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Science achievement and attitudes in Swedish schools
Studies in Educational Evaluation. Vol. 16, pp. 443-456, 1990 Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved,
0191--491X/90 $0.00 + .50 (~) 1990 Pergamon Press plc
SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT A N D ATTITUDES IN SWEDISH SCHOOLS Jan-Ake Engstr6m* and Richard Noonant *Institute of International Education, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden ?Inter Science Research Corporation, Stockholm, Sweden
Introduction B a c k g r o u n d of the S t u d y In this article, we have s u m m a r i z e d key findings from the Swedish s t u d y in the lEA S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science S t u d y (SISS). The first r e p o r t of the initial findings of the S w e d i s h s t u d y w a s p r e s e n t e d at a c o n f e r e n c e in 1986 (Noonan, 1987), a n d later p u b l i s h e d in Noonan & E n g s t r 6 m (1986). The full n a t i o n a l report of Swedish SISS was presented in 1988 (Riis et al., 1988) t o g e t h e r with t h e m a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l results, p u b l i s h e d in a p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t (lEA, 1988). References will also be d r a w n from the First I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science S t u d y (FISS) c o n d u c t e d by lEA in 1970, in which Sweden also took p a r t (Comber & Keeves, 1973; Hus~n et al., 1973). Some f e a t u r e s of S w e d e n a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y of the S w e d i s h school s y s t e m will be described so far t h a t the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n results from the lEA Science projects and the policy of the Swedish school system m a y be u n d e r s t o o d . Some F e a t u r e s of Sweden and of the Swedish School System C o m p u l s o r y elementary schooling was established in 1842. After the Second World War, the entire educational system was gradually trans-
443
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J.-,~. Engstrdm and R. Noonan
f o r m e d t h r o u g h a series of reforms. These r e f o r m s i n c l u d e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a compulsory, n i n e - y e a r c o m p r e h e n s i v e school (legislated for t h e entire c o u n t r y in 1962), followed by a n o n - c o m p u l s o r y i n t e g r a t e d
u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. The reforms were l a u n c h e d u n d e r the dual b a n n e r of e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y a n d the f o r m a t i o n of citizens for a m o d e r n pluralistic a n d democratic society (Marklund & Bergendal, 1979). The n i n e - y e a r c o m p r e h e n s i v e school is divided into t h r e e levels: j u n i o r (grades 1-3), i n t e r m e d i a t e (grades 4-6) a n d s e n i o r (grades 7-9). There are no t u i t i o n fees or charges for learning materials or school meals. There are very few private schools. All pupils are t a u g h t the s a m e subjects in the early grades, b u t in the later grades there is some a m o u n t of choice in subjects. Roughly one miUion pupils, i.e., all children between the ages of 7 a n d 16, a t t e n d the n l n e - y e a r c o m p u l s o r y school, a n d t o d a y over 90 per cent of the c o m p u l s o r y school-leavers go on to u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. The 1970s witnessed a major expansion of u p p e r s e c o n d a r y schooling a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . The i n t e g r a t e d u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l w a s i n t r o d u c e d in 1971. It is divided into 25 lines with three m a i n sectors of study: (1) arts a n d social subjects, (2) economics a n d commercial subjects, a n d (3) scientific a n d technical subjects. In each of t h e s e sectors there are academic and vocational courses.
