Schwartz personal values, theory of planned behavior and environmental consciousness: How tourists’ visiting intentions towards eco-friendly destinations are shaped?

Journal of Business Research 110 (2020) 228–236

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Schwartz personal values, theory of planned behavior and environmental consciousness: How tourists’ visiting intentions towards eco-friendly destinations are shaped?

T

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Wasim Ahmada, , Woo Gon Kimb, Zaheer Anwerc, Weiqing Zhuanga a

School of Internet Economics and Business, Fujian University of Technology, No. 3, Xueyuan Road, University Town, Minhou, Fuzhou City, Fujian Province 350118, China b Dedman School of Hospitality, Florida State University, 228 Champions Way, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2541, USA c School of Economics, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan, China

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Eco-friendly Ecotourism Personal values Theory of planned behavior Visiting intention

To address research gaps, this study develops a conceptual framework that integrates the personal values of Schwartz (1992) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and aims to examine tourists’ visiting intentions towards eco-friendly destinations. The authors collected data from 503 Chinese tourists. The majority of the hypotheses were accepted. The results show that resultant self-transcendence and resultant conservation values have positive relationships with three TPB anchors, i.e. (1) attitude, (2) subjective norms, and (3) perceived behavioral control. Contrarily, the authors found an insignificant relationship between value of resultant conservation and perceived behavioral control. Furthermore, TPB factors exert positive effects on tourists’ visiting intentions. Moreover, environmental consciousness positively moderates relationships between Schwartz personal values and attitude. The findings offer strong theoretical and practical implications.

1. Introduction Ecotourism1 is growing at almost three times the rate of general tourism (Hultman, Kazeminia, & Ghasemi, 2015), and the statistics reveal that as of March 2017, a significant majority of Chinese travelers (93 percent) are likely to choose eco-friendly destinations when making travelling decisions (Statista, 2017). In contrast to conventional tourism, ecotourism includes local participation in the decision-making processes, involves ethical consumption, and possesses educational mechanisms for both travelers and residents. The previous tourism-related studies apply situation-specific models, like the allocentrismpsychocentrism model, the push and pull model, and the travel career ladder model. These methods offer a plethora of incomparable research outcomes and constrain the understanding of travel behaviors. On the other hand, the personal values framework is relatively stable across situations (Schwartz, 1992), but scholars have exerted only a limited effort in exploring tourists’ personal values and identifying the degree to which such values could be crucial to comprehending tourists’ motivation and responsible decision-making (Weeden, 2011). Some recent

empirical studies have employed the Schwartz (1992) Personal Values Framework to examine tourists’ visiting intentions towards eco-friendly destinations, like in the scenarios of wildlife destinations (Ballantyne, Hughes, Lee, Packer, & Sneddon, 2018), young tourists (Ye, Soutar, Sneddon, & Lee, 2017) and eco-friendly destinations (Ashraf, Hou, Kim, Ahmad, & Ashraf, 2020). These studies stipulate that visiting intention, focused on eco-friendly destinations, is a pro-environmental behavior influenced by concerns for other people. However, in these studies, the intensity of the relationship between personal values and behavior is not clearly understood as they ignore the fact that personal values are highly significant in the context of responsible travels (Weeden, 2011). Hence, this study extends the existing literature by using the Personal Values Framework of Schwartz (1992), which has already contributed significantly to consumer research (Keh & Sun, 2008), to identify this critically important role in eco-friendly behavioral studies. Personal values are only one of the many factors that affect complex human behavior, and if they are used alone to explain tourist intentions, the analytical model might face definitional and operational inconsistencies (Ye et al., 2017). Additionally, the self-interest behaviors,

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Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W. Ahmad), [email protected] (W.G. Kim). 1 Defined as “a responsible travel to natural areas which preserves the environment, sustains the well-beings and involves interpretation and education” (International Ecotourism Society). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.01.040 Received 6 November 2018; Received in revised form 18 January 2020; Accepted 20 January 2020 0148-2963/ © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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consisting of cognition, concerns, and sensibilities and reflects broader individual values (including social and cultural values). In this manner, it is also strongly linked to the notion of the theory of personal values (Schwartz, 1992). The previous literature reveals that environmental consciousness gradually increases individuals’ understanding of the environment, including the way individuals behave in a specific situation (i.e., eco-friendly visit in this study) (Rannikko, 1996). Therefore, it is an essential factor for initiating environmental drive among individuals and determining its direction. Here, the shared viewpoint the authors observe is the linkage between humans and nature and between humans and the environment. Hence, this work introduces the moderating role of environmental consciousness into the conceptual framework by using the theory of personal values and TPB and serves as a theoretical contribution to the literature of responsible consumption as well.

