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School clusters in the third world: Making them work
ht. 1. Educational Development, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 329-333 Pergamon Press plc.1988. Printed in Great Britain
BOOK REVIEWS
PaclBc Perspectives on Non-formal Education: M. Crossley, J. Sukwianomb and S. Weeks (eds). Institute of Pacific Studies of the Universitv of the South Pacific and the University of Papua New-Guinea, 1987. Many aspects of this book do little to stimulate enthusiasm. For example, Weeks points out that In ten years in Papua New Guinea, there are have been 47 reports on NFE containing at least 247 recommendations. (P. 227) He rightly asks why so little has been done to implement these recommendations, and stresses the need to promote more effective coordination. But there appears to have been only slight progress since Anderson (1981) asked why the learning needs of the majority were not being met, and recommended, inter ah, that an intolerance be shown to accept any further delays, excuses, distractions, ,or unwillingness to assist more than 2,000,000 Papua New Guineans who are presently denied their full right to learn. (Anderson, 1981, p. 197) But clearly the 247 recommendations (including this one) in general have not been read; have not been accepted; or have not been realistic. The book under review is an inexpensively produced record of what must have been an expensive conference, which was held in P.N.G. in 1985, with representation from throughout Melanesia, and from Australia. And of course the issue of cost is of fundamental importance in NFE. It is very easy to spend a lot of money without achieving very much, while if there is too much costcutting, the ‘poor-relation’ image of NFE is sustained. Although it is useful as a record, and it has interesting parts, I am sceptical whether production of the book as it stands was a very worthwhile exercise. The book is difftcult to read for several reasons. There are 25 chapters and 27 contributors. Each chapter is short, and themes are therefore often undeveloped. There is some repetition, and some of the chapters are of insufficient quality, relevance or significance to be included. There is no clear logical sequence. There is far too much vague generality. The overall effect it to bore and irritate the reader, who requires considerable determination to complete the book. Much of the blame for this must be placed on the editors, who could have done a great deal more editing. The book could have been much improved by care in selecting what to include, and in some cases by asking contributors to expand their chapters and develop their themes into something more substantial. Above all the reader needs help in tackling the book in the form of more explanation, which could have been provided by a much longer introduction, and by editorial contributions to provide continuity. Is being scrappy, muddied and boring a reason why NFE almost always loses
out to the formal sector? Having said this, there are some positive aspects of the book, and parts which are well worth reading. In particular, there are some most interesting examples of actual practice, which appear to have the potential for further development, and perhaps for successful annlication elsewhere. Kemelfielb describes an experiment in dramatic film-makine. Holt aives an account of NFE at an Aboriginal Commur&y Colgge. In a realistic chapter on NFE in the Western Highlands Province of P.N.G., Bemal, Nema and Wama discuss the introduction of Specialised Training Centres supported by loans to graduates. Weeks discusses Community Extension within the well-known SSCEP nroeramme (nart of the formal education system). I should have likei more detail on all these. Certain lessons are drawn in the book, or can be drawn from it, and I shall concentrate on three. Firstly, there seems to be a far greater chance of success at provincial and local level than at national level. Secondly, in Melanesia at least, it is time to focus on implementation rather than recommendation and policy formulation. Finally, examples of good practice may be far more helpful in stimulating ideas and action than are definitions, ideals and general principles!
REFERENCE Anderson, B. (ed.) (1981) The Right to Learn: The Neglect of Non-formal Education. Research Branch. , Deoart. ment of Education, Papua New Guinea. DAVID
PENNYCUICK
University of Sussex
School Clusters in the Third World: Making Them Work:
Mark Bray. UNESCO-UNICEF,
1987.
