoury products with a meaty/savoury flavour. Consumer desire for natural products may favour the plant extracts, but these also come with some specific taste and flavour attributes (e.g. seaweed flavour) that will limit their applications.
12.3.5 Utilisation of taste-odour interactions In daily life, seasonings and sauces are designed to impart and enhance an overall flavour rather than simply taste elements. The flavour of a food is generally accepted to be a broader integration of sensory experiences including taste and odour and it is known that both of these interact during eating to deliver what we perceive as flavour (Small and Prescott, 2005). The addition of salt-enhancing odours to a sauce or seasoning may be useful in various applications in new developments of salt reduction programmes other than reducing salt by stealth.
276
Reducing Salt in Foods
A study by Lawrence et al. (2009) demonstrated that the simultaneous exposure to specific odours can significantly enhance the perception of saltiness of a basic salt solution. The study found that the presence of odours such as anchovy, bacon, sardine, ham, and peanut all enhanced the perceived saltiness of a salt solution. The same study showed an association between the odours giving the greatest odour induced saltiness enhancement (OISE) and the associated saltiness intensity for the food represented by the odour. This indicates that the effect is influenced by cognitive interactions, supported by previous food experiences. In practical application, this means that the inclusion of aromatic ingredients such as a bacon or anchovy flavour may be incorporated into a sauce or seasoning blend to enhance or maintain the perception of saltiness without changing the actual levels of salt in the blend. In applying this strategy, it would be important to ensure that the aroma being added is congruent with the seasoning itself and the food(s) in which the seasoning is to be used. The odours that were demonstrated to have the greatest OISE generally tended to be meaty or fishy aromas although peanut and some salty cheeses were also shown to have an effect. It is interesting to note that the study by Lawrence et al. (2009) was carried out in France using French panellists. As the effect is influenced by existing cognitive links between known foods and saltiness, the efficacy of a specific odour in enhancing saltiness may well vary between cultures with different culinary exposures and experiences. For example, in cultures where cheese has less culinary significance, it is possible that the taste-odour interaction would be quite different. Subsequent studies by Nasri et al. (2013) have explored the potential to combine odour-taste and taste-taste interactions as strategies for reducing salt in model systems. The conclusion indicates that well-designed recipes could utilise both strategies effectively, although interactions may not be predictable in complex food systems.
12.3.6 Use of herbs and spices Herbs and spices have long been used as seasonings and their culinary use is largely based on their ability to improve and impart desirable flavours in food. Their heritage as natural, ‘clean label’ seasoning ingredients means that they are preferred tools in salt reduction approaches (Ghawi et al., 2014). Furthermore, there is now ample evidence that culinary herbs and spices are sources of constituents that possess numerous health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties (Opara, 2017). Despite the attraction and potential of using herbs and spices in salt reduction strategies, there is relatively little published research (Hoppu et al., 2017). Herbs and spices are typically strongly aromatic and provide a source of diverse flavour experiences. As food preferences are generally created through learned experience (Rozin and Vollmecke, 1986), selecting the herbs or spices used in seasonings needs to be considered within the context of consumer familiarity with the associated flavour and the context in which it is being used. Ghawi et al. (2014) explored the effect of herb blends in a low-salt tomato soup. The use of different herb blends identified three clusters of consumers who preferred
Sauces and seasonings277
the different versions based on either basil, cumin & coriander, or oregano. This illustrates the potential importance of considering customer segmentation in any salt reduction strategy. In this study, although the addition of the blends did not counter the drop in liking between a standard soup and a low salt soup, the addition of the oreganobased blend did lead to a significant improvement in liking over repeated exposure that was not seen in the basic low salt soup. Herbs and spices for use as domestic seasonings also potentially have a role in public health salt reduction initiatives. A multifactorial behavioural intervention that encouraged the use of herbs and spices in home cooking has been reported that it enabled a reduction in salt consumption greater than that achieved by individuals given standard sodium education material and asked to follow advice given by the US centres for disease control (CDC) (Anderson et al., 2015). In summary, the culinary use of herbs and spices as seasonings persists due to their ability to improve liking of a food, predominantly through flavour. Therefore, it is reasonable to state that an increase in liking due to skilful use of herbs and spices in a recipe may provide a clean label opportunity to offset a decrease in palatability and consumer acceptance often caused by decreasing salt content.