invoked by self-involvement, also determine visiting intentions. The authors, therefore, argue that the theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a most influential theoretical model to explain self-interest behaviors. Scholars extensively use this theory in various ecotourism contexts, like green hotels (Kim & Han, 2010), green lodging (Han, 2015), bicycle touring (Han, Meng, & Kim, 2017), and environmentally responsible museums (Han, McCabe, Wang, & Chong, 2018). While these studies generally utilized TPB, they merely examined tourists’ self-interest behaviors and tested the tourists’ personal values in pro-social behaviors and neglected their role in defining the linkage of pro-social and selfinterested behaviors. To better understand the process through which personal values influence travel behaviors, it is necessary to examine how personal values influence behavioral antecedents identified by well-examined behavioral models (i.e., TPB). In general, scholars consider visiting intentions towards eco-friendly destinations pro-social and/or pro-environmental behaviors, but researchers argue that one may also view them as self-interest behaviors that are stimulated by the self-interests of individuals, i.e., maximizing the ecological benefits and simultaneously minimizing the related well-being risks. This issue is unresolved and requires rigorous scholarly debate (Miller, Merrilees, & Coghlan, 2015). Hence, scholars deem the models of personal values, as well as rationale choices, suitable for assessing the intent to visit ecofriendly destinations. Personal values not only guide people’s behaviors (Bardi & Schwartz, 2003), but they are also antecedents of behaviors (Allen, Hung Ng, & Wilson, 2002). Hence, to better understand the effect of personal values on travel behavior, it is important to integrate values theory to well-developed and tested behavioral models to predict and understand travel behaviors. In addition, individual differences, like personal values, are likely to influence the three antecedents to behavioral intentions in their model (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). As discussed earlier, to explain human values, Schwartz’s (1992) personal values framework serves as the most widely accepted model (Keh & Sun, 2008). Besides, to explain self-interest behaviors, researchers in the field consider the theory of planned behavior (TPB) the most influential theoretical model (Mancha & Yoder, 2015). Nonetheless, scholars have not used it to examine how Schwartz’s personal values and TPB factors influence tourists’ eco-friendly travel intentions (Ye et al., 2017). In spite of this interest, no one to the best of the authors’ knowledge examined the effect of personal values on attitude in the TPB model, except the study of Hansen (2008), but it did not examine the influence of these values on other TPB constructs. The current study aims to fill this research void by examining the effects of personal values on all three TPB constructs, namely attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Additionally, research shows that personal values factors and planned actions hold the power to predict pro-environmental behavior (Ye et al., 2017; Ballantyne et al., 2018). The integration of TPB with personal values requires careful scholarly attention as TPB extensively determines individuals’ behavioral intentions within and across various situations (Santamaría, de la Mata, Hansen, & Ruiz, 2010), and the addition of personal values into conceptual frameworks can result in the improvement of the explanatory strength of the TPB elements (Ballantyne et al., 2018; Bonne, Vermeir, BergeaudBlackler, & Verbeke, 2007). Evidently, in line with the arguments, the authors have found enough justification to merge TPB factors with the Schwartz (1992) personal values framework to conduct the research. Consequently, this study adds to the existing literature by inspecting pro-environmental and self-interest behaviors and by constructing a conceptual framework that includes variables from both TPB and the Schwartz personal values framework. Furthermore, the literature suggests that researchers should add cognitive and values factors regarding environmental problems while employing TPB in order to gain deeper insights (Chen & Hung, 2016). The factor of environmental consciousness encompasses thoughts and attitudes concerning how to manage and maintain the relationship between humans and the environment. It is also a compound concept

2. Theoretical foundation 2.1. Theory of personal values In the current study, the authors employed the theory of personal values proposed by Schwartz (1992), which assumes that individuals possess a set of values that shape their lives and establishes their preference patterns. The actions taken by individuals are based on value concepts (Schwartz, 1992). In social-psychological research, Schwartz’s framework is very important for several reasons: First, it explicitly deals with theory, and its core elements are embedded in preliminary social sciences research (Desender, Castro, & De León, 2011). Second, the framework employs value dimensions measures that have cross-cultural uniformity (Burgess & Steenkamp, 2006; Schwartz, 2006). The Schwartz Values Survey identifies ten ‘low-level’ values, including four higher-order value domains, namely self-transcendence (like universalism and benevolence) in comparison to self-enhancement (such as achievement and power) and conservation (like tradition, conformity and security) in contrast to openness-to-change (like stimulation and self-direction). In addition, there are two other basic bipolar value dimensions, namely resultant self-transcendence and resultant conservation. The eco-friendly attitudes and behaviors are positively related to the self-transcendence value types and negatively related to selfenhancement value types. Similarly, the value types of conservation are more likely linked to attitudes of social well-being and the environment. Conversely, the openness-to-change values are negatively associated with pro-environmental behaviors. Therefore, this study employed bipolar dimensions, namely resultant self-transcendence (the importance attached to self-transcendence by the individual minus the importance attached to self-enhancement) and resultant conservation (the importance given to conservation minus the importance devoted to openness-to-change). Behavioral and consumer research studies (Steenkamp, Ter Hofstede, & Wedel, 1999; Keh & Sun, 2008) have used widely these dimensions. Herein, the authors also utilized these two value dimensions. Personal values reinforce individuals’ moral choices and are pertinent in a social and ethical context and, resultantly, very suitable for studying the behavior of responsible tourists. Responsible tourism, generally referred to as ‘ecotourism’, demonstrates a wide range of priorities, including the sharing of the economic benefits of tourism directly with residents of destinations, manifesting a motive and ambition to show recognition for local communities, and mitigating the environmental impact of visits. Thus, the focus of responsible tourism research has now turned to variables like moral obligations that are frequently associated with ethical consumer behavior. Some argue for personal values as a ‘predictive variable’ to analyze responsible tourists’ intentions because they are particularly useful in examining the consumer behavior when facing a moral choice situation (Weeden, 2011). It is worth mentioning that the tourists’ intention to visit an eco-friendly destination is also a moral choice decision in the current study. Personal 229