Upper Secondary School
Compulsory School
[° /
Age
Figure 1:
7
8
19
10
11
12
13
14
16
/
/
16
17
18
19
The S t r u c t u r e of the Swedish School System - The Compulsory and Upper Secondary School
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
445
These lines of s t u d y are of varying length, from half a y e a r to four years. The m a j o r i t y of s t u d e n t s t a k e one of t h e 25 lines. Some 6 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s t a k e special c o u r s e s for t h e m o r e specialized v o c a t i o n s . The s t r u c t u r e of the Swedish school s y s t e m is s h o w n in Figure 1. At t h e j u n i o r level, science is n o t t a u g h t as a s e p a r a t e subject, a l t h o u g h p u p i l s l e a r n a b o u t t h e local n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s o m e e l e m e n t s of technology. At the i n t e r m e d i a t e level, 2 f o r t y - m i n u t e periods per week are given to science subjects, i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s of technology. At t h e s e n i o r level, p u p i l s receive 5 f o r t y - m i n u t e periods per week of science s u b j e c t s i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s of technology. All p u p i l s completing their c o m p u l s o r y schooling are eligible for u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. T h e r e are five t h r e e - y e a r t h e o r e t i c a l lines, t w o of w h i c h involve a d v a n c e d s c i e n c e c o u r s e s : N-line ( N a t u r a l S c i e n c e ) a n d T- line (Technology). Fifteen p e r c e n t of all s t u d e n t s in u p p e r s e c o n d a r y schools is enrolled in t h e s e two lines. Approximately 45 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s in the N-line a n d 15 p e r c e n t in the T-line are girls. About 25 p e r c e n t of upper s e c o n d a r y school- leavers go on to higher education. The r e m a i n d e r enters the labor m a r k e t or enrolls in some form of e d u c a t i o n later on in life. In N- a n d T-lines, biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i c s are t a u g h t as s e p a r a t e s u b j e c t s together with a b o u t 12 other subjects. S t u d e n t s in the Tline are t a u g h t technology as a separate subject while biology is t a u g h t as an optional subject. The Swedish SISS S t u d y The S a m p l e The i n t e r n a t i o n a l design is built u p o n d a t a from three populations, r e p r e s e n t i n g 10-year olds, 14-year olds a n d pupils in t h e l a s t y e a r of the s e c o n d a r y level in science s p e c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n . In S w e d e n , d a t a were collected from nine populations as s h o w n in Table 1. S e l e c t e d p u p i l s f r o m p o p u l a t i o n 1A a n d 1B r e p r e s e n t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y defined population of 10-year olds, population 2A a n d 2B the 14-year olds, a n d p o p u l a t i o n 3A r e p r e s e n t s the science specialists in the l a s t y e a r of s e c o n d a r y level. P o p u l a t i o n 2C is of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in Sweden, since it r e p r e s e n t s the end of obligatory school. D a t a were collected from nationally representative probability samples of schools a n d schoolchildren. The s a m p l e s were d r a w n in two stages. In the first stage, s a m p l e s of schools were d r a w n with probability proportional to size.
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J.-t~. Engstr6m and R. Noonan
Table 1:
S a m p l e s a nd Population Definitions in the Swedish SISS S t u d y
Populatio n
Definition
1A
Gr ade 3,
(9-10 y e a r s old)
1397
1.2
1B 2A 2B 2C
Gr a de Gr ade Gr ade Gr ade
(10-11 (13-14 (14-15 (15-16
1518 1649 1590 5353
1.3 1.5 1.3 4.4
3A 3B 3C
Gr ade 12, s c i e nc e specialists Gr ade 12, n o n - s c i e n c e specialists Gr ade 11, s t u d e n t s in t echni cal vocational lines
2849 1592
21.8 10.0
1094
4.6
1994
6.3
19036
2.9
3D
4, 7, 8, 9,
N. s a m p l e students
years years years years
old) old) old) old)
Gr ade 11, s t u d e n t s in n o n - t e c h n i c a l vocational lines
Total
Percentage of pop.
In the s e c o n d stage, one class was selected at r a n d o m from t h e s a m p l e d s ch o o ls , a n d all p u p i l s in t he class w ere t e s t e d . T h e s a m p l e s from t h e d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e d r a w n i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h e r e s p o n s e r a t e of s c h o o l s w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 p e r c e n t . T h e m a i n r e a s o n for a lower r e s p o n s e r a t e in 1983 c o m p a r e d with t he first s t u d y in 1970 is t h a t the 1983 s t u d y did n o t have c o m p u l s o r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A n a l y s e s h a v e show n, however, t h a t t h e lower r e s p o n s e r a t e h a d no i m p o r t a n t effect u p o n the initial s a m p l i n g design. Th e I n s t r u m e n t s Th e SISS s t u d y i n c l u d e s s c i e nc e a c h i e v e m e n t tests, a t t i t u d e scales an d b a c k g r o u n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . E a c h of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s is free to i n c l u d e a d d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l items. In S w e d e n t he following a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s wer e given to s e l e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n s : Piaget t e s t s , w o r d k n o w l e d g e tests, spatial ability tests and m a t h e m a t i c s tests.