Educational innovations can be interpreted as the response of a system under pressure. Educational systems in both the ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ world are suffering from economic pressure caused by austerity measures. ‘Developing’ countries also face pressure from the rising demand for education at all levels in the system. Political rhetoric has called for increased external and internal efficiency in education, school clusters are seen as achieving this largely through administrative decentralisation and increased community participation. It is within this uncritical, functionalist framework that Mark Bray sets his review of experience in the use of schools clusters in the ‘Third World’. A school cluster is ‘a grouping of schools for administrative and educational purposes’, a broad definition made necessary by a wide range of aims, models and 329
BOOK REVIEWS
330
implementation methods which Bray has culled from the literature. Although clusters are perhaps best known through the Peruvian ‘nucleos’ system, launched in 1945, similar systems are common in Latin America and widely used in South and South East Asia. Bray’s review based on six case studies from Sri Lanka, Thailand, India, Peru, Costa Rica and Papua New Guinea, summarises the available empirical studies. He goes on to attempt an analysis of the models employed in different contexts, pointing out both advantages and problems of cluster systems, and to make recommendations to those concerned with policy design and project implementation. Here Bray shares the popular concern with the contentious issues of d~ntr~sation and community pa~i~pation. Bray’s emphasis is on establishing links between certain aspects of project design and the project aims. The aims of the projects covered by the case studies are described as administrative, pedagogical, economic and political The degree to which these aims were realised is examined in relation to selected aspects of the project design; the type of institutions involved, the geographical area covered, the size of clusters, the method of appointment of leaders and the financial relationship between the cluster and the wider system. As such the work is best seen as a contribution to the ‘rational planning’ literature, rather than as a critical analysis of grass-roots educational reality, and indeed it describes itself as a practical guide for planners. If the five design aspects already noted, together with others which emerge from the more detailed case studies, were to be combined they would produce a very large number of possible models of cluster systems. Any of these models must function within a particular social, cultural and political context, thus making generalisation about policy and programme design almost impossible. Bray’s recommendations take account of this difficulty, taking care to note both the advantages and disadvantages of particular policies according to the context in which they must be implemented. We are left with the message that school clusters are no panacea but instead require careful attention both to the choice of realistic aims and to the development of appropriate project designs and implementation methods. We are also left with the suspicion that in-depth studies of their own educational context might be a more useful source of information for planners. Unive~i~
ANDY HAIGH of Education
of London Institute
Education in Sub-Saharaa Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion: Peter R. Moock and Ralph
W. Harbison. The World Bank, Washington, 185 pp., $12.95.
DC, 1988,
This World Bank Policy Study Report comes to us when the education sectors of most Sub-Saharan African countries are facing their greatest educational crisis yet. By focusing on the critical issues and problems of this region of the worfd, the Bank’s special report makes an excellent contribution to their solution, offering a concise assessment of both education and development in the SubSahara. Throughout, the report plainly reflects a deep conceptualization of the education issues involved. Its arrange-
ment is not only clear and concise, but very well documented. Part I properly provides a useful summary of the background information concerning trends in education both before and after independence in the SubSahara, and on expenditures for education as made by both the public and private sectors. It also includes demographic projections of school enrollments, and precise results of the World Bank’s research studies and their implications for policy development in this part of Africa. Finally, this section of the report acknowledges that school enrollments in most of the Sub-Saharan countries are either deteriorating or stagnating, while at the same time the quality of education is declining sharply due to the fiscal restraints that most of these countries’ education sectors now face. Part II deals with policy options for Sub-Saharan governments in all areas of education: primary, secondary, and higher education. It is a balanced analysis, and clearly outlines the critical importance of the roles played by each educational level in the socio-economic development of the African nations involved here. While its conclusion, again based on the Bank’s own research studies, is that primary education is socially the most profitable investment these countries can make, the report also acknowledges the role played by post-primary education, most particularly higher education. Part II also takes a close Iook at the policy issues involved in financing education-one of the most hotly debated issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. It makes policy recommendations for govemments to increase the revenues for their education sectors, including: cost recovery through the charging of fees, particularly in higher and secondary education; the establishment of student credit markets, including loan schemes for higher and the establishment of private loans. education; However, before any of these policies are implemented, the report also recommends that specific policy research be conducted. In the report’s final section, the World Bank further recommends that Sub-Saharan African countries develop their own specific, comprehensive and internally consistent sets of education policies along the lines of three basic ideas: adjustment to current demographic and fiscal realities; revituIizution of the existing educational infrastructure, in order to restore quafity; and selective ex~u~ion to meet further demands. The adjustment to current demographic and fiscal realities would take two main forms: (1) Diversifying sources of finances. This should be an integral part of country-specific policy packages. It can be achieved through increased cost-sharing in public education, through increased official tolerance and encouragement of non-governmental supplies of educational services, and through strict control of costs. (2) Unit cost containment. This should include the proper utilization of teachers, the setting of proper construction standards, and the reduction of dropout and grade-repetition rates. A revitalization strategy, meanwhile, should include: An availability of textbooks and learning materials for students. A renewed commitment to academic standards, particularly through the strengthening of examination systems. A greater investment in the operation and maintenance of physical plants and equipment.