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2.3.2. Visiting intentions and TPB factors The existing empirical literature documents the association of TPB elements and highlights their importance in explaining decision-making processes of individuals (Han, 2015; Mancha & Yoder, 2015; Lin & Niu, 2018; Wang et al., 2018). For example, Han et al. (2017), while investigating consumers’ pro-environmental behaviors, identify that TPB elements play a critical role in determining travelers’ visiting intentions towards eco-friendly museums. Similarly, Han (2015) finds that TPB factors show their positive impact on tourists’ intentions to visit green hotels. Also, in a recent work on bicycle tourism, H. Han et al. (2017) employ TPB and verify the utility of three TPB indicators in the decision-making of tourists. Likewise, in a green hotel context, Kim and Han (2010) extend TPB and find that its elements directly affect tourists’ intentions to pay conventional hotel prices. Furthermore, Mancha and Yoder (2015), while proposing an environmental theory of planned behavior, observe that preservation attitudes, green subjective norms, and green PBC enhance individuals’ green intentions. Consequently, as argued by Chen and Peng (2012), at the time of planning for tourism activities, individuals’ TPB elements increase their behavioral intentions to book an ecofriendly hotel. Therefore, in line with Wang et al. (2018), tourists' environmentally responsible behaviors are positively associated with their attitudes towards eco-friendly behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Hence, from the responsible tourism context, the authors construct the following:

values also hold concepts of ethical and societal well-being in the shape of self-transcendence and conservation value types. Likewise, responsible tourism also contains ethical elements of prioritizing the wellbeing of the local community. The responsible attitude and behavior stem from individuals’ values orientation, which reflects concern for the welfare of others. Therefore, the authors contend that the Schwartz personal values serve as the best theoretical basis for the current study and are critically important in examining tourists’ intentions to visit eco-friendly destinations. 2.2. Theory of planned behavior (TPB) Current research has successfully employed the TPB to explain how people create behavioral intentions (Han et al., 2017; Ye et al., 2017). The adjoining element of a specific behavior is the intention to perform or act (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), and three core anchors influence the individuals’ behavioral intentions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005), namely behavioral beliefs (the attitude about the specific object showing the chances that a certain behavior would occur), normative beliefs (the tendency of someone to perceive that people around him/her expect a particular behavior and his/her personal motivation to conform to that behavior), and perceived behavioral control (the pronounced ability to surmount the hurdles and perform the intended behavior). Scholars have extensively employed TPB to assess individuals’ pro-environmental behaviors, and many studies agree that TPB efficiently predicts different behaviors. For example, studies have utilized it to examine consumers’ green behavioral intentions (Mancha & Yoder, 2015; Wang, Wang, Yang, Wang, & Li, 2018). Moreover, ecotourism literature widely uses it. For instance, Han (2015) formulated a unified framework by integrating value-belief-norm model with TPB to investigate the role of TPB in the development of travelers’ eco-friendly intentions in a green lodging context. Also, Han et al. (2017) studied the travelers’ decisionmaking by extending TPB, wherein they used past behaviors and personal norms as predictors. In a recent study, Ye et al. (2017) examined the influences of TPB components on young tourists’ decisions by employing the values-congruent TPB model. Additionally, Wang et al. (2018) tested the TPB with environmental interpretations (various kinds of signage found in sightseeing places) to investigate tourists’ responsible environmental behaviors. However, the authors stress that the integration of TPB with the personal values framework demands promising scholarly attention (Ye et al., 2017).

H3. Attitudes are positively related to tourists’ visiting intentions to eco-friendly destinations. H4. Subjective norms are positively related to tourists’ visiting intentions to eco-friendly destinations. H5. Perceived behavioral controls are positively related to tourists’ visiting intentions to eco-friendly destinations. 2.3.3. Environmental consciousness as a moderator Schlegelmilch, Bohlen, and Diamantopoulos (1996) defined environmental consciousness as “an evaluation of, or an attitude towards facts, one’s own behavior or other’s behavior with consequences for the environment.” However, in the current study, the authors refer to it as the extent to which tourists’ beliefs value environmental problems. In their cutting edge paper, Straughan and Roberts (1999) highlighted the significance of psychographic factors in classifying individuals on a proenvironmental basis and assumed that individuals attach varying levels of importance to pro-social values. Moreover, studies have also revealed that individuals’ psychographics offer a useful profile of eco-friendly consumption compared to other factors (Jeong, Jang, Day, & Ha, 2014). The idea of environmental consciousness incorporates the explicit psychological factors linked to one’s inclination to perform eco-friendly behaviors. It is noteworthy to mention that the theory of personal values assumes that people with higher scores on self-transcendence and conservation manifest higher levels of commitment to nature and society. Hence, the people endowed with a higher level of environmental consciousness demonstrate greater environmental commitment attitudes. Therefore, the authors contend that this theory offers a sound theoretical foundation to examine the moderation effect of environmental consciousness between the relationships of self-transcendence and conservation and tourists’ attitudes towards intentions to visit ecofriendly destinations. Based on this evidence, the authors included environmental consciousness as a moderator in the conceptual framework. The existing literature is in consensus that environmental consciousness has direct effects on tourists’ attitudes and decision processes. For example, Law, Hills, and Hau (2017) report that consumers’ green consumption is an outcome of the environmental consciousness that creates positive variation in their environmental attitude. Likewise, Huang, Lin, Lai, and Lin (2014) find that consumers holding a higher