12.3.7 Taste heterogeneity The way that salt is distributed throughout a food has been shown to have a significant impact on the perceived saltiness. Creating foods with different portions containing different levels of salt, or products with ‘salty spots’ has been reported as achieving an overall perceived level of saltiness with less salt than in similar products where the salt is evenly distributed (Busch et al., 2013). Emorine et al. (2013) demonstrated that a salt reduction of 42% could be achieved in a layered snack through the management of salt distribution in the different layers. One of the challenges identified that would be particularly significant in the case of seasonings and sauces would be the control of diffusion of the salt throughout the product in cooking and storage. Encapsulating salt crystals in an appropriate fat matrix may be helpful in managing this. In dry systems, using fewer, larger salt crystals distributed through a product may provide a useful level of heterogeneity in enhancing saltiness. Distribution of the large crystals would have to be such that each bite would provide a different level of saltiness with some bites including the large crystals to provide the salt ‘hit’ that would influence perception. Depending on the food system, the impact of the heterogeneity would have to be considered alongside influence that the rate of dissolution of large crystals has on salt impact as discussed previously in this chapter. In wet sauces where the salt is dissolved this strategy needs to be approached differently. There are still opportunities, particularly if a sauce is destined for use as a component in a constructed product such as a sandwich or lasagnes for example. Differences in saltiness between the sauce and other layers in the build may be exploited to deliver heterogeneity in distribution of salt.
278
Reducing Salt in Foods
12.3.8 Salt encapsulation It is well documented that encapsulating salt in an appropriate fat can influence its rate of solution in both aqueous phase of a food system and also in saliva during eating. As such, it can be used as a strategy to control perceived saltiness directly as a result of its rate of solution but also as a tool to create heterogeneity in a food system. The ability of a high melting point fat to encapsulate salt and to protect the crystals during bread manufacture was demonstrated by Noort et al. (2012). The encapsulation allowed for the enhancement of saltiness by creating a heterogeneous product with large salt crystals spread out across the product. The resulting taste gradients in the bread increased the perception of saltiness in a sensory panel. In this case, the increase in saltiness unfortunately had an adverse effect on the liking the bread. However, it demonstrated the potential of combining encapsulation with crystal size management as a strategy for reducing salt in seasonings destined for use with baked goods. Lower melting point fats may be used for encapsulation of salt in seasonings destined for use in products stored at ambient temperatures. The encapsulating ‘shell’ needs to be based on fat crystals, which are stable during storage but melt appropriately at temperatures found within the mouth in order to release the salt in order that it can be dissolved in the saliva.
12.3.9 Concentrating aqueous solutions As most sauces are water based, the salt tends to be fully dissolved and therefore uniformly distributed through the sauce. This limits the use of any salt reduction strategy based on limiting the rate of solution of salt crystals in saliva or the creation of taste gradients to create heterogeneity. For emulsion-based sauces, it has been reported that the oil droplets can effectively act as a ‘filler’, concentrating the salt into the aqueous phase and increasing the perceived saltiness (Busch et al., 2013). In this case, increasing proportion of oil in the emulsion increased perceived saltiness when the total salt content of the food was unchanged. On a practical level, this strategy is likely to have the negative effects of adding significant cost and will also increase the fat content of the sauce. The potential use of double emulsions has been studied by Frasch-Melnik et al., 2010. In these double emulsions, large oil droplets containing droplets of a trapped aqueous phase can exist within a second continuous phase. The trapped water increases the volume of the oil droplets and allows for a reduced quantity of oil required to create droplets of a given size. Although stability of these double emulsions has proved challenging, their use in the development of double emulsions with the salt concentrated only in the continuous aqueous phase may be strategy of interest for both salt and fat reduction initiatives. Busch et al. (2013) also discuss the potential to use air as an alternative filler to oil. It was reported that similar to emulsions, the overall salt taste of foamed samples was mostly dependent the concentration of salt in the aqueous phase. Using either oil or air as ways to concentrate salt in an aqueous phase will very likely have a significant impact on sensory, physical, and commercial qualities of a sauce, which would need to be considered.