BOOK REVIEWS
PaclBc Perspectives on Non-formal Education: M. Crossley, J. Sukwianomb and S. Weeks (eds). Institute of Pacific Studies of the Universitv of the South Pacific and the University of Papua New-Guinea, 1987. Many aspects of this book do little to stimulate enthusiasm. For example, Weeks points out that In ten years in Papua New Guinea, there are have been 47 reports on NFE containing at least 247 recommendations. (P. 227) He rightly asks why so little has been done to implement these recommendations, and stresses the need to promote more effective coordination. But there appears to have been only slight progress since Anderson (1981) asked why the learning needs of the majority were not being met, and recommended, inter ah, that an intolerance be shown to accept any further delays, excuses, distractions, ,or unwillingness to assist more than 2,000,000 Papua New Guineans who are presently denied their full right to learn. (Anderson, 1981, p. 197) But clearly the 247 recommendations (including this one) in general have not been read; have not been accepted; or have not been realistic. The book under review is an inexpensively produced record of what must have been an expensive conference, which was held in P.N.G. in 1985, with representation from throughout Melanesia, and from Australia. And of course the issue of cost is of fundamental importance in NFE. It is very easy to spend a lot of money without achieving very much, while if there is too much costcutting, the ‘poor-relation’ image of NFE is sustained. Although it is useful as a record, and it has interesting parts, I am sceptical whether production of the book as it stands was a very worthwhile exercise. The book is difftcult to read for several reasons. There are 25 chapters and 27 contributors. Each chapter is short, and themes are therefore often undeveloped. There is some repetition, and some of the chapters are of insufficient quality, relevance or significance to be included. There is no clear logical sequence. There is far too much vague generality. The overall effect it to bore and irritate the reader, who requires considerable determination to complete the book. Much of the blame for this must be placed on the editors, who could have done a great deal more editing. The book could have been much improved by care in selecting what to include, and in some cases by asking contributors to expand their chapters and develop their themes into something more substantial. Above all the reader needs help in tackling the book in the form of more explanation, which could have been provided by a much longer introduction, and by editorial contributions to provide continuity. Is being scrappy, muddied and boring a reason why NFE almost always loses
out to the formal sector? Having said this, there are some positive aspects of the book, and parts which are well worth reading. In particular, there are some most interesting examples of actual practice, which appear to have the potential for further development, and perhaps for successful annlication elsewhere. Kemelfielb describes an experiment in dramatic film-makine. Holt aives an account of NFE at an Aboriginal Commur&y Colgge. In a realistic chapter on NFE in the Western Highlands Province of P.N.G., Bemal, Nema and Wama discuss the introduction of Specialised Training Centres supported by loans to graduates. Weeks discusses Community Extension within the well-known SSCEP nroeramme (nart of the formal education system). I should have likei more detail on all these. Certain lessons are drawn in the book, or can be drawn from it, and I shall concentrate on three. Firstly, there seems to be a far greater chance of success at provincial and local level than at national level. Secondly, in Melanesia at least, it is time to focus on implementation rather than recommendation and policy formulation. Finally, examples of good practice may be far more helpful in stimulating ideas and action than are definitions, ideals and general principles!
REFERENCE Anderson, B. (ed.) (1981) The Right to Learn: The Neglect of Non-formal Education. Research Branch. , Deoart. ment of Education, Papua New Guinea. DAVID
PENNYCUICK
University of Sussex
School Clusters in the Third World: Making Them Work:
Mark Bray. UNESCO-UNICEF,
1987.