2.3. Conceptual framework and hypotheses 2.3.1. TPB factors and Schwartz personal values The value priorities of individuals may regulate the relative impact of the subjective norms and attitudes on their behavioral intentions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, Ajzen and Fishbein (2005) pointed out that personal values are likely to influence the three anchors of TPB theory framework. The current empirics well support these arguments. For example, Hansen (2008) finds a positive relationship between selftranscendence and conservation values and green grocery shopping attitude, while ignoring the other two TPB anchors. Similarly, Steg, Perlaviciute, Van der Werff, and Lurvink (2014) note that consumers who are strong (weak) advocates of self-transcendence (self-enhancement) values developed more (less) environmental attitudes and controls. Furthermore, Ye et al. (2017), in the context of tourism decisionmaking, found direct linkages of ‘value-congruent’ attitudes, ‘valuecongruent’ subjective norms, and ‘value-congruent’ perceived behavioral controls with Schwartz self-transcendence and conservation values. Nonetheless, ecotourism studies have yet to explore the relationship between Schwartz values and TPB factors. Therefore, in line with the above discussions, the authors formulate the following hypotheses: H1. Resultant self-transcendence is positively related to TPB anchors. H2. Resultant conservation is positively related to TPB anchors. 230

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degree of environmental consciousness have a higher tendency to consume environmentally friendly products. The theory of personal values also supports the claim that environmental consciousness moderates the linkage of personal values factors and attitude, and people who grant higher importance to self-transcendence and conservation have more of a dedication towards nature and society. Therefore, ecoconscious tourists holding societal well-being and conservation values exhibit destination-related conservation attitudes. To elaborate further, tourists are more than likely to formulate a preservation attitude to conform to their personal cultural values. In particular contexts, such as eco-friendly tourism, tourists’ environmental concerns have a profound impact on particular contexts where their humane concerns are activated (Martínez García de Leaniz, Herrero Crespo, & Gómez López, 2017). The theory of personal values signifies the well-being of society, and empirics have found that environmental conscious consumers understand the environmental problem currently faced by society and prefer acquiring products deemed as environmentally sustainable (Gatersleben, Steg, & Vlek, 2002; Iyer & Muncy, 2016). Intuitively, when consumers are concerned about environmental problems and simultaneously hold values of transcendence and conservation, they have a higher tendency to develop conservation attitudes. As a result of these points, the authors formulate the following hypotheses:

Table 1 Demographic profiles (n = 503).

H6. The relationship between self-transcendence value and attitude is positively moderated by tourists’ environmental consciousness, implying that the relationship is stronger (weaker) when environmental consciousness is high versus low.

Frequency

%

Gender Male Female

267 236

53.08 46.91

Age (years) 21–25 26–30

197 306

39.16 60.83

Income (RMB, USD/Month) < 5000 5001–10,000 10,001–15,000 15,001–20,000 > 20,000

41 157 189 77 39

8.15 31.21 37.57 15.30 7.75

Education level ≤Senior high school Bachelor Master

77 239 187

15.30 47.51 37.17

Travel frequency One month Three months Six months One year Two years

27 212 191 73 0

5.36 42.14 37.97 14.51 0

expressed their intention to visit at least one eco-friendly destination in the coming year. It took approximately 15–20 min to complete the questionnaire. The selection of millennial tourists serves as the best possible sample for the present research as it was made in view of prior research, which suggests that the millennial segment is the most environmentally educated and eco-friendly group and a strong advocate of social responsibility (Barber, Taylor, & Deale, 2010; Ru, Qin, & Wang, 2019). The initial sample was comprised of 600 respondents, after the allocated time period of one month. In the next step, the authors deleted incomplete responses. For the final sample, the authors received 503 usable responses. The demographics of respondents are shown in Table 1.

H7. The relationship between conservation values and attitude is positively moderated by tourists’ environmental consciousness, implying that the relationship is stronger (weaker) in cases of high levels of environmental consciousness as compared to low (see Fig. 1).

3. Methodology 3.1. Procedures and sampling The authors collected data on convenience basis and contacted respondents at tourist attractions in Beijing and Xiamen cities of China. The authors collected data in a two-month time period using three doctoral candidates who had received survey training. The interviewers selected and intercepted tourists visiting destinations. In all cases, the interviewers obtained formal consent from the participants to ascertain whether they agreed to take part in the self-administered survey. The sample comprised of millennial tourists, 20–30 years of age, who

3.2. Measurements and instrument development In line with multi-item measures suggested in previous established studies, the authors developed a personally administered questionnaire. The instructions section provided a detailed explanation of an ecofriendly destination with the purpose of creating awareness. The