Sauces and seasonings279
12.4 Conclusion The diverse nature of seasonings and sauces means that there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution to salt reduction. Depending on the type of seasoning being developed and its target use(s), one or more of the strategies discussed could be employed. The role of the seasoning in delivering a balance of saltiness, flavour, and flavour enhancement needs to be understood in each application. Complex seasonings that include salt in addition to other taste and aromatic ingredients allow for a greater level of flexibility in how salt reduction can be approached. Seasonings designed to be more versatile in use tend to be less restricted by consumer expectation of a specific flavour profile and may therefore have more scope for flavour change as salt is reduced. Pure blends of spices and other aromatic ingredients can provide a rich palate of flavours without added salt, but this may not provide the saltiness and depth of flavour desired of the seasoning. The addition of non‑sodium mineral salts may be able to provide some of that saltiness although the risk of associated bitter tastes means that some compromise may need to be made. The salt taste delivery of seasonings that are consumed either dry or before they have a chance to dissolve in a food system may be influenced by particle size, crystal morphology, or encapsulation. The impact, maximum intensity, and duration of the salt delivery will all need to be evaluated in the context of consumer acceptance to ensure that any modifications do not adversely affect overall consumer liking. The creation of salt taste gradients in food can influence perception of saltiness. Seasonings used in a way that allows salt to be heterogeneously distributed through food could assist with salt reduction. Examples may be concentrating salt in the continuous aqueous phase of an emulsion or concentrating salt in specific layers of a baked product. In all cases, the impact that salt has on consumer acceptance and food safety will guide the way forward. As consumers become more aware of the health implications of consuming high levels of sodium, acceptance of and adaption to products with lower perceived saltiness may become increasingly important. The use of salt for functional purposes rather than taste maybe the focus of the future.
References Anderson, C.A., Cobb, L.K., Miller III, E.R., Woodward, M., Hottenstein, A., Chang, A.R., Mongraw-Chaffin, M., White, K., Charleston, J., Tanaka, T., Thomas, L., 2015. Effects of a behavioral intervention that emphasizes spices and herbs on adherence to recommended sodium intake: results of the SPICE randomized clinical trial, 2. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 102 (3), 671–679. Beauchamp, G.K., Bertino, M., Engelman, K., 1983. Modification of salt taste. Ann. Intern. Med. 98 (5_Part_2), 763–769. Bobowski, N., Rendahl, A., Vickers, Z., 2015. A longitudinal comparison of two salt reduction strategies: acceptability of a low sodium food depends on the consumer. Food Qual. Prefer. 40, 270–278.
