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Schema-ing with color and temperature: The effects of color-temperature congruity and the role of non-temperature associations
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
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Schema-ing with color and temperature: The effects of color-temperature congruity and the role of non-temperature associations Seth Ketron a, *, Nancy Spears b a b
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Pomona, CA, USA University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Color Temperature Schema congruity Size
The present investigation utilizes schema congruity theory to predict when consumers use or do not use colortemperature associations to make downstream judgments of products. The results of five studies reveal that consumers use red-heat (blue-cold) color-temperature associations when the triggered red (blue) schema has no active non-temperature associations during product selection. In these cases, color-temperature congruity (redheat and blue-cold) leads to more positive responses than color-temperature incongruity (red-cold and blueheat). Additionally, the findings indicate that consumers do not use color-temperature associations when the situation activates both temperature and non-temperature associations for the red or blue schema (red-sales promotions or blue-trade dress). In these instances, consumers negate the influence of color-temperature asso ciations in favor of non-temperature associations. This indicates that color-temperature congruency or incon gruency does not affect downstream consumer responses because of a shift in the salience of schematic associations that weakens the influence of color-temperature associations.
1. Introduction Harnessing the power of sensory effects continues to be important to retailers as a compelling way to make products, advertisements, and environments more appealing to consumers (Krishna, 2011). Scholars and practitioners alike have documented the extensive effects of sensory marketing on consumers, including applications to product packaging (Krishna et al., 2017) and retail environments (Babin et al., 2003; Spangenberg et al., 2005; Spence et al., 2014). For example, color holds an important role in the retail domain, both in packaging and in atmo spherics (Ettis, 2017; Kapossa and Lick, 2020; Labrecque et al., 2013; Lick et al., 2017; Van Esch et al., 2019). Importantly, aligning sensory information in congruent ways can lead to more favorable consumer responses (Spangenberg et al., 2006). Among categories of sensory information, temperature remains one of the most underexamined. This gap is important, given that temper ature exerts a significant influence on both physical and psychological consumer responses. Hong and Sun (2012), for example, found that feeling physically cold stimulates a desire for psychological warmth. Most research on temperature has investigated similar links between physical and psychological warmth (Huang et al., 2014; Rai et al., 2017;
Zwebner et al., 2013), though some work has investigated the effects of physical temperature on consumer decisions and behaviors (i.e., Barbera et al., 2018; Briers and Lerouge, 2011; Cheema and Patrick, 2012) as well as the influence of weather on retail sales (i.e., Badorf and Hoberg, 2020, Stulec et al., 2019; Verstraete et al., 2019). Additionally, temperature shares a longtime documented relation ship with color in that higher wavelength colors are associated with heat and lower wavelength colors with cold (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992; Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006; Mehta and Zhu, 2009; Bagchi and Cheema, 2013; Labrecque et al., 2013). Perhaps the most common of these temperature-signaling colors are red and blue, which often respectively provide the most universal signals of heat and cold (Labrecque et al., 2013; Szocs and Biswas, 2013). These learned associations of red with heat and blue with cold represent components of a commonly-shared temperature schema. Thus, when we see water taps with red and blue markings at a sink, we can correctly infer which tap produces which temperature of water due to our learned temperature associations with these colors. These color-temperature associations are one set of many documented influences of color on consumer responses (i.e., Hagtvedt and Brasel, 2017; Labrecque et al., 2013; Mai et al., 2016; Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Puccinelli et al., 2013).
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Ketron), [email protected] (N. Spears). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.102021 Received 22 July 2019; Received in revised form 12 December 2019; Accepted 16 December 2019 Available online 26 December 2019 0969-6989/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Ketron and N. Spears
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
Prior research has added much to our understanding of how the alignment of color and temperature affects consumers, such as increased reaction times to a thermal identification task (Ho et al. 2014) and perceptions that red objects are physically warmer and blue objects colder (Szocs and Biswas, 2013). Yet, there is much to learn about color-temperature associations, especially in terms of how matching color and temperature within retailing affects consumer responses to products. Thus, the present research seeks to make several contributions. Applying schema congruity theory, the research seeks to add to our understanding of color-temperature associations by investigating in stances in which consumers appropriately use or do not use colortemperature associations to make downstream consumer judgments. Five studies are presented, and the results suggest that consumers appropriately use red-heat (blue-cold) color-temperature associations when the triggered red (blue) schema has no other, non-temperature associations during product selection. In the appropriate application of color-temperature associations, color-temperature congruity (i.e., redheat and blue-cold) leads to more positive responses than colortemperature incongruity (i.e., red-cold and blue-heat). The findings also indicate that consumers do not appropriately use color-temperature associations when the triggered schema for red or blue has co-occurring non-temperature associations (red-sales promotions and blue-trade dress) during product selection. In these instances, consumers negate the influence of color-temperature associations in favor of nontemperature associations, and consumers are not sensitive or attuned to color-temperature congruency or incongruency because of a shift in the salience of schematic associations that weakens the influence of color-temperature associations.
case for at least three reasons. First, color associations often emerge from a very early age (Gil and Le Bigot, 2016), and it is likely that color-temperature associations are no exception. As children, we observed common color signals of temperature alongside their potential outcomes. For example, red warning signs spell out the potential dan gers of “HOT” objects, hot water sink taps are often marked in red, and the reddish hues present in fires, sunburns, thermometers, and similar temperature-focused objects all relate strongly to heat. Meanwhile, we learn that blue is the color of water and often appears in illustrations of ice and winter. Refrigerators and freezers often include blue snowflakes as cues of cold, and as with the red of hot water taps, blue typically signals cold water taps. Because, intuitively, temperature and its po tential discomforts are easily interpreted from a young age (how many toddlers have burned their hands on stoves or experienced the freezing feeling of ice?), and because red and blue as solitary colors do not require literacy to interpret in light of temperature, most consumers have likely held these red-heat and blue-cold associations for most of their lives. Second, many of these temperature cues are encountered frequently, perhaps even daily. Thus, the relationships between red-heat and bluecold are frequently activated in the minds of most consumers, which maintains the accessibility on a consistent basis and facilitates retrieval of color-temperature associations in subsequent relevant situations (Carrier and Pashler, 1992). In further support, recent inquiry by Lee and Choi (2019) found that inconsistency between images and text negatively affect consumer re sponses in the retail context. Because color-temperature inconsistencies often involve juxtapositions of images and text (i.e., the color of a package along with a textual label identifying the product), it is likely that color-temperature inconsistencies would follow the effect observed by Lee and Choi (2019). In sum, red-blue color-temperature associations likely represent a schematic domain for which consumers generally possess a high degree of knowledge. If this is the case, then when red and blue are used with hot and cold products, respectively, consumers should respond more positively to those products than when incongruent color-temperature associations are present.