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework. 231

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questionnaire had five parts. In Part 1, respondents relayed the importance they gave to self-transcendence and conservation values that could positively influence TPB elements. Following Schwartz (1992, 1999), to measure resultant self-transcendence and conservation, the authors used six questions on a 5-point Likert scale format (1 = not like me at all; 5 = very much like me). Keh and Sun (2008) modified the items to adjust them to consumer behavior contexts, and later Ahmad and Sun (2018) used these items. The authors adopted the same items for this study. In Part 2, respondents answered questions about the three TPB factors. To measure attitudes towards behaviors, the authors used a 7-point scale of five items adapted from Ajzen (1991). The authors employed the three-items scales from Ajzen (1991) to measure the constructs of subjective norms and PBC. Part 3 assessed respondents’ ‘environmental consciousness’ and measures their concerns about problems related to the environment and employs an eight-item measure developed by Huang et al. (2014). In Part 4, three questions adopted from Ajzen (1991) measured the ‘intention to visit eco-friendly destinations in the future’. Lastly, a 7-point scale anchored on “1 = extremely disagree; 7 = extremely agree” operationalized the tourists’ visiting intentions. Part 5 consisted of the respondents’ demographics. The authors developed the earlier questionnaire instrument into the English language and then later arranged for its translation into the Chinese language. To ensure comprehension, the authors restructured and modified the survey items. They also obtained the services of two marketing professors to refine the instrument to ensure its face and content validity. To further check the reliability and validity of the constructs’ scales, they performed a pilot-test of the survey on 40 tourists. The reliability analysis shows alpha (α) scores of > 0.70 for all the model constructs. As an additional test of quality, the authors asked the respondents to offer comments on the design and wording of the instrument. They then revised the questionnaire based on their feedback and comments.

Table 2 Statistics for the CFA (n = 503). Construct

Items

Loadings

CR

AVE

Cronbach’s alpha

Resultant selftranscendence (RT)

RT1 RT2 RT3 RT4 RT5 RT6

0.760 0.724 0.751 0.744 0.772 0.790

0.890

0.573

0.87

Resultant conservation (RCN)

RCN1 RCN2 RCN3 RCN4 RCN5 RCN6

0.747 0.742 0.766 0.766 0.765 0.786

0.893

0.581

0.84

Environmental consciousness (ECS)

ECS1 ECS2 ECS3 ECS4 ECS5 ECS6 ECS7 ECS8

0.823 0.833 0.759 0.860 0.862 0.866 0.882 0.839

0.951

0.708

0.939

Attitude (ATD)

ATD1 ATD2 ATD3 ATD4

0.909 0.910 0.910 0.895

0.948

0.821

0.948

Social norms (SN)

SN1 SN2 SN3

0.713 0.866 0.839

0.852

0.659

0.840

Perceived behavioral control (PBC)

PBC1 PBC2 PBC3

0.845 0.839 0.760

0.856

0.665

0.855

Visiting intention (VI)

VI1 VI2 VI3

0.709 0.819 0.710

0.791

0.559

0.801

4. Analysis 4.1. Measurement model

Table 3 Correlations and discriminant validity.

The authors employed a two-step statistical analysis approach from Anderson and Gerbing (1988) to perform the statistical analysis. In the first step, they analyzed the reliability and validity of the measurement model. In the second step, they employed the structural model to perform the path analysis. This technique establishes the reliability and validity of the measures. The authors then conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to evaluate the validity of the constructs. The CFA generated good model fit scores, which show a good fit of the data to the model (χ2 (474) = 1031.656, χ2/df = 2.176, SRMR = 0.054, RMSEA = 0.048, GFI = 0.906, AGFI = 0.865, RFI = 0.896, NFI = 0.907, CFI = 0.947; TLI = 0.941) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). They also conducted reliability and validity tests (convergent and discriminant) and used composite reliability (CR) scores to check reliability. The CR scores ranged from 0.791 to 0.951 and surpassed the cutoff level of 0.70 as suggested by Hair, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2011). The authors also followed Fornell and Larcker (1981) standards to ensure convergent validity: (1) all factor weights should exceed 0.70 and (2) the average variance extracted (AVE) value should be greater than 0.50. All the items’ loading values were above 0.70. The AVE values ranged from 0.559 to 0.821, surpassing the cut-off of 0.50 and, thus, fulfilling the conditions of convergent validity. Next, to assess the discriminant validity, the authors followed the Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion and ensured that the square root of AVE was greater than the correlations of a construct with other constructs in the model. Tables 2 and 3 clearly illustrates that this study fulfills the required condition.

Construct

RT

RCN

ECS

ATD

SN

PCB

VI

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mean SD VIF

0.757

−0.703 0.762

−0.045 0.02 0.841

0.112 −0.022 0.116 0.906

0.193 −0.101 0.092 0.320 0.812

0.178 −0.138 0.040 0.495 0.580 0.816

3.558 0.938 1.610

3.149 0.719 1.579

3.726 0.950 1.022

2.846 0.198 1.289

3.394 0.941 1.382

2.980 0.078 1.516

0.142 −0.170 −0.019 0.364 0.429 0.422 0.747 3.186 0.919 1.255

The boldfaced numbers along the diagonal represent the square root of AVE, and the elements that are off-diagonal represent interscale correlations.

collected data using a single source, common methodological bias may exist. The authors conducted Harman’s single-factor test without rotation to monitor the level of the spurious covariance shared among the variables (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). For this, they performed an EFA test for all the constructs’ items, and the results indicate that the first factor explains 20.421%, the second factor accounts for 17.833% of the total variance, and the collective factors account for 38.254% of the variance. The authors have evidence that a single factor does not create a major portion of the variance and, thus, common methodological bias is not an issue and does not affect the data.