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
447
Pupils in gr a de s 3 and 4 a n s w e r e d 112 items on t he science t est and p u p i l s in g r a d e s 7-9 a n s w e r e d 135 items. T he s c i e n c e s p e c i a l i s t s in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y a n s w e r e d 145 i t e m s in t he s c i e n c e t est s, a n d t he nons c i e n c e s t u d e n t s a n s w e r e d 90 items. Sci ence speci al i st s received s e p a r a t e t e s t s in biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i c s . E a c h t e s t s e s s i o n l a s t e d for 40 m i n u t e s a n d the n o r m a l n u m b e r of test sessi ons per s t u d e n t was either 5 or 6. According to t he t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , 40 m i n u t e s per t est was a d e q u a t e . About 600 teachers were asked about their background, teaching m e t h o d s a n d i n t e r e s t in t h e field of s c i e n c e . N e a r l y 7 0 0 s c h o o l h e a d m a s t e r s w er e a s k e d a b o u t school b u i l d i n g s a n d facilities, e q u i p m e n t , staffing a n d time allocation.
Results from the Swedish SISS S t u d y T h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d h e r e are i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e a b r o a d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t in s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d a t t i t u d e s b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a n d t h e s e c o n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d y of s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e s t a t u s of s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t t o d a y will also be c o n s i d e r e d in t h e s e results. Science Achievement Pupils in the c o m p u l s o r y school a n s w e r e d correct l y on m ore t h a n half of th e cognitive items, a n d the p r o p o r t i o n of c o r r e c t a n s w e r s i n c r e a s e d by a b o u t five p e r c e n t p e r year. T w e n t y - t w o i t em s (bridge items) were similar for g r a d e s 3 a n d 4, a n d 18 items for grade 7, 8 and 9 in the 1970 and 1983 y e a r s t u d i e s . In t h o s e items the pupils of all p o p u l a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970, Figure 2 s h o w s a c h i e v e m e n t levels for the v a r i o u s g r a d e s in 1970 a n d 1983. In g r a d e s 3 a n d 4 t h e r e is a slight i n c r e a s e in a c h i e v e m e n t . T he biggest difference is f o u n d in gr a de 7. Pupils b e g a n t he lower s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l (grade 7) with a h i g h e r a c h i e v e m e n t level in 1983 c o m p a r e d with 1970. T o w a r d s t he end of the c o m p u l s o r y school (grade 9), t h e r e is only a m a r g i n a l d i f f e r e n c e in a c h i e v e m e n t . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t he o b s e r v e d i n c r e a s e s in a c h i e v e m e n t in lower s e c o n d a r y h a s its roots in t he "middle-stage" teaching, especially in grade 6. S cien ce specialists in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y also h a d h i g h e r r e s u l t s in 1983 t h a n in 1970. Figure 3 s h o w s h o w t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s u l t s on 18 bridge items a m o n g s t u d e n t s in the N-line have m oved u p w a r d s b e t w e e n
448
J.-,~. Engstr6m and R. Noonan
1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 8 3 . T h e m e a n s c o r e in 1 9 7 0 w a s 12.4 w h i l e in 1 9 8 3 it is o n e i t e m b e t t e r , 13.4. T h e p i c t u r e is a b o u t t h e s a m e for T-line s t u d e n t s . % SCORE 8O
60
~9~,////f///" 40
1983
20
....................... 1 9 7 0
0
I
I
3
T
4
=
I
7
'
8
9
GRADE
F i g u r e 2:
A c h i e v e m e n t (Mean % Score) 1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 8 3 for G r a d e s 3 a n d 4 o n 2 2 Bridge I t e m s a n d G r a d e s 7, 8 a n d 9 o n 18 Bridge Items
FREQUENCY (%) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4
.