280
Reducing Salt in Foods
Breslin, P.A., 1996. Interactions among salty, sour and bitter compounds. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 7 (12), 390–399. Busch, J.L., Yong, F.Y.S., Goh, S.M., 2013. Sodium reduction: optimizing product composition and structure towards increasing saltiness perception. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 29 (1), 21–34. De Kock, H.L., Zandstra, E.H., Sayed, N., Wentzel-Viljoen, E., 2016. Liking, salt taste perception and use of table salt when consuming reduced-salt chicken stews in light of South Africa's new salt regulations. Appetite 96, 383–390. Dötsch, M., Busch, J., Batenburg, M., Liem, G., Tareilus, E., Mueller, R., Meijer, G., 2009. Strategies to reduce sodium consumption: a food industry perspective. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 49 (10), 841–851. Emorine, M., Septier, C., Thomas-Danguin, T., Salles, C., 2013. Heterogeneous salt distribution in hot snacks enhances saltiness without loss of acceptability. Food Res. Int. 51 (2), 641–647. Frasch-Melnik, S., Norton, I.T., Spyropoulos, F., 2010. Fat-crystal stabilised w/o emulsions for controlled salt release. J. Food Eng. 98 (4), 437–442. Ghawi, S.K., Rowland, I., Methven, L., 2014. Enhancing consumer liking of low salt tomato soup over repeated exposure by herb and spice seasonings. Appetite 81, 20–29. Hoppu, U., Hopia, A., Pohjanheimo, T., Rotola-Pukkila, M., Mäkinen, S., Pihlanto, A., Sandell, M., 2017. Effect of salt reduction on consumer acceptance and sensory quality of food. Foods 6 (12), 103. Israr, T., Rakha, A., Sohail, M., Rashid, S., Shehzad, A., 2016. Salt reduction in baked products: strategies and constraints. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 51, 98–105. Keast, R.S., Breslin, P.A., 2003. An overview of binary taste–taste interactions. Food Qual. Prefer. 14 (2), 111–124. Kloss, L., Meyer, J.D., Graeve, L., Vetter, W., 2015. Sodium intake and its reduction by food reformulation in the European Union—a review. NFS J. 1, 9–19. Lawrence, G., Salles, C., Septier, C., Busch, J., Thomas-Danguin, T., 2009. Odour–taste interactions: a way to enhance saltiness in low-salt content solutions. Food Qual. Prefer. 20 (3), 241–248. Lee, G.H., 2011. A salt substitute with low sodium content from plant aqueous extracts. Food Res. Int. 44 (2), 537–543. Liem, D.G., Miremadi, F., Keast, R.S., 2011. Reducing sodium in foods: the effect on flavor. Nutrients 3 (6), 694–711. Maheshwari, H.M., Prabhavathi, S.N., Devisetti, R., Prakash, J., 2017. Determining efficacy of monosodium glutamate for salt reduction in plain and spiced ‘poories’ through sensory responses. J. Exp. Food Chem. 3 (3), 1–9. Nasri, N., Septier, C., Beno, N., Salles, C., Thomas-Danguin, T., 2013. Enhancing salty taste through odour–taste–taste interactions: influence of odour intensity and salty tastants’ nature. Food Qual. Prefer. 28 (1), 134–140. Noort, M.W., Bult, J.H., Stieger, M., 2012. Saltiness enhancement by taste contrast in bread prepared with encapsulated salt. J. Cereal Sci. 55 (2), 218–225. Opara, E.I., 2017. Culinary herbs and spices: the challenge of determining their significance in the maintenance of health. Enliven: J. Diet Res. Nutr. 4 (2), e001. Quilaqueo, M., Duizer, L., Aguilera, J.M., 2015. The morphology of salt crystals affects the perception of saltiness. Food Res. Int. 76, 675–681. Rama, R., Chiu, N., Carvalho Da Silva, M., Hewson, L., Hort, J., Fisk, I.D., 2013. Impact of salt crystal size on in-mouth delivery of sodium and saltiness perception from snack foods. J. Texture Stud. 44 (5), 338–345.
Sauces and seasonings281
Rozin, P., Vollmecke, T.A., 1986. Food likes and dislikes. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6 (1), 433–456. Small, D.M., Prescott, J., 2005. Odor/taste integration and the perception of flavor. Exp. Brain Res. 166 (3–4), 345–357. Zandstra, E.H., Lion, R., Newson, R.S., 2016. Salt reduction: moving from consumer awareness to action. Food Qual. Prefer. 48, 376–381.
Further reading Christopher, D., Wallace, C.A., 2014. The food safety impact of salt and sodium reduction initiatives. Perspect. Public Health 134 (4), 216–224. World Health Organisation, Global action plan for the prevention and control of non communicable diseases. Viewed 13.03.2018