2. Conceptual background 2.1. Color-temperature associations and schema congruity According to schema congruity theory, consumers view incoming information about a given product in light of existing knowledge and associations, such as typical characteristics of the product’s assumed category, retailer image, or brand image (Banerjee and Drollinger, 2017; Baxter et al., 2018; Cho and Berry, 2019; Lee and Choi, 2019; Meyer s-Levy et al., 1994; Noseworthy et al., 2018). In the present investiga tion, consumers who see a product with an implicit temperature association (hot coffee or ice cream, for example) are also likely to interpret temperature-related colors – namely, red or blue – on the product in light of the common red-heat and blue-cold schemas mentioned above. Thus, when hot and cold products are designed or displayed with red- or blue-dominant visual attributes, schema con gruity or incongruity should emerge. However, currently, it is unclear how consumers might respond to such (in)congruities between color and temperature in products and packaging. Earlier research applying schema congruity theory in mar keting, building from Mandler’s (1982) work on schema incongruity, found that moderate incongruity generally leads to greater processing of and more positive responses to products (Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989; Meyers-Levy et al., 1994). As such, one possibility is that incon gruent color-temperature combinations – red-cold and blue-heat, namely – could actually lead to more positive consumer responses. However, more recently, scholars have found that congruity is prefer able when consumers possess substantial knowledge of the given sche matic domain (Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). Thus, if consumers generally hold a high level of knowledge about color-temperature associations, it is likely that congruence be tween color and temperature (i.e., blue with cold products and red with hot products) leads to stronger consumer responses. We follow the latter line of reasoning to argue that color-temperature associations represent a schematic domain of which most, if not nearly all, consumers are highly knowledgeable. We contend that this is the
2.2. Suppressing the effect of color-temperature associations through schema shifting The common red-heat and blue-cold associations mentioned above may be frequently encountered in many consumer situations. One such potential situation in which these associations may arise is the product selection phase of shopping, where colors are nearly always present and potentially triggering consumer schemas for those colors, including red or blue. In some situations, the only salient association with red or blue is with temperature, with no other apparent associations. However, at other times, there may be at least two co-occurring color associations, one that is a color-temperature association and another same-color as sociation that is non-temperature in nature. Thus, it is important to understand how consumers handle congruent versus incongruent colortemperature associations when a co-occurring non-temperature color association is present versus absent. One commonly piqued non-temperature color association in retail environments is red’s association with sales promotions. Indeed, mul tiple industry articles discuss the use of red for sale signage, and simple observation would confirm red’s pervasive use for that purpose in retail environments. In some instances, red’s sale association may also occur alongside color-temperature associations. For example, a heat-related product, such as hot coffee, may be packaged in red and may also be on sale. Likewise, a cold-related product, such as iced coffee, may also be packaged in red and may also be on sale. Thus, the color-temperature association may be congruent (red-hot) or incongruent (red-cold). In these cases, a non-temperature color association (the sale) is active alongside a congruent or an incongruent color-temperature association. 2
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
In these situations, it is likely that consumer focus is on the association that is expedient at the point of selection – in this case, the nontemperature red-sale link. As such, the color-temperature link should exert a lesser influence, regardless of congruency or incongruency be tween temperature and non-temperature associations. As a result, when a sale is active for the product, consumer responses should be no different between hot and cold products in red packaging. Likewise, another common non-temperature color association is the use of signature colors in brands’ trade dress, which may also occur alongside color-temperature associations. Blue is a prime example - the color blue is commonly utilized in branding elements and can be found in the packaging of both current products and subsequent product in troductions for brands that utilize blue as a signature color. When these products also have cold or heat temperature associations, consumers face a similar situation to the red-heat versus red-sale situation described above, wherein blue-temperature and blue-brand associations may be activated. As with red, the temperature associations may be congruent (blue-cold) or incongruent (blue-heat). However, in this case, as with the red case above, the blue-brand association is salient at the point of product selection, and this association should diminish the ef fect of color-temperature associations, regardless of congruency or incongruency. Thus, like the red product on sale, a hot product in blue packaging by a brand with blue-dominant trade dress should yield similar responses to a cold product in the same blue packaging. Thus, when there is a non-temperature color association present in the product selection phase, the non-temperature color association should reduce the influence of co-occurring color-temperature associa tions. We reason that non-temperature color associations linked to both sales promotions and signature colors in trade dress are relevant within the context of the initial selection and purchase decision of the product because the focus is on information specific to the initial selection of the product. Namely, while actually experiencing product temperature may occur either almost immediately after selection (as with the serving of food upon ordering in a quick service restaurant) or potentially long after (as with the purchase of packaged food from a supermarket, which may be prepared and consumed days, weeks, or even months later), the consumer must first consider important information at the point of se lection. This focus on the point of purchase would thus make purchaserelated color associations – sales for red and branding for blue, in our example – more salient, diminishing the effects of temperature associ ations. Conversely, there are instances in the point of selection that do not have other non-temperature color associations to compete with color-temperature associations. In these instances, the focus should be on color-temperature associations, in which case these associations should be more influential. To summarize, in cases in which non-temperature associations are activated and relevant during the initial point of selection, such as redsale and blue-brand, a shift in focus should occur within the given red or blue schema. Namely, the focus moves from color-temperature associ ations to other non-temperature color associations, which should diminish the influence of color-temperature associations on consumer responses toward the given products because the focus is on the point of selection. Thus, in the presence of non-color temperature associations (i. e., sales promotion and trade dress), the focus on the point of selection should yield similar consumer responses regardless of congruency or incongruency. However, when there is only the color-temperature as sociation at the point of selection, the color-temperature association is the focus, and congruency vs. incongruency matters. As such, compared to incongruency, congruency between color and product temperature should increase consumer responses.
more positive consumer responses toward the product. H2. Perceived color-temperature congruency mediates the relation ship between the color x temperature interaction and consumer responses. H3. The effect of color-temperature associations on consumer re sponses toward a product are diminished when a non-temperature as sociation is present alongside a temperature association. 4. Overview of studies Study 1 tests the prediction that blue features on a cold-associated body lotion and red features on a heat-associated body lotion increase consumer responses, providing initial support for H1 and H2. Study 2 replicates the results of study 1 and extends the findings to a coffee product that is either iced or hot, further validating H1 and H2. Study 3 tests the findings with a choice variable (size selection) in a lab setting with apple cider as the product, providing further support for H1 with actual behavior. Across these three studies, the extent of application of the temperature-related color to the product package varied, with study 1 incorporating colored print on the product package, study 2 featuring color on the majority of the package, and study 3 applying the color to a single element, size labels. In doing so, the studies ensure that the extent of application of the color does not significantly affect color-temperature congruency effects. Studies 4a and 4b test the prediction that making non-temperature color cues salient can shift the active schema from color-temperature to non-temperature associations of red and blue (H3). Namely, study 4a shows that depicting the product alongside a sale price leads to nonsignificant effects on preferred size between hot and cold versions of a product on sale. This finding suggests that making a promotional price salient shifts the active schema from the temperature association of red to red’s association with promotional pricing, thereby suppressing colortemperature congruency effects on consumer responses. Study 4b uti lizes a fictitious brand with a blue-dominant logo to show that making trade dress salient also suppresses the temperature association of blue. These results indicate that blue-dominant branding likely shifts schemas from the color association of blue to a branding-related schema, further supporting H3. Additionally, studies 4a and 4b utilize the same base packaging from study 2, which allows for comparison between cases in which only the temperature association is salient versus cases in which a nontemperature color association occurs alongside the temperature associ ation. Although the content of the label itself changed in study 4b to accommodate the testing of signature color as a non-temperature asso ciation, the package color and shape did not change, and the same label from study 2 was used in study 4a. Preferred size was selected as the key dependent variable in studies 2 through 4b for three reasons. First, while purchase intentions and will ingness to pay are indeed important downstream consumer responses, those variables do not offer clarity around how much of a product con sumers desire as a function of congruent and incongruent colortemperature relationships. Addressing this specific question of desired amount can provide insights into (and potential strategies for address ing) over- or underconsumption. Second, insights into preferred sizes of products can help managers optimize package sizes of products as well as determine appropriate levels of each size in a multi-size assortment. Third, for coffee and cider, size is a salient variable – many times, food products such as coffee and cider are available in multiple sizes, which makes preferences for and selection of sizes important for those product contexts. Meanwhile, in study 1, liking of the product served as the outcome variable for two reasons. First, the aim of study 1 was to test the un derlying theory that color-temperature congruity leads to higher liking of the product. Second, size preferences are not as actionable or appli cable to lotion as a product category because lotion is typically
3. Hypotheses Given the above arguments, we propose the following hypotheses: H1.
Blue (red) features on a cold-related (heat-related) product lead to 3
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
consumed in a different way from food categories such as coffee and cider. That is, consumers generally apply lotion on an as-needed basis or in fixed amounts as part of a daily grooming ritual, making size selection less germane to consumers’ decisions than in food contexts. 5. Study 1 5.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 214 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 116 mean age ¼ 36) participated in a 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (accent color: blue versus red) between-subjects experiment in which each participant was informed that a new brand of lotion, mod spa, was entering the market. The lotion was depicted as either cooling or warming (temperature manipulation) and was shown in a bottle that was accented with either blue or red (Fig. 1). After viewing the assigned image, participants responded to one seven-point Likert-type item measured liking of the product (“I like this product”), and one seven-point Likert-type item measured congruency between product color and temperature (“The color and temperature of the product go together”).
Fig. 2. Color x temperature on liking of the product (study 1).
6. Study 2 6.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 201 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 117; mean age ¼ 36) participated in a 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (packaging color: blue versus red) between-subjects experiment (see Fig. 3). In this study, each participant was informed that a new brand of coffee, moka caf�e, was entering the market. Participants then saw one of four randomly-assigned images of a prototype of the product, which varied based on assignment to the iced versus hot and blue versus red conditions (Fig. 4). Participants then indicated preferred size of the product with one seven-point bipolar item (smaller – 1 to larger – 7) in addition to the same item for congruency from study 1. Participants also responded to demographics questions before finishing the procedure.