"
"
12.4
iI '3"4 , ,
'"
2
.... , ..... --"""T
0 0
2
4
,
,
,
,
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
SCORE
F i g u r e 3:
A c h i e v e m e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n s for S t u d e n t s in t h e N a t u r a l S c i e n c e Line (N) a n d 1 9 8 3 o n 18 B r i d g e I t e m s
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
449
W h e n u s i n g percentiles for comparison, it was f o u n d t h a t the top 5 a n d the top 10 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s did as well in 1983 as t h e y did in 1970. The i n c r e a s e s in the total m e a n scores are m a i n l y derived from the low achieving s t u d e n t s . In Figure 4, r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d for s t u d e n t s in the N-line for the different percentiles. Again, the picture is a b o u t the same for s t u d e n t s in the T-line. % SCORE 100 Top 5% Top 10% Top 25%
80 Mean
60
Bottom 25% Bottom 10%
40
20
I
I
1970
1983
YEAR
Figure 4:
M e a n Percent Score 1970 a n d 1983 for Selected Quantiles of S t u d e n t s in the Naural Science Line (18 Bridge Items)
On the three s e p a r a t e tests: biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d physics, it was f o u n d t h a t the s t u d e n t s scored h i g h e s t in biology followed by physics; the lowest m e a n scores were found in chemistry. Boys a n d Girls On all school levels the differences in a c h i e v e m e n t between boys and girls in 1970 d i m i n i s h e d in 1983. In Table 2, figures from the cognitive tests are given for boys and girls in grades 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9.
450
J.-/~. Engstr#m and R. Noonan
T a b l e 2:
R e s u l t s o n Cognitive T e s t s for B o y s a n d Girls in P e r c e n t on 22 I t e m s for G r a d e s 3 a n d 4 a n d 18 I t e m s for G r a d e s 7 - 9 in 1 9 7 0 a n d 1983
1970 .
.
.
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4
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1983 .
.
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.
G
B-G
B
G
BG
Mean STD N
53.8 15.6 499
51.5 15.0 458
2.3
54.4 14.6 650
51.9 14.8 650
2.5
Mean STD N
61.6 14.5 502
56.5 12.9 491
5.1 -
62.2 14.2 720
58.1 13.3 692
4.1 -
Mean STD N
52.5 11.3 592
46.9 8.5 522
5.6 -
57.9 15.8 719
54.0 13.5 769
3.9
Mean STD N
58.5 13.2 526
51.7 10.8 604
6.8 -
62.0 16.3 720
56.3 14.5 640
5.7 -
Mean STD N
65.4 10.9 781
57.4 9.6 716
8.0
65.8 16.3 2261
60.2 14.7 2228
5.6 -
T h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s r e m a i n e d Boys
.
B
Grade 3
.
performed
better
than
girls,
although
-
t h e s a m e in 1983.
girls
increased
their
a c h i e v e m e n t level m o r e t h a n b o y s . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e d i m i n i s h i n g difference b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s o n a c h i e v e m e n t in s c i e n c e . A m o n g s c i e n c e s p e c i a l i s t s in t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y it w a s f o u n d t h a t b o t h b o y s a n d girls h a d i n c r e a s e d t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t level o v e r time. In t h e N-line, b o y s i n c r e a s e d
t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t level s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n
girls.
R e s u l t s on cognitive t e s t s for b o y s a n d girls in t h e N- a n d T-line are given in Table 3. T h e v a r i a t i o n , in t e r m s of s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of r e s u l t s , b e t w e e n b o t h boys and notable
girls h a v e d e c r e a s e d
result
is t h e m e a n
remarkably
scores
between
1970 and
1983. A
of girls in t h e T- l i n e s w h i c h h a v e
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
increased more than
451
11 p e r c e n t f r o m 1 9 7 0 to 1983. It m u s t , h o w e v e r , b e
n o t e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r of girls in t h e 1 9 7 0 s t u d y w a s o n l y a b o u t 4 p e r c e n t c o m p a r e d to a l m o s t 15 p e r c e n t in 1983.
T a b l e 3:
R e s u l t s o n Cognitive T e s t s for B o y s a n d Girls in P e r c e n t o n 18 I t e m s for N- a n d T-line in 1 9 7 0 a n d 1983.
1970 .
.
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Line N
T
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1983 .