Educational innovations can be interpreted as the response of a system under pressure. Educational systems in both the ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ world are suffering from economic pressure caused by austerity measures. ‘Developing’ countries also face pressure from the rising demand for education at all levels in the system. Political rhetoric has called for increased external and internal efficiency in education, school clusters are seen as achieving this largely through administrative decentralisation and increased community participation. It is within this uncritical, functionalist framework that Mark Bray sets his review of experience in the use of schools clusters in the ‘Third World’. A school cluster is ‘a grouping of schools for administrative and educational purposes’, a broad definition made necessary by a wide range of aims, models and 329
BOOK REVIEWS
330
implementation methods which Bray has culled from the literature. Although clusters are perhaps best known through the Peruvian ‘nucleos’ system, launched in 1945, similar systems are common in Latin America and widely used in South and South East Asia. Bray’s review based on six case studies from Sri Lanka, Thailand, India, Peru, Costa Rica and Papua New Guinea, summarises the available empirical studies. He goes on to attempt an analysis of the models employed in different contexts, pointing out both advantages and problems of cluster systems, and to make recommendations to those concerned with policy design and project implementation. Here Bray shares the popular concern with the contentious issues of d~ntr~sation and community pa~i~pation. Bray’s emphasis is on establishing links between certain aspects of project design and the project aims. The aims of the projects covered by the case studies are described as administrative, pedagogical, economic and political The degree to which these aims were realised is examined in relation to selected aspects of the project design; the type of institutions involved, the geographical area covered, the size of clusters, the method of appointment of leaders and the financial relationship between the cluster and the wider system. As such the work is best seen as a contribution to the ‘rational planning’ literature, rather than as a critical analysis of grass-roots educational reality, and indeed it describes itself as a practical guide for planners. If the five design aspects already noted, together with others which emerge from the more detailed case studies, were to be combined they would produce a very large number of possible models of cluster systems. Any of these models must function within a particular social, cultural and political context, thus making generalisation about policy and programme design almost impossible. Bray’s recommendations take account of this difficulty, taking care to note both the advantages and disadvantages of particular policies according to the context in which they must be implemented. We are left with the message that school clusters are no panacea but instead require careful attention both to the choice of realistic aims and to the development of appropriate project designs and implementation methods. We are also left with the suspicion that in-depth studies of their own educational context might be a more useful source of information for planners. Unive~i~
ANDY HAIGH of Education
of London Institute
Education in Sub-Saharaa Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion: Peter R. Moock and Ralph
W. Harbison. The World Bank, Washington, 185 pp., $12.95.
DC, 1988,
This World Bank Policy Study Report comes to us when the education sectors of most Sub-Saharan African countries are facing their greatest educational crisis yet. By focusing on the critical issues and problems of this region of the worfd, the Bank’s special report makes an excellent contribution to their solution, offering a concise assessment of both education and development in the SubSahara. Throughout, the report plainly reflects a deep conceptualization of the education issues involved. Its arrange-
ment is not only clear and concise, but very well documented. Part I properly provides a useful summary of the background information concerning trends in education both before and after independence in the SubSahara, and on expenditures for education as made by both the public and private sectors. It also includes demographic projections of school enrollments, and precise results of the World Bank’s research studies and their implications for policy development in this part of Africa. Finally, this section of the report acknowledges that school enrollments in most of the Sub-Saharan countries are either deteriorating or stagnating, while at the same time the quality of education is declining sharply due to the fiscal restraints that most of these countries’ education sectors now face. Part II deals with policy options for Sub-Saharan governments in all areas of education: primary, secondary, and higher education. It is a balanced analysis, and clearly outlines the critical importance of the roles played by each educational level in the socio-economic development of the African nations involved here. While its conclusion, again based on the Bank’s own research studies, is that primary education is socially the most profitable investment these countries can make, the report also acknowledges the role played by post-primary education, most particularly higher education. Part II also takes a close Iook at the policy issues involved in financing education-one of the most hotly debated issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. It makes policy recommendations for govemments to increase the revenues for their education sectors, including: cost recovery through the charging of fees, particularly in higher and secondary education; the establishment of student credit markets, including loan schemes for higher and the establishment of private loans. education; However, before any of these policies are implemented, the report also recommends that specific policy research be conducted. In the report’s final section, the World Bank further recommends that Sub-Saharan African countries develop their own specific, comprehensive and internally consistent sets of education policies along the lines of three basic ideas: adjustment to current demographic and fiscal realities; revituIizution of the existing educational infrastructure, in order to restore quafity; and selective ex~u~ion to meet further demands. The adjustment to current demographic and fiscal realities would take two main forms: (1) Diversifying sources of finances. This should be an integral part of country-specific policy packages. It can be achieved through increased cost-sharing in public education, through increased official tolerance and encouragement of non-governmental supplies of educational services, and through strict control of costs. (2) Unit cost containment. This should include the proper utilization of teachers, the setting of proper construction standards, and the reduction of dropout and grade-repetition rates. A revitalization strategy, meanwhile, should include: An availability of textbooks and learning materials for students. A renewed commitment to academic standards, particularly through the strengthening of examination systems. A greater investment in the operation and maintenance of physical plants and equipment.