5.2. Results The main effect of color (MBlue ¼ 4.33 versus MRed ¼ 4.39; F (1, 210) ¼ .049; NS) was not significant, nor was the main effect of temperature (MCooling ¼ 4.38 versus MWarming ¼ 4.34; F (1, 210) ¼ .007; NS). How ever, the interaction of color and temperature was significant (F (1, 210) ¼ 9.438; p ¼ .003), such that for the blue condition, liking of the product was higher for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.72) than for the warming lotion (M ¼ 3.96; F (1, 107) ¼ 4.429; p ¼ .038), while for the red condition, the warming lotion (M ¼ 4.75) was liked more than the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.04; F (1, 103) ¼ 5.048; p ¼ .027) (see Fig. 2). Mediation. PROCESS Model 8 (Hayes, 2017; 5000 bootstrapped samples and 95% CI) tested the mediation of congruency between the color x temperature interaction and liking of the product. The results were significant (effect ¼ 1.28; CI ¼ .77 to 1.88), such that the inter action of color and temperature significantly predicted congruency (effect ¼ 3.16; CI ¼ 2.15 to 4.17), which subsequently significantly predicted liking of the product (effect ¼ .40; CI ¼ .29 to 0.52). Further analysis into the significant color x temperature interaction on congru ency (F (1, 210) ¼ 38.112; p < .001) found that for the blue condition, congruency was higher for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.72) than for the warming lotion (M ¼ 3.43; F (1, 107) ¼ 11.394; p ¼ .001), while for the red condition, congruency was higher for the warming lotion (M ¼ 5.13) than for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 3.26; F (1, 103) ¼ 30.476; p < .001).
6.2. Results Main effects and interaction. The main effects of both color (MBlue ¼ 4.09 versus MRed ¼ 4.03; F (1, 197) ¼ .036; NS) and temperature (MIced ¼ 4.02 versus MHot ¼ 4.10; F (1, 197) ¼ .097; NS) were not significant. However, the interaction of color and temperature was significant (F (1, 197) ¼ 10.163; p ¼ .002; Fig. 5). For the blue condition, the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.41) led to a higher preferred size than the hot coffee (M ¼ 3.75; F (1, 97) ¼ 4.050; p ¼ .047). Meanwhile, for the red condition, size preference was larger for the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.44) than for the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.63; F (1, 100) ¼ 6.254; p ¼ .014). Moderated mediation. PROCESS Model 85 (Hayes, 2017; 5000
Fig. 1. Stimuli used in study 1.
Fig. 3. Color x temperature on congruency (study 1). 4
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
while the other half saw the labels in blue. Each student then selected a desired size from the two available options. The research attendant counted the number selected of each size within each treatment group (blue x cold, blue x hot, red x cold, and red x hot) and recorded the number for analysis. 7.2. Results Chi-square analysis revealed that correspondences in product tem perature and size label color led participants to select the larger size more often. For the cold product, within the blue label condition, 31.2% (N ¼ 77) selected the large, while only 14.7% (N ¼ 75) did so within the red label condition (χ2 ¼ 5.837; p ¼ .016). Meanwhile, for the hot product, 9.7% (N ¼ 93) of participants in the blue label condition selected the large, while 24.7% (N ¼ 77) did so in the red label condition (χ2 ¼ 6.887; p ¼ .009) (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 4. Stimuli used in study 2.
8. Study 4a 8.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 89 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 55; mean age ¼ 36) participated in 2-level (associated product temperature: cold versus hot) between-subjects experiment (see Fig. 7). To enable com parison with the effects in the absence of a promotional price, this study utilized the same red coffee packaging from study 2, with participants viewing either the iced coffee or hot coffee image (Fig. 8). All partici pants were also informed that the brand planned to price the new product at $10.00 but would be offering a 30% sale price at the begin ning of the launch. The full price was selected due to the typicality of $10.00 as a common price for similar packages of coffee, and 30% was selected because 30% off promotions tend to be commonly found in retail environments (i.e., Cox and Cox, 1990; Tsiros, 2009). By ensuring that all participants saw the same promotional price condition, the ef fects could be examined between congruent and incongruent packaging when promotional price was made salient. As in prior studies, participants responded to the same seven-point bipolar item for preferred size (smaller ¼ 1 to larger ¼ 7) as well as the same seven-point Likert-type items for liking of the product and perceived congruence between the color of the package and the prod uct’s associated temperature. Additionally, as a proxy for attention to the package, participants’ time viewing the package was counted by the questionnaire software.
Fig. 5. Color x temperature on preference for larger size (study 2).
bootstrapped samples and 95% CI) for moderated serial mediation assessed the effect of the color x temperature interaction on preferred size through the serial mediation of color-temperature congruency and liking of the product. The results indicated significance (effect ¼ .29; CI ¼ .11 to 0.55). The color x temperature interaction significantly pre dicted congruency (effect ¼ 2.81; CI ¼ 1.78 to 3.84), which significantly and directly predicted liking of the product (effect ¼ .36; CI ¼ .22 to 0.51). Further, liking of the product significantly and directly predicted preferred size (effect ¼ .29; CI ¼ .17 to 0.40). Additional probing into the nature of the color x temperature inter action on congruency revealed a highly significant interaction (F (1, 197) ¼ 259.070; p < .001), such that for the blue condition, the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.45) was perceived as more congruent than the hot coffee (M ¼ 2.94; F (1, 97) ¼ 16.577; p < .001), whereas the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.66) was more congruent than the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.37; F (1, 100) ¼ 12.592; p ¼ .001) for the red condition.
8.2. Results ANOVA revealed that preferred size (MIced ¼ 4.42 versus MHot ¼ 4.72; F (1, 86) ¼ .797; NS) did not significantly differ. Given that the
7. Study 3 7.1. Procedure Three hundred twenty-two undergraduate students from a large Southeastern university participated in this 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (salient color: blue versus red) between-subjects experimental study. Students in two classes were informed that they were being offered apple cider and were split into groups across two class days, with two groups per class (resulting in four total treatment groups). To rule out potential confounding from ambient temperature in prior studies, the ambient temperature was kept neutral (i.e., “room” temperature). The cider was made either cold (through prior refrigera tion) or hot (though a portable serving urn) prior to the start of dispensing, and all participants were informed of the cider’s tempera ture. At the dispensing station, students saw signs for two sizes: one labeled small and one labeled large, each sign in front of its corre sponding cup. Half of all participants saw these labels printed in red,
Fig. 6. Color x temperature on congruency (study 2). 5
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
Fig. 9. Stimuli used in study 4b.
before ending the procedure. Fig. 7. Interaction of product temperature and size label color on selected size (study 3).
9.2. Results As with study 4a, ANOVA found that preferred size (MIced ¼ 4.12 versus MHot ¼ 4.12; F (1, 99) ¼ .000; NS) did not significantly differ. Thus, in lieu of mediation, once again, ANOVA found that liking of the product (MIced ¼ 3.94 versus MHot ¼ 4.48; F (1, 99) ¼ 1.944; NS) did not significantly differ, although congruency was higher for the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.35) than for the hot coffee (M ¼ 2.90; F (1, 99) ¼ 13.880; p < .001). 10. General discussion The findings of five studies reveal that consumer responses to a temperature-associated product are more positive when that product is packaged in a matching temperature-associated color and no other color associations are present. Namely, when a heat-associated product is packaged with red and a cold-associated product with blue, the colortemperature congruency increases consumer responses to the product. Meanwhile, incongruency (red-cold or blue-heat) leads to more negative consumer responses. However, these effects are suppressed when the temperature association of the color occurs alongside a non-temperature color association (i.e., sales promotions for red or signature colors in trade dress for blue). These findings offer several implications for theory and practice.