4.2. Test of common method bias Since the nature of this study is cross-sectional, and the authors 232

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4.3. Structural model

Table 4 Hypotheses results.

4.3.1. Research model fit This study uses absolute fit measures (AFM) and incremental fit measures (IFM) to measure the proposed model fit (Hooper, Coughlan, and Mullen (2008). To confirm the model fit, AFM measures different statistics. First, the authors use the statistic of χ2/d.f. with a value that should not exceed 3.0 and RMSEA, with a value of ≤0.08 to consider a good fit. The next index is GFI, and a value of ≥0.90 shows a good fit, and the AGFI, in which a value of ≥0.80 specifies an acceptable fit. By applying these techniques, the authors got the following results: χ2/ d.f. = 2.801, RMSEA = 0.060, GFI = 0.892, and AGFI = 0.867, demonstrating model fitness. Secondly, the indexes for IFM consist of the IFI, NFI, RFI, and CFI. Hu and Bentler (1999) suggest that all these fit indexes should have a value of ≥0.90. The results output is as follows: IFI = 0.934, NFI = 0.900, RFI = 0.887, and CFI = 0.933. Overall, the results indicate an acceptable model fit.

Relationship H1a. RT → ATD H1b. RT → SN H1c. RT → PBC H2a. RCN → ATD H2b. RCN → SN H2c. RCN → PBC H3. ATD → VI H4. SN → VI H5. PBC → VI H6. RT × ECS → ATD H7. RCN × ECS → ATD

β **

0.261 0.314*** 0.260** 0.171* 0.233 0.063 0.202*** 0.271*** 0.212*** 0.118* 0.089*

t value

Significance

Relationship

3.220 3.695 3.033 1.994 2.107 1.968 3.626 5.225 3.325 2.557 1.832

< 0.01 < 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.05 > 0.05 > 0.05 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.01 < 0.05

Supported Supported Supported Supported Unsupported Unsupported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported

Model

4.3.2. Hypothesis results To test the hypotheses, the authors employed structural equation modeling. They used SPSS to perform potential multicollinearity tests and found that the data is free from any possible multicollinearity issues as the values of VIF ranged from 1.022 to 1.610, which is well below the standard value of 3.0. The results reveal that the resultant selftranscendence of tourists positively affects all three TPB factors (H1a–βRT→ATD = 0.261, p < .001, t = 3.220; H1b–βRT→SN = 0.314, p < .01, t = 3.695; H1c–βRT→PBC = 0.260, p < .01, t = 3.033), so H1 is accepted. There is a significant positive relationship between tourists’ resultant conservation and attitude (H2a–βRCN→ATT = 0.171, p < .05, t = 2.102), whereas the resultant conservation has insignificant relationships with the subjective norms (H2b–βRCN→SN = 0.129, p > .05, t = 1.529) and perceived behavioral control (H2c–βRCN→PBC = 0.063, p > .05, t = 0.736). Therefore, H2 is partially accepted. Moreover, all the TPB factors show positive and significant effects on tourists’ visiting intention. There is a positive effect of attitude on tourists’ visiting intention (βATD→VI = 0.202, p < .001, t = 3.626), thus H3 is accepted. Likewise, subjective norms have a positive and significant effect (βSN→VI = 0.271, p < .001, t = 5.225), and tourists perceived behavioral control on their visiting intention also has a significant positive effect (βPBC→VI = 0.212, p < .001, t = 3.325). Consequently, H4 and H5 are accepted (see Table 4).

Threshold

Model fit statistics

χ2 = 885.730 d.f. = 358 p-value = 0.0000

AFM

χ2/df = 2.474 RMSEA = 0.06 GFI = 0.892 AGFI = 0.867

1.0–3.0 ≤0.08 ≥0.90 ≥0.80

IFM

NFI = 0.900 IFI = 0.934 CFI = 0.933 RFI = 0.887

≥0.90 ≥0.90 ≥0.90 ≥0.90

*** p < .001. ** p < .01. * p < .05.

impact on tourists’ attitude (β = 0.281, p < .001, t = 4.835). Likewise, when tourists are less conscious of the environment, resultant self-transcendence manifests a weakly positive relationship with attitude (β = 0.087, p < .05, t = 1.995). In the cases where tourists are highly conscious of the environment, resultant conservation displays a positive relationship with attitude (β = 0.233, p < .001, t = 7.185). Similarly, when environmental consciousness is low, resultant conservation holds a positive but weak relationship with attitude (β = 0.105, p < .01, t = 5.427). The author further tested for differences between the two levels, i.e., low and high and found that the differences in simple slopes is significant in the case of resultant selftranscendence (p < .01; t = 5.896), as well as resultant conservation (p < .01; t = 5.111). Therefore, there is enough evidence to support H6 and H7 (see Fig. 2).