Fig. 8. Stimuli used in study 4a.
dependent variable was not significant, we did not run mediation analysis. Rather, we ran ANOVA again for perceived congruency and liking of the product, which found that while the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.28) was seen as significantly more congruent with the color of the package than the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.31; F (1, 86) ¼ 8.346; p ¼ .005), liking of the product (MIced ¼ 3.64 versus MHot ¼ 3.95; F (1, 86) ¼ .684; NS) did not significantly differ. 9. Study 4b
10.1. Theoretical implications
9.1. Procedure
In terms of theoretical implications, the research shows that con sumers appropriately use color-temperature associations when the color with a temperature association is not shown with a non-temperature association during product selection. Specifically, the results indicate that when red is paired with heat-associated products and blue with cold-associated products, consumers exhibit more positive outcomes toward the product. The general effect is that consumers tend to select smaller sizes of and exhibit lower liking if a product if a color association is not congruent with the product temperature. This supports the assertion that color-temperature associations are widely held and well known among consumers, supporting prior literature on schema con gruity theory that in contexts of substantial schema knowledge, con gruity is better liked than moderate incongruity (Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). These findings also contribute by revealing that incongruent color-temperature associations diminish downstream responses, such as liking and size selection. Additionally, the findings reveal that consumers do not appropri ately use color-temperature associations when the color is shown with co-occurring non-temperature associations during product selection. By investigating two situations – sales promotion (red) and signature colors (blue) used in trade dress – that offer co-occurring non-temperature color associations and color-temperature associations during product selection, two studies show that congruent and incongruent colortemperature associations do not significantly affect downstream
In exchange for compensation, 101 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 62; mean age ¼ 33) participated in a 2-level (associated product tempera ture: cold versus hot) between-subjects procedure. As with study 4a, the same blue cans from study 2 were used. However, the aim of study 4b is to test the triggering of a brand’s color association as a suppressant of the color-temperature correspondences established in studies 1 through 3. Prior to the main study, a pretest (N ¼ 25) of ten brands with bluedominant logos confirmed that the best candidate for selling coffee through grocery stores as a brand extension was a major, popular breakfast chain. However, to avoid confounds from the use of a real brand, the authors created a logo for a fictitious breakfast-focused restaurant (named “Dashy Diner”). For the first part of the main study, all participants read a short introduction about Dashy Diner, including that the brand planned to introduce some of its products for sale in grocery stores. This introduc tion was accompanied by the brand’s logo, which was created using variations of blue. After this screen, participants were informed that one of the products the brand was planning to sell in grocery stores was coffee (either iced or hot, depending on the assigned condition; see Fig. 9). Participants then indicated preferred size of the product, liking of the product, and color-temperature congruency using the same items from prior studies. Finally, participants responded to demographics items 6
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
responses. These findings suggest that consumers negate the influence of color-temperature associations in favor of non-temperature associations when both temperature and non-temperature associations are salient. As such, color-temperature congruency or incongruency does not matter in those cases, which should also extend to other situations in which nontemperature color associations are present. This finding indicates that when non-temperature color associations are present, consumers are insensitive to arguably natural color-temperature associations because of a schema shifting process that weakens color-temperature associa tions and strengthens non-temperature associations. Further, this investigation explores a different avenue from the bulk of prior work on temperature. While past works on temperature have focused on physical sensation, we explore the effects of implied (i.e., stated but not yet experienced) temperature. Importantly, not all haptic cues need be experienced directly – like temperature inferences arising from color, we need not grasp a bottle of milk within a refrigerator to know that it is cold or a steaming cup of coffee to know that it is hot. Thus, we build on the premise that temperature can be indirectly experienced through visual temperature cues, which inform consumer perceptions and decision making as anticipated experiences (Rai et al., 2017). Although visual temperature cues themselves are not physically cold or hot, these cues can trigger corresponding mental associations within color schemas. Finally, we demonstrate the effects for both food and non-food products, showing that color-temperature congruity is not dependent solely on food categories. Rather, any category with temperature asso ciations could lead to similar congruity effects, showing that consumers apply color-temperature associations in color schemas across product contexts.
against other important design decisions, especially for well-established brands. For example, Coca-Cola is well-known for its red packaging, and soda is typically drunk cold. Thus, the findings may be more useful for new or little known brands rather than for brands with strong trade dress associations. 10.3. Limitations and future research directions Though we designed the studies carefully by not revealing the nature of our research question and by following Rubin and Badea (2010) in utilizing between-subjects designs to eliminate demand effects, it is possible that such effects could have affected the results. Thus, future research could validate the findings with different study designs, such as depicting a series of package colors for a given temperature-oriented product and having participants select the ones they like best. To enhance external validity, such a study would ideally be in a field setting with a new product test. Further, given that colors may have different associations across cultures, scholars should seek to validate the findings for products that carry different associations in countries outside the United States, such as color-flavor associations (i.e., blue potato chips in Australia). Additionally, although the above findings show that colortemperature congruity increases product liking and preferred sizes across product contexts, scholars should further validate the findings with other product categories. Such investigations might examine product categories in which temperature may be less obvious. For example, do products with implicit temperature associations, such as water bottles (cooler) or blankets (warmer), lead to similar temperature congruity effects with blue and red, respectively? Further, how might changes to value and saturation of red and blue affect color-temperature associations? Namely, might lighter values of red and blue be seen as cooler, whereas darker values might be seen as warmer? Likewise, do more saturated colors align more with warmer colors, given that high saturation is more intense and often considered brighter, while less saturated colors, seen as duller and grayer, might be perceived as cooler? Along a different vein, scholars should explore additional means of suppressing color-temperature associations. One such avenue may include other color associations that may shift focus from temperature associations in color schemas. For example, red may be associated with certain fruits (cherry, strawberry, watermelon, raspberry, etc.). Like wise, blue may trigger associations with tranquility, sports teams, and other temperature-neutral entities. These cases might derail tempera ture associations, similar to the effects of red-sale and blue-brand observed above. Similarly, researchers should investigate how thermoregulation might suppress the results. That is, the data for the above experiments were collected in environments that were likely at temperate levels. However, ambient temperature was not controlled. Thus, it is likely that when consumers are in states of non-neutral temperature, the need for thermoregulation might override color-temperature congruity effects. In such cases, consumers who are physically cold (hot) may develop stronger liking toward hot (cold) products, regardless of color, because the need to reestablish temperature equilibrium would likely override color-temperature congruity effects. Along a similar line of reasoning, red may appeal more to cold consumers and blue to hot consumers. Prior findings on the use of psychological warmth to compensate for physical cold would support such a line of inquiry (Huang et al., 2014; Hong and Sun, 2012; Rai et al., 2017; Zwebner et al., 2013). Finally, are there any cases in which schema incongruity is prefer able? For example, building on the above line of inquiry around other associations of colors, red is often associated with winter holidays, such as Christmas. In such cases, would red actually lead to more positive responses when paired with cold-oriented products? How might the juxtaposition of products and the environment in such situations (i.e., hot chocolate on a cold, snowy night) affect responses?
10.2. Managerial implications Managers can utilize the findings in multiple ways. First, the finding that congruent color-temperature relationships can increase preferred sizes of products may be useful in one of two ways. If the goal is to in crease preferred, then color-temperature congruity may be preferable. For example, because larger sizes tend to be higher-priced, color-tem perature congruity could increase top-line sales and overall profitability (assuming gross profit margins are not lower for larger sizes). However, if the goal is to decrease preferred sizes (as would be the case with calorie or portion control), then color-temperature incongruity may be strategically beneficial. Similarly, managers can utilize colortemperature congruity to simply increase liking of new temperaturerelated products, even if the immediate goal is not to increase preferred sizes of those products (for example, an advance announce ment of a product launch). Further, in cases in which non-temperature color associations may be activated, managers should design packaging elements according to the desired end goal. Retailers developing private label products, for example, could utilize the findings when designing the packaging for those products if the potential for color-temperature associations exists. If a color-temperature association is likely to lead to more positive re sponses than a given non-temperature association, then the temperature association should be emphasized, whereas cues of the non-temperature association should be minimized. However, if a non-temperature asso ciation is more favorable (as with red and sales promotions to clear in ventory), then that association should be made salient. Additionally, the differences in the extent of color cues in studies 1 through 3 indicate that color-temperature congruity is likely to affect consumer responses whether the color cues are minimal, as with size labels only, or maximal, as with the entire product package. Thus, managers have flexibility in the extent of application of red and blue to product packaging, which allows for incorporation of color cues ac cording to branding and design goals. However, the findings do have an important caveat: decisions as to whether to design color-temperature congruency must be weighed 7
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Appendix A. Supplementary data
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser
Schema-ing with color and temperature: The effects of color-temperature congruity and the role of non-temperature associations Seth Ketron a, *, Nancy Spears b a b
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Pomona, CA, USA University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Color Temperature Schema congruity Size
The present investigation utilizes schema congruity theory to predict when consumers use or do not use colortemperature associations to make downstream judgments of products. The results of five studies reveal that consumers use red-heat (blue-cold) color-temperature associations when the triggered red (blue) schema has no active non-temperature associations during product selection. In these cases, color-temperature congruity (redheat and blue-cold) leads to more positive responses than color-temperature incongruity (red-cold and blueheat). Additionally, the findings indicate that consumers do not use color-temperature associations when the situation activates both temperature and non-temperature associations for the red or blue schema (red-sales promotions or blue-trade dress). In these instances, consumers negate the influence of color-temperature asso ciations in favor of non-temperature associations. This indicates that color-temperature congruency or incon gruency does not affect downstream consumer responses because of a shift in the salience of schematic associations that weakens the influence of color-temperature associations.
1. Introduction Harnessing the power of sensory effects continues to be important to retailers as a compelling way to make products, advertisements, and environments more appealing to consumers (Krishna, 2011). Scholars and practitioners alike have documented the extensive effects of sensory marketing on consumers, including applications to product packaging (Krishna et al., 2017) and retail environments (Babin et al., 2003; Spangenberg et al., 2005; Spence et al., 2014). For example, color holds an important role in the retail domain, both in packaging and in atmo spherics (Ettis, 2017; Kapossa and Lick, 2020; Labrecque et al., 2013; Lick et al., 2017; Van Esch et al., 2019). Importantly, aligning sensory information in congruent ways can lead to more favorable consumer responses (Spangenberg et al., 2006). Among categories of sensory information, temperature remains one of the most underexamined. This gap is important, given that temper ature exerts a significant influence on both physical and psychological consumer responses. Hong and Sun (2012), for example, found that feeling physically cold stimulates a desire for psychological warmth. Most research on temperature has investigated similar links between physical and psychological warmth (Huang et al., 2014; Rai et al., 2017;
Zwebner et al., 2013), though some work has investigated the effects of physical temperature on consumer decisions and behaviors (i.e., Barbera et al., 2018; Briers and Lerouge, 2011; Cheema and Patrick, 2012) as well as the influence of weather on retail sales (i.e., Badorf and Hoberg, 2020, Stulec et al., 2019; Verstraete et al., 2019). Additionally, temperature shares a longtime documented relation ship with color in that higher wavelength colors are associated with heat and lower wavelength colors with cold (Bellizzi and Hite, 1992; Kaltcheva and Weitz, 2006; Mehta and Zhu, 2009; Bagchi and Cheema, 2013; Labrecque et al., 2013). Perhaps the most common of these temperature-signaling colors are red and blue, which often respectively provide the most universal signals of heat and cold (Labrecque et al., 2013; Szocs and Biswas, 2013). These learned associations of red with heat and blue with cold represent components of a commonly-shared temperature schema. Thus, when we see water taps with red and blue markings at a sink, we can correctly infer which tap produces which temperature of water due to our learned temperature associations with these colors. These color-temperature associations are one set of many documented influences of color on consumer responses (i.e., Hagtvedt and Brasel, 2017; Labrecque et al., 2013; Mai et al., 2016; Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Puccinelli et al., 2013).
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Ketron), [email protected] (N. Spears). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.102021 Received 22 July 2019; Received in revised form 12 December 2019; Accepted 16 December 2019 Available online 26 December 2019 0969-6989/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 54 (2020) 102021
Prior research has added much to our understanding of how the alignment of color and temperature affects consumers, such as increased reaction times to a thermal identification task (Ho et al. 2014) and perceptions that red objects are physically warmer and blue objects colder (Szocs and Biswas, 2013). Yet, there is much to learn about color-temperature associations, especially in terms of how matching color and temperature within retailing affects consumer responses to products. Thus, the present research seeks to make several contributions. Applying schema congruity theory, the research seeks to add to our understanding of color-temperature associations by investigating in stances in which consumers appropriately use or do not use colortemperature associations to make downstream consumer judgments. Five studies are presented, and the results suggest that consumers appropriately use red-heat (blue-cold) color-temperature associations when the triggered red (blue) schema has no other, non-temperature associations during product selection. In the appropriate application of color-temperature associations, color-temperature congruity (i.e., redheat and blue-cold) leads to more positive responses than colortemperature incongruity (i.e., red-cold and blue-heat). The findings also indicate that consumers do not appropriately use color-temperature associations when the triggered schema for red or blue has co-occurring non-temperature associations (red-sales promotions and blue-trade dress) during product selection. In these instances, consumers negate the influence of color-temperature associations in favor of nontemperature associations, and consumers are not sensitive or attuned to color-temperature congruency or incongruency because of a shift in the salience of schematic associations that weakens the influence of color-temperature associations.
case for at least three reasons. First, color associations often emerge from a very early age (Gil and Le Bigot, 2016), and it is likely that color-temperature associations are no exception. As children, we observed common color signals of temperature alongside their potential outcomes. For example, red warning signs spell out the potential dan gers of “HOT” objects, hot water sink taps are often marked in red, and the reddish hues present in fires, sunburns, thermometers, and similar temperature-focused objects all relate strongly to heat. Meanwhile, we learn that blue is the color of water and often appears in illustrations of ice and winter. Refrigerators and freezers often include blue snowflakes as cues of cold, and as with the red of hot water taps, blue typically signals cold water taps. Because, intuitively, temperature and its po tential discomforts are easily interpreted from a young age (how many toddlers have burned their hands on stoves or experienced the freezing feeling of ice?), and because red and blue as solitary colors do not require literacy to interpret in light of temperature, most consumers have likely held these red-heat and blue-cold associations for most of their lives. Second, many of these temperature cues are encountered frequently, perhaps even daily. Thus, the relationships between red-heat and bluecold are frequently activated in the minds of most consumers, which maintains the accessibility on a consistent basis and facilitates retrieval of color-temperature associations in subsequent relevant situations (Carrier and Pashler, 1992). In further support, recent inquiry by Lee and Choi (2019) found that inconsistency between images and text negatively affect consumer re sponses in the retail context. Because color-temperature inconsistencies often involve juxtapositions of images and text (i.e., the color of a package along with a textual label identifying the product), it is likely that color-temperature inconsistencies would follow the effect observed by Lee and Choi (2019). In sum, red-blue color-temperature associations likely represent a schematic domain for which consumers generally possess a high degree of knowledge. If this is the case, then when red and blue are used with hot and cold products, respectively, consumers should respond more positively to those products than when incongruent color-temperature associations are present.