4.3.3. Results of moderation To examine the moderation effects, the authors first checked if the dependent variable was directly affected by the independent and moderating variables. They performed estimations to assess the relationship of the variables of interest, namely resultant self-transcendence (RT) and the resultant conservation (RCN) with attitude. The environmental consciousness serves as a moderator in this relationship. The results suggest a direct and significant effect of resultant selftranscendence on attitude (F = 18.494, p < .001). In addition, it also reveals a statistically significant interaction effect of resultant selftranscendence and environmental consciousness on attitude (β = 0.310, p < .05, t = 3.071). Similarly, the findings reveal that there is a significant direct impact of resultant ‘conservation’ on attitude (F = 32.786, p < .001). Also, there is a significant direct impact of the interaction of environmental consciousness and resultant conservation on attitude (β = 0.193, p < .05, t = 2.099). The significant interaction effects required identification of the simple effects that shape the nature of the interactions. The authors, therefore, adopted Aiken, West, and Reno (1991) by using the dummy technique: they divided the data of the moderating variable into two high and low groups and checked for moderation on both levels. As hypothesized, when tourists are highly conscious of the environment, resultant self-transcendence shows a positive and significant

5. Discussion This study offers some important insights: First, although resultant conservation shows a statistically insignificant relationship with subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, the attitude and social norms are significantly influenced by resultant self-transcendence, as well as conservation values. This finding is in absolute consonance with classical approaches, which argue that consumers’ self-interest and prosocial behaviors may coexist (Miller et al., 2015). The results of H1 and H2 also confirm the prior assumptions that the interplay of personal values and consumers’ socio-structural factors shape pro-environmental behaviors (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Liobikienė & Juknys, 2016; Ye et al., 2017). This work also validates the notion that TPB improves predictive power by individual characteristics, like personal values (Bonne et al., 2007), with a preference for other people’s over personal welfare. One possible explanation for this phenomenon could be that survey participants do not manifest stimulation and self-directional attitudes even though they are adults between 20 and 29 years of age, indicating that millennial Chinese give more importance to nature and their surrounding environment. Their eco-friendlier visiting intentions were strengthened by their strong behavioral control, and their perceived 233

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Fig. 2. Results of our proposed conceptual framework.

how personal values play their role in explaining visiting intentions and establishes the utility of the application of the TPB model in seeking value–intention linkage. Although contemporary literature establishes that individuals develop attitudes based on the concepts of self-interest motivations and personal values (Schultz & Zelezny, 1999; Liobikienė & Juknys, 2016), it does not include such determinants into empirical frameworks in eco-friendly contexts. While a few scholars have undertaken research attempts by employing a single personal value to examine behaviors (Ballantyne et al., 2018), there is a dearth of studies that use complete individual-level values frameworks. Therefore, the present study moves ahead of the existing research and develops a research model that integrates two theories to enhance the understanding of self-interest and pro-social behaviors. Additionally, a sound body of research has stressed the predictive power of environmental consciousness as a moderating factor (Law et al., 2017) and the scenarios beyond. This work tested for this moderating role in the destination context (previously overlooked) by examining its facilitating role in strengthening tourists’ attitudinal processes. Consequently, this work also widens the function of environmental consciousness as a moderating factor, as well as its context (i.e., eco-friendly destinations).

affiliation to a specific societal group strengthened their eco-friendlier visiting intentions. Second, the relationship of subjective norms with visiting intentions is much stronger in comparison to tourists’ attitude and their PBC. This finding is the most remarkable result of the study because it is in contradiction to the results of Wang et al. (2018). The main reason for this result is that social pressures strongly influence Chinese tourists’ intended behaviors. If they understand that they should behave in environment friendly ways as those close to them expect them to behave, a significant change in intentions towards ecofriendly destinations will be the likely outcome. Additionally, Chinese people advocate collectivism rather than individualism and, owing to this reason, subjective norm becomes a vital component of the ecofriendly behavior of Chinese tourists (Shi, Fan, & Zhao, 2017). As they enjoy a long tradition of collectivism, they prefer to pursue the values which they identify as important to themselves. Additionally, it is intuitive to suggest that social expectations are the key components of intentions, particularly among millennials who are more concerned to others’ expectations. When considering whether to participate in ecofriendly activities, the Chinese people follow respected and trusted individuals as references, such as peers, family and friends. Third, in line with previous findings related to pro-environmental studies (Jeong et al., 2014; Chen & Hung, 2016), the results suggest that environmental consciousness emerges as a strong moderating factor between the relationship of tourists’ personal values and attitude. These works underline that environmental consciousness serves as a decisive factor and plays a key role in the eco-friendly decision-making process. The authors assert that, in the current context, the interaction of personal values, as well as environmental consciousness, prevails, and since the sample (young Chinese tourists) possesses a high qualification level and greater exposure to media, it manifests higher levels of environmental awareness and knowledge. Furthermore, contemporary research suggests that when environmental consciousness is at a high level, both bipolar dimensions of Schwartz demonstrate higher interaction effects.

6.2. Practical implications The results related to self-transcendence and conservation values show that the travelers can successfully be engaged in visiting ecofriendly destinations and, thus, have important implications for designing of effective tourists’ experiences. The authors expected that the tourists who engage in pro-environmental experiences during their visits are most likely the ones who hold values focused on saving the environment and society. In this manner, they may eventually reinforce their behavioral intentions towards the environment by supporting their value-expressive behaviors. In general, people remember information, as well as experiences that are in accordance with their values (Kim & Han, 2010; Ye et al., 2017). Therefore, when businesses design their marketing strategies, they should target tourists’ values priorities. They can build effective strategies by designing memorable experiences that comply with tourists’ values. Alternatively, businesses can use a values-driven strategy to efficiently meet the tourists’ demands. Destination management experts can use interpretive materials to attract potential tourists. In addition to experiences, these texts should include the following content:

6. Contributions of study 6.1. Theoretical contributions This work contributes to the literature on tourists’ eco-friendly behaviors in several ways. First, the present study endeavors to enhance current insights on 234

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Appendix A. Supplementary material

(i) Tourists should be able to create a digital family storybook displaying pictures form their visits (tradition value) (ii) Management should encourage prospective tourists to ensure compliance with positive environmental expectations related to their family and friends (conformity values)

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.01.040. References

The study finds that tourists possess strong intentions towards visiting eco-friendly destinations. Consequently, to attract eco-savvy travelers, management of eco-friendly destinations should publicize ‘ecospeak’ practices and develop brochures. Additionally, they should proactively follow sustainable policies and practices. Finally, to encourage stakeholders to promote eco-friendly destinations, they should run strong marketing and public relations campaigns. For instance, Chinese eco-friendly destinations can consider developing their green maps by following the example of the ‘Powerful Green Map of NYC’ developed by New York City to guide tourists to the city’s energy-efficient resources.

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7. Study limitations and future research This work suffers from a few shortcomings, so one must use caution before generalizing the findings. Still, the authors are confident that this work can serve as a starting-point for scholars who intend to investigate the role of Schwartz’s personal values in the context of eco-friendly tourism. Moreover, these discrepancies can be helpful in opening significant research directions towards future explorations: The first important limitation of this work is the usage of crosssectional data, which may hinder generalizability. The authors understand that controlled experiments and/or longitudinal research are the ideal approaches to examine causal mechanisms and investigate the dynamic role of the personal values framework (Schwartz, 1992) and TPB elements on tourists’ behavioral intention. The second limitation is related to the data collection. The authors relied upon data collected only from China to draw inferences. However, as argued by Bagchi, Udo, Kirs, and Choden (2015), Schwartz’s individual-level values classification is equally relevant in various other contexts. Moreover, as suggested by Santamaría et al. (2010), TPB can broadly predict behavioral intent within and across cultures. Hence, for the assessment of the precision and predictive power of the current study’s framework, the authors recommend future researchers perform a cross-cultural investigation of consumers’ green behaviors. The third limitation also relates to the data collection. In the study, the authors investigated the intention of tourists who were not the frequent visitors of eco-friendly destinations. A better approach may be to collect data from tourists who are frequent travelers to eco-friendly destinations to investigate their actual behavior and unveil factors that contributed to this behavior. The fourth limitation is linked to the control variables, which are included in this study to show how demographic factors affect tourists’ visiting intentions. Contemporary research reports that gender, age and income levels (Barber et al., 2010) significantly affect green behavior. The authors propose for future work on how environmental literacy levels affect tourists’ visiting intentions. The final limitation relates to the conceptual appropriateness of using tourists’ environmental consciousness in examining specific contexts. The authors believe that to gain deeper insights, the theoretical frameworks in the context of eco-friendly destinations should include important notions, like tourists’ awareness value, involvement, and atmospheric conditions. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the Editor-in-Chief, the Associate Editor Ninan Prebensen and two anonymous reviewers for their honest, helpful and constructive comments. 235

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Wasim Ahmad (Ph.D.) earned his doctorate from School of Business, University of International Business and Economics, Beijing, PRC. Currently, he is working as Associate Professor of Marketing at Department of Marketing, School of Internet Economics and Business, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou, Fujian, PRC. He is also affiliated with Dedman School of Hospitality, Florida State University. His research interests include consumer ethics, innovations, and tourism marketing. His works have been appeared in well-known journals including International Journal of Hospitality Management, Business Strategy and the Environment, Tourism Management Perspectives, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing & Logistics and others. He can be contacted at [email protected] Woo Gon Kim is Dedman Professor of Hospitality Management and the director of the International Center for Hospitality Research & Development in the Dedman School of Hospitality at Florida State University. He earned Ph.D. from Purdue University and has previously held faculty positions at Sejong University and Oklahoma State University. Dr. Kim has published more than 130 articles in the leading hospitality and tourism journals, including the International Journal of Hospitality Management, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, and Tourism Management. He is an associate editor of the Journal of Quality of Assurance in Hospitality and Tourism. In addition, he serves on six journal editorial boards and review for a number of journals. Dr. Zaheer Anwer was serving as Director, Lahore Centre of Excellence in Islamic Banking and Finance, University of Lahore Pakistan. He earned PhD in Islamic Finance degree from INCEIF, Malaysia and, in addition, he is an Associate of Institute of Bankers, Pakistan. Dr. Zaheer has served banking industry of Pakistan for more than 12 years and held various key positions in all the areas of operations including general banking, credits and foreign trade. He has published in reputable journals and several papers are also undergoing the review process. He has presented his research at various international conferences. His areas of interest include implications of religious screening on the performance and payout behaviour of Shariah compliant stocks, Islamic corporate finance, Islamic microfinance and income inequality. He has worked on different funded projects during his studies at INCEIF and planning to further expand the canvas of his research. Weiqing Zhuang earned his PhD. from Xiamen University, People’s Republic of China. He did his Postdoc Fellowship at University of Central Florida, USA. Currently, he is working as Dean of School of Internet Economics and Business, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou, Fujian, PRC. He has published in Journal of Contemporary Management and Computers in Human Behavior among others.

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