2. Conceptual background 2.1. Color-temperature associations and schema congruity According to schema congruity theory, consumers view incoming information about a given product in light of existing knowledge and associations, such as typical characteristics of the product’s assumed category, retailer image, or brand image (Banerjee and Drollinger, 2017; Baxter et al., 2018; Cho and Berry, 2019; Lee and Choi, 2019; Meyer s-Levy et al., 1994; Noseworthy et al., 2018). In the present investiga tion, consumers who see a product with an implicit temperature association (hot coffee or ice cream, for example) are also likely to interpret temperature-related colors – namely, red or blue – on the product in light of the common red-heat and blue-cold schemas mentioned above. Thus, when hot and cold products are designed or displayed with red- or blue-dominant visual attributes, schema con gruity or incongruity should emerge. However, currently, it is unclear how consumers might respond to such (in)congruities between color and temperature in products and packaging. Earlier research applying schema congruity theory in mar keting, building from Mandler’s (1982) work on schema incongruity, found that moderate incongruity generally leads to greater processing of and more positive responses to products (Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1989; Meyers-Levy et al., 1994). As such, one possibility is that incon gruent color-temperature combinations – red-cold and blue-heat, namely – could actually lead to more positive consumer responses. However, more recently, scholars have found that congruity is prefer able when consumers possess substantial knowledge of the given sche matic domain (Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). Thus, if consumers generally hold a high level of knowledge about color-temperature associations, it is likely that congruence be tween color and temperature (i.e., blue with cold products and red with hot products) leads to stronger consumer responses. We follow the latter line of reasoning to argue that color-temperature associations represent a schematic domain of which most, if not nearly all, consumers are highly knowledgeable. We contend that this is the
2.2. Suppressing the effect of color-temperature associations through schema shifting The common red-heat and blue-cold associations mentioned above may be frequently encountered in many consumer situations. One such potential situation in which these associations may arise is the product selection phase of shopping, where colors are nearly always present and potentially triggering consumer schemas for those colors, including red or blue. In some situations, the only salient association with red or blue is with temperature, with no other apparent associations. However, at other times, there may be at least two co-occurring color associations, one that is a color-temperature association and another same-color as sociation that is non-temperature in nature. Thus, it is important to understand how consumers handle congruent versus incongruent colortemperature associations when a co-occurring non-temperature color association is present versus absent. One commonly piqued non-temperature color association in retail environments is red’s association with sales promotions. Indeed, mul tiple industry articles discuss the use of red for sale signage, and simple observation would confirm red’s pervasive use for that purpose in retail environments. In some instances, red’s sale association may also occur alongside color-temperature associations. For example, a heat-related product, such as hot coffee, may be packaged in red and may also be on sale. Likewise, a cold-related product, such as iced coffee, may also be packaged in red and may also be on sale. Thus, the color-temperature association may be congruent (red-hot) or incongruent (red-cold). In these cases, a non-temperature color association (the sale) is active alongside a congruent or an incongruent color-temperature association. 2
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In these situations, it is likely that consumer focus is on the association that is expedient at the point of selection – in this case, the nontemperature red-sale link. As such, the color-temperature link should exert a lesser influence, regardless of congruency or incongruency be tween temperature and non-temperature associations. As a result, when a sale is active for the product, consumer responses should be no different between hot and cold products in red packaging. Likewise, another common non-temperature color association is the use of signature colors in brands’ trade dress, which may also occur alongside color-temperature associations. Blue is a prime example - the color blue is commonly utilized in branding elements and can be found in the packaging of both current products and subsequent product in troductions for brands that utilize blue as a signature color. When these products also have cold or heat temperature associations, consumers face a similar situation to the red-heat versus red-sale situation described above, wherein blue-temperature and blue-brand associations may be activated. As with red, the temperature associations may be congruent (blue-cold) or incongruent (blue-heat). However, in this case, as with the red case above, the blue-brand association is salient at the point of product selection, and this association should diminish the ef fect of color-temperature associations, regardless of congruency or incongruency. Thus, like the red product on sale, a hot product in blue packaging by a brand with blue-dominant trade dress should yield similar responses to a cold product in the same blue packaging. Thus, when there is a non-temperature color association present in the product selection phase, the non-temperature color association should reduce the influence of co-occurring color-temperature associa tions. We reason that non-temperature color associations linked to both sales promotions and signature colors in trade dress are relevant within the context of the initial selection and purchase decision of the product because the focus is on information specific to the initial selection of the product. Namely, while actually experiencing product temperature may occur either almost immediately after selection (as with the serving of food upon ordering in a quick service restaurant) or potentially long after (as with the purchase of packaged food from a supermarket, which may be prepared and consumed days, weeks, or even months later), the consumer must first consider important information at the point of se lection. This focus on the point of purchase would thus make purchaserelated color associations – sales for red and branding for blue, in our example – more salient, diminishing the effects of temperature associ ations. Conversely, there are instances in the point of selection that do not have other non-temperature color associations to compete with color-temperature associations. In these instances, the focus should be on color-temperature associations, in which case these associations should be more influential. To summarize, in cases in which non-temperature associations are activated and relevant during the initial point of selection, such as redsale and blue-brand, a shift in focus should occur within the given red or blue schema. Namely, the focus moves from color-temperature associ ations to other non-temperature color associations, which should diminish the influence of color-temperature associations on consumer responses toward the given products because the focus is on the point of selection. Thus, in the presence of non-color temperature associations (i. e., sales promotion and trade dress), the focus on the point of selection should yield similar consumer responses regardless of congruency or incongruency. However, when there is only the color-temperature as sociation at the point of selection, the color-temperature association is the focus, and congruency vs. incongruency matters. As such, compared to incongruency, congruency between color and product temperature should increase consumer responses.
more positive consumer responses toward the product. H2. Perceived color-temperature congruency mediates the relation ship between the color x temperature interaction and consumer responses. H3. The effect of color-temperature associations on consumer re sponses toward a product are diminished when a non-temperature as sociation is present alongside a temperature association. 4. Overview of studies Study 1 tests the prediction that blue features on a cold-associated body lotion and red features on a heat-associated body lotion increase consumer responses, providing initial support for H1 and H2. Study 2 replicates the results of study 1 and extends the findings to a coffee product that is either iced or hot, further validating H1 and H2. Study 3 tests the findings with a choice variable (size selection) in a lab setting with apple cider as the product, providing further support for H1 with actual behavior. Across these three studies, the extent of application of the temperature-related color to the product package varied, with study 1 incorporating colored print on the product package, study 2 featuring color on the majority of the package, and study 3 applying the color to a single element, size labels. In doing so, the studies ensure that the extent of application of the color does not significantly affect color-temperature congruency effects. Studies 4a and 4b test the prediction that making non-temperature color cues salient can shift the active schema from color-temperature to non-temperature associations of red and blue (H3). Namely, study 4a shows that depicting the product alongside a sale price leads to nonsignificant effects on preferred size between hot and cold versions of a product on sale. This finding suggests that making a promotional price salient shifts the active schema from the temperature association of red to red’s association with promotional pricing, thereby suppressing colortemperature congruency effects on consumer responses. Study 4b uti lizes a fictitious brand with a blue-dominant logo to show that making trade dress salient also suppresses the temperature association of blue. These results indicate that blue-dominant branding likely shifts schemas from the color association of blue to a branding-related schema, further supporting H3. Additionally, studies 4a and 4b utilize the same base packaging from study 2, which allows for comparison between cases in which only the temperature association is salient versus cases in which a nontemperature color association occurs alongside the temperature associ ation. Although the content of the label itself changed in study 4b to accommodate the testing of signature color as a non-temperature asso ciation, the package color and shape did not change, and the same label from study 2 was used in study 4a. Preferred size was selected as the key dependent variable in studies 2 through 4b for three reasons. First, while purchase intentions and will ingness to pay are indeed important downstream consumer responses, those variables do not offer clarity around how much of a product con sumers desire as a function of congruent and incongruent colortemperature relationships. Addressing this specific question of desired amount can provide insights into (and potential strategies for address ing) over- or underconsumption. Second, insights into preferred sizes of products can help managers optimize package sizes of products as well as determine appropriate levels of each size in a multi-size assortment. Third, for coffee and cider, size is a salient variable – many times, food products such as coffee and cider are available in multiple sizes, which makes preferences for and selection of sizes important for those product contexts. Meanwhile, in study 1, liking of the product served as the outcome variable for two reasons. First, the aim of study 1 was to test the un derlying theory that color-temperature congruity leads to higher liking of the product. Second, size preferences are not as actionable or appli cable to lotion as a product category because lotion is typically
3. Hypotheses Given the above arguments, we propose the following hypotheses: H1.
Blue (red) features on a cold-related (heat-related) product lead to 3
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consumed in a different way from food categories such as coffee and cider. That is, consumers generally apply lotion on an as-needed basis or in fixed amounts as part of a daily grooming ritual, making size selection less germane to consumers’ decisions than in food contexts. 5. Study 1 5.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 214 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 116 mean age ¼ 36) participated in a 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (accent color: blue versus red) between-subjects experiment in which each participant was informed that a new brand of lotion, mod spa, was entering the market. The lotion was depicted as either cooling or warming (temperature manipulation) and was shown in a bottle that was accented with either blue or red (Fig. 1). After viewing the assigned image, participants responded to one seven-point Likert-type item measured liking of the product (“I like this product”), and one seven-point Likert-type item measured congruency between product color and temperature (“The color and temperature of the product go together”).
Fig. 2. Color x temperature on liking of the product (study 1).
6. Study 2 6.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 201 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 117; mean age ¼ 36) participated in a 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (packaging color: blue versus red) between-subjects experiment (see Fig. 3). In this study, each participant was informed that a new brand of coffee, moka caf�e, was entering the market. Participants then saw one of four randomly-assigned images of a prototype of the product, which varied based on assignment to the iced versus hot and blue versus red conditions (Fig. 4). Participants then indicated preferred size of the product with one seven-point bipolar item (smaller – 1 to larger – 7) in addition to the same item for congruency from study 1. Participants also responded to demographics questions before finishing the procedure.
5.2. Results The main effect of color (MBlue ¼ 4.33 versus MRed ¼ 4.39; F (1, 210) ¼ .049; NS) was not significant, nor was the main effect of temperature (MCooling ¼ 4.38 versus MWarming ¼ 4.34; F (1, 210) ¼ .007; NS). How ever, the interaction of color and temperature was significant (F (1, 210) ¼ 9.438; p ¼ .003), such that for the blue condition, liking of the product was higher for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.72) than for the warming lotion (M ¼ 3.96; F (1, 107) ¼ 4.429; p ¼ .038), while for the red condition, the warming lotion (M ¼ 4.75) was liked more than the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.04; F (1, 103) ¼ 5.048; p ¼ .027) (see Fig. 2). Mediation. PROCESS Model 8 (Hayes, 2017; 5000 bootstrapped samples and 95% CI) tested the mediation of congruency between the color x temperature interaction and liking of the product. The results were significant (effect ¼ 1.28; CI ¼ .77 to 1.88), such that the inter action of color and temperature significantly predicted congruency (effect ¼ 3.16; CI ¼ 2.15 to 4.17), which subsequently significantly predicted liking of the product (effect ¼ .40; CI ¼ .29 to 0.52). Further analysis into the significant color x temperature interaction on congru ency (F (1, 210) ¼ 38.112; p < .001) found that for the blue condition, congruency was higher for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 4.72) than for the warming lotion (M ¼ 3.43; F (1, 107) ¼ 11.394; p ¼ .001), while for the red condition, congruency was higher for the warming lotion (M ¼ 5.13) than for the cooling lotion (M ¼ 3.26; F (1, 103) ¼ 30.476; p < .001).
6.2. Results Main effects and interaction. The main effects of both color (MBlue ¼ 4.09 versus MRed ¼ 4.03; F (1, 197) ¼ .036; NS) and temperature (MIced ¼ 4.02 versus MHot ¼ 4.10; F (1, 197) ¼ .097; NS) were not significant. However, the interaction of color and temperature was significant (F (1, 197) ¼ 10.163; p ¼ .002; Fig. 5). For the blue condition, the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.41) led to a higher preferred size than the hot coffee (M ¼ 3.75; F (1, 97) ¼ 4.050; p ¼ .047). Meanwhile, for the red condition, size preference was larger for the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.44) than for the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.63; F (1, 100) ¼ 6.254; p ¼ .014). Moderated mediation. PROCESS Model 85 (Hayes, 2017; 5000
Fig. 1. Stimuli used in study 1.
Fig. 3. Color x temperature on congruency (study 1). 4
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while the other half saw the labels in blue. Each student then selected a desired size from the two available options. The research attendant counted the number selected of each size within each treatment group (blue x cold, blue x hot, red x cold, and red x hot) and recorded the number for analysis. 7.2. Results Chi-square analysis revealed that correspondences in product tem perature and size label color led participants to select the larger size more often. For the cold product, within the blue label condition, 31.2% (N ¼ 77) selected the large, while only 14.7% (N ¼ 75) did so within the red label condition (χ2 ¼ 5.837; p ¼ .016). Meanwhile, for the hot product, 9.7% (N ¼ 93) of participants in the blue label condition selected the large, while 24.7% (N ¼ 77) did so in the red label condition (χ2 ¼ 6.887; p ¼ .009) (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 4. Stimuli used in study 2.
8. Study 4a 8.1. Procedure In exchange for compensation, 89 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 55; mean age ¼ 36) participated in 2-level (associated product temperature: cold versus hot) between-subjects experiment (see Fig. 7). To enable com parison with the effects in the absence of a promotional price, this study utilized the same red coffee packaging from study 2, with participants viewing either the iced coffee or hot coffee image (Fig. 8). All partici pants were also informed that the brand planned to price the new product at $10.00 but would be offering a 30% sale price at the begin ning of the launch. The full price was selected due to the typicality of $10.00 as a common price for similar packages of coffee, and 30% was selected because 30% off promotions tend to be commonly found in retail environments (i.e., Cox and Cox, 1990; Tsiros, 2009). By ensuring that all participants saw the same promotional price condition, the ef fects could be examined between congruent and incongruent packaging when promotional price was made salient. As in prior studies, participants responded to the same seven-point bipolar item for preferred size (smaller ¼ 1 to larger ¼ 7) as well as the same seven-point Likert-type items for liking of the product and perceived congruence between the color of the package and the prod uct’s associated temperature. Additionally, as a proxy for attention to the package, participants’ time viewing the package was counted by the questionnaire software.
Fig. 5. Color x temperature on preference for larger size (study 2).
bootstrapped samples and 95% CI) for moderated serial mediation assessed the effect of the color x temperature interaction on preferred size through the serial mediation of color-temperature congruency and liking of the product. The results indicated significance (effect ¼ .29; CI ¼ .11 to 0.55). The color x temperature interaction significantly pre dicted congruency (effect ¼ 2.81; CI ¼ 1.78 to 3.84), which significantly and directly predicted liking of the product (effect ¼ .36; CI ¼ .22 to 0.51). Further, liking of the product significantly and directly predicted preferred size (effect ¼ .29; CI ¼ .17 to 0.40). Additional probing into the nature of the color x temperature inter action on congruency revealed a highly significant interaction (F (1, 197) ¼ 259.070; p < .001), such that for the blue condition, the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.45) was perceived as more congruent than the hot coffee (M ¼ 2.94; F (1, 97) ¼ 16.577; p < .001), whereas the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.66) was more congruent than the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.37; F (1, 100) ¼ 12.592; p ¼ .001) for the red condition.
8.2. Results ANOVA revealed that preferred size (MIced ¼ 4.42 versus MHot ¼ 4.72; F (1, 86) ¼ .797; NS) did not significantly differ. Given that the
7. Study 3 7.1. Procedure Three hundred twenty-two undergraduate students from a large Southeastern university participated in this 2 (product temperature: cold versus hot) X 2 (salient color: blue versus red) between-subjects experimental study. Students in two classes were informed that they were being offered apple cider and were split into groups across two class days, with two groups per class (resulting in four total treatment groups). To rule out potential confounding from ambient temperature in prior studies, the ambient temperature was kept neutral (i.e., “room” temperature). The cider was made either cold (through prior refrigera tion) or hot (though a portable serving urn) prior to the start of dispensing, and all participants were informed of the cider’s tempera ture. At the dispensing station, students saw signs for two sizes: one labeled small and one labeled large, each sign in front of its corre sponding cup. Half of all participants saw these labels printed in red,
Fig. 6. Color x temperature on congruency (study 2). 5
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Fig. 9. Stimuli used in study 4b.
before ending the procedure. Fig. 7. Interaction of product temperature and size label color on selected size (study 3).
9.2. Results As with study 4a, ANOVA found that preferred size (MIced ¼ 4.12 versus MHot ¼ 4.12; F (1, 99) ¼ .000; NS) did not significantly differ. Thus, in lieu of mediation, once again, ANOVA found that liking of the product (MIced ¼ 3.94 versus MHot ¼ 4.48; F (1, 99) ¼ 1.944; NS) did not significantly differ, although congruency was higher for the iced coffee (M ¼ 4.35) than for the hot coffee (M ¼ 2.90; F (1, 99) ¼ 13.880; p < .001). 10. General discussion The findings of five studies reveal that consumer responses to a temperature-associated product are more positive when that product is packaged in a matching temperature-associated color and no other color associations are present. Namely, when a heat-associated product is packaged with red and a cold-associated product with blue, the colortemperature congruency increases consumer responses to the product. Meanwhile, incongruency (red-cold or blue-heat) leads to more negative consumer responses. However, these effects are suppressed when the temperature association of the color occurs alongside a non-temperature color association (i.e., sales promotions for red or signature colors in trade dress for blue). These findings offer several implications for theory and practice.
Fig. 8. Stimuli used in study 4a.
dependent variable was not significant, we did not run mediation analysis. Rather, we ran ANOVA again for perceived congruency and liking of the product, which found that while the hot coffee (M ¼ 4.28) was seen as significantly more congruent with the color of the package than the iced coffee (M ¼ 3.31; F (1, 86) ¼ 8.346; p ¼ .005), liking of the product (MIced ¼ 3.64 versus MHot ¼ 3.95; F (1, 86) ¼ .684; NS) did not significantly differ. 9. Study 4b
10.1. Theoretical implications
9.1. Procedure
In terms of theoretical implications, the research shows that con sumers appropriately use color-temperature associations when the color with a temperature association is not shown with a non-temperature association during product selection. Specifically, the results indicate that when red is paired with heat-associated products and blue with cold-associated products, consumers exhibit more positive outcomes toward the product. The general effect is that consumers tend to select smaller sizes of and exhibit lower liking if a product if a color association is not congruent with the product temperature. This supports the assertion that color-temperature associations are widely held and well known among consumers, supporting prior literature on schema con gruity theory that in contexts of substantial schema knowledge, con gruity is better liked than moderate incongruity (Perrachio and Tybout, 1996; Aggarwal and McGill, 2007). These findings also contribute by revealing that incongruent color-temperature associations diminish downstream responses, such as liking and size selection. Additionally, the findings reveal that consumers do not appropri ately use color-temperature associations when the color is shown with co-occurring non-temperature associations during product selection. By investigating two situations – sales promotion (red) and signature colors (blue) used in trade dress – that offer co-occurring non-temperature color associations and color-temperature associations during product selection, two studies show that congruent and incongruent colortemperature associations do not significantly affect downstream
In exchange for compensation, 101 MTurk panelists (male ¼ 62; mean age ¼ 33) participated in a 2-level (associated product tempera ture: cold versus hot) between-subjects procedure. As with study 4a, the same blue cans from study 2 were used. However, the aim of study 4b is to test the triggering of a brand’s color association as a suppressant of the color-temperature correspondences established in studies 1 through 3. Prior to the main study, a pretest (N ¼ 25) of ten brands with bluedominant logos confirmed that the best candidate for selling coffee through grocery stores as a brand extension was a major, popular breakfast chain. However, to avoid confounds from the use of a real brand, the authors created a logo for a fictitious breakfast-focused restaurant (named “Dashy Diner”). For the first part of the main study, all participants read a short introduction about Dashy Diner, including that the brand planned to introduce some of its products for sale in grocery stores. This introduc tion was accompanied by the brand’s logo, which was created using variations of blue. After this screen, participants were informed that one of the products the brand was planning to sell in grocery stores was coffee (either iced or hot, depending on the assigned condition; see Fig. 9). Participants then indicated preferred size of the product, liking of the product, and color-temperature congruency using the same items from prior studies. Finally, participants responded to demographics items 6
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responses. These findings suggest that consumers negate the influence of color-temperature associations in favor of non-temperature associations when both temperature and non-temperature associations are salient. As such, color-temperature congruency or incongruency does not matter in those cases, which should also extend to other situations in which nontemperature color associations are present. This finding indicates that when non-temperature color associations are present, consumers are insensitive to arguably natural color-temperature associations because of a schema shifting process that weakens color-temperature associa tions and strengthens non-temperature associations. Further, this investigation explores a different avenue from the bulk of prior work on temperature. While past works on temperature have focused on physical sensation, we explore the effects of implied (i.e., stated but not yet experienced) temperature. Importantly, not all haptic cues need be experienced directly – like temperature inferences arising from color, we need not grasp a bottle of milk within a refrigerator to know that it is cold or a steaming cup of coffee to know that it is hot. Thus, we build on the premise that temperature can be indirectly experienced through visual temperature cues, which inform consumer perceptions and decision making as anticipated experiences (Rai et al., 2017). Although visual temperature cues themselves are not physically cold or hot, these cues can trigger corresponding mental associations within color schemas. Finally, we demonstrate the effects for both food and non-food products, showing that color-temperature congruity is not dependent solely on food categories. Rather, any category with temperature asso ciations could lead to similar congruity effects, showing that consumers apply color-temperature associations in color schemas across product contexts.
against other important design decisions, especially for well-established brands. For example, Coca-Cola is well-known for its red packaging, and soda is typically drunk cold. Thus, the findings may be more useful for new or little known brands rather than for brands with strong trade dress associations. 10.3. Limitations and future research directions Though we designed the studies carefully by not revealing the nature of our research question and by following Rubin and Badea (2010) in utilizing between-subjects designs to eliminate demand effects, it is possible that such effects could have affected the results. Thus, future research could validate the findings with different study designs, such as depicting a series of package colors for a given temperature-oriented product and having participants select the ones they like best. To enhance external validity, such a study would ideally be in a field setting with a new product test. Further, given that colors may have different associations across cultures, scholars should seek to validate the findings for products that carry different associations in countries outside the United States, such as color-flavor associations (i.e., blue potato chips in Australia). Additionally, although the above findings show that colortemperature congruity increases product liking and preferred sizes across product contexts, scholars should further validate the findings with other product categories. Such investigations might examine product categories in which temperature may be less obvious. For example, do products with implicit temperature associations, such as water bottles (cooler) or blankets (warmer), lead to similar temperature congruity effects with blue and red, respectively? Further, how might changes to value and saturation of red and blue affect color-temperature associations? Namely, might lighter values of red and blue be seen as cooler, whereas darker values might be seen as warmer? Likewise, do more saturated colors align more with warmer colors, given that high saturation is more intense and often considered brighter, while less saturated colors, seen as duller and grayer, might be perceived as cooler? Along a different vein, scholars should explore additional means of suppressing color-temperature associations. One such avenue may include other color associations that may shift focus from temperature associations in color schemas. For example, red may be associated with certain fruits (cherry, strawberry, watermelon, raspberry, etc.). Like wise, blue may trigger associations with tranquility, sports teams, and other temperature-neutral entities. These cases might derail tempera ture associations, similar to the effects of red-sale and blue-brand observed above. Similarly, researchers should investigate how thermoregulation might suppress the results. That is, the data for the above experiments were collected in environments that were likely at temperate levels. However, ambient temperature was not controlled. Thus, it is likely that when consumers are in states of non-neutral temperature, the need for thermoregulation might override color-temperature congruity effects. In such cases, consumers who are physically cold (hot) may develop stronger liking toward hot (cold) products, regardless of color, because the need to reestablish temperature equilibrium would likely override color-temperature congruity effects. Along a similar line of reasoning, red may appeal more to cold consumers and blue to hot consumers. Prior findings on the use of psychological warmth to compensate for physical cold would support such a line of inquiry (Huang et al., 2014; Hong and Sun, 2012; Rai et al., 2017; Zwebner et al., 2013). Finally, are there any cases in which schema incongruity is prefer able? For example, building on the above line of inquiry around other associations of colors, red is often associated with winter holidays, such as Christmas. In such cases, would red actually lead to more positive responses when paired with cold-oriented products? How might the juxtaposition of products and the environment in such situations (i.e., hot chocolate on a cold, snowy night) affect responses?
10.2. Managerial implications Managers can utilize the findings in multiple ways. First, the finding that congruent color-temperature relationships can increase preferred sizes of products may be useful in one of two ways. If the goal is to in crease preferred, then color-temperature congruity may be preferable. For example, because larger sizes tend to be higher-priced, color-tem perature congruity could increase top-line sales and overall profitability (assuming gross profit margins are not lower for larger sizes). However, if the goal is to decrease preferred sizes (as would be the case with calorie or portion control), then color-temperature incongruity may be strategically beneficial. Similarly, managers can utilize colortemperature congruity to simply increase liking of new temperaturerelated products, even if the immediate goal is not to increase preferred sizes of those products (for example, an advance announce ment of a product launch). Further, in cases in which non-temperature color associations may be activated, managers should design packaging elements according to the desired end goal. Retailers developing private label products, for example, could utilize the findings when designing the packaging for those products if the potential for color-temperature associations exists. If a color-temperature association is likely to lead to more positive re sponses than a given non-temperature association, then the temperature association should be emphasized, whereas cues of the non-temperature association should be minimized. However, if a non-temperature asso ciation is more favorable (as with red and sales promotions to clear in ventory), then that association should be made salient. Additionally, the differences in the extent of color cues in studies 1 through 3 indicate that color-temperature congruity is likely to affect consumer responses whether the color cues are minimal, as with size labels only, or maximal, as with the entire product package. Thus, managers have flexibility in the extent of application of red and blue to product packaging, which allows for incorporation of color cues ac cording to branding and design goals. However, the findings do have an important caveat: decisions as to whether to design color-temperature congruency must be weighed 7
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Appendix A. Supplementary data
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