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B
G
B-G
B
G
BG
Mean STD N % N
64.4 17.6 342 66.2
59.1 13.9 175 33.8
5.3
70.4 13.4 797 55.7
64.5 10.8 633 44.3
5.9
Mean STD N %N
58.0 16.5 323 96.1
50.3 20.5 13 3.9
7.7
61.8 12.2
61.4 12.5 208 14.7
0.4
-
-
1 2 1 1
-
85.3
-
-
-
Attitudes Towards Science All t h e
children
in t h e
study
answered
a number
of questions
r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s c h o o l , s c i e n c e , a n d s c i e n c e in s o c i e t y . In g r a d e s 3 a n d 4, girls a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e p o s i t i v e a b o u t s c h o o l t h a n b o y s although
t h e d i f f e r e n c e is n o t v e r y big. F r o m g r a d e 7 u p to g r a d e 9 t h e
attitudes
towards
school are negative. The attitudes towards science and
s c i e n c e in s o c i e t y a r e l i k e w i s e q u i t e f a v o r a b l e a m o n g t h e y o u n g p u p i l s of g r a d e s 3 a n d 4. D u r i n g g r a d e s 7 - 9 t h e s e a t t i t u d e s
change direction and
b e c o m e n e g a t i v e , t h e s a m e t r e n d a s w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d school. W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t girls g e n e r a l l y s h o w r e m a r k a b l e o s c i l l a t i o n s in t h e i r a t t i t u d e s .
In g r a d e 7 t h e y a r e d e f i n i t e l y n e g a t i v e a n d a l s o m u c h
m o r e s o t h a n t h e b o y s ; d u r i n g g r a d e 8 t h e i r a t t i t u d e s s e e m to reflect m o r e genuine
a m b i v a l e n c e ; a n d in g r a d e 9 t h e y t e n d to y i e l d a b o u t t h e s a m e ,
m o d e r a t e l y n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s a s b o y s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of
452
J.-/~. Engstr6m and R. Noonan
the o s c i l l a t i o n s i n girls' a t t i t u d e s an example is given below. One of the a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n s was, "Science subjects i n school are i n t e r e s t i n g " . The pu p ils co u ld a n s w e r e i t h e r agree, n o t agree or I do n o t know. T he a n s w e r p a t t e r n s for girls and boys are s h o w n in Figure 5. PER CEN IO0
PER CENT ANSWERS 100
ANSWERS
Girls
Boys
8O
80 [ ~ I A o re e ~]Do
Not Know
60
]
Agree
]
DO Not Know
m
Disagree
60 •
Oillgrel
40
4O
20
2O
7 GRADE
Figure 5:
8
9
. . . . . . . ~//f/~ ~JJJJJJ~
0 3
7
8
GRADE
"Science S u b j e c t s in School are Interesting" - A nsw ers from Girls and Boys, in G r ades 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9
In grade 3 and 4 t he a t t i t u d e s are al m ost the s a m e for boys a n d girls. T h e n f r om g r a d e 7, while b o y s s t e a d i l y get a little bit m o r e negative y e a r by year, girls v a r y m u c h over t he y e a r s up to grade 9. In grade 9, b o y s a n d girls t e n d to yield the s a m e negative attitude. T he m a i n c h a n g e s in th e girls a t t i t u d e s f o u n d in grade 8 are a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of I d o not know answers. S t u d e n t s in t he science lines in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y yield a b o u t t he s a m e negative a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s c hoo l as p u p i l s in t h e l ast g r a d e in t he c o m p u l s o r y school. S t u d e n t s in t he T-line h a v e a m o r e negat i ve a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s s c h o o l t h a n s t u d e n t s in t he N- line. Yet, t h e s e s t u d e n t s in t he s cien ce lines have actively s h o w n t hei r positive a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s science in t h e i r choice of s t u d i e s in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y . This is also s h o w n in t he r e s u l t s from t he a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h e s e s t u d e n t s are very positive to s c i e n c e a n d t h e y believe t h a t with s c ience it is possi bl e to solve e v e r y d a y p r o b l e m s a n d t h a t science is i m p o r t a n t for t he d e v e l o p m e n t of t he c o u n t r y . The Choice of F u r t h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d O c c u p a t i o n For in f or m at i on a b o u t w h a t pupils expect to do after finishing grade 9, two q u e s t i o n s w e r e a s k e d . T he first q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n e d w h e t h e r or n o t
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t h e y p l a n to c o n t i n u e t h e i r studies. F r o m t he r e s u l t s it is f o u n d t h a t al m ost 95 p e r c e n t of all p u p i l s in gr a de 9 are p l a n n i n g to go on to t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. In t h e s e c o n d ques t ion, t h e pupi l s w ho p l a n to c o n t i n u e their Here than while
s t u d i e s w er e a s k e d to d e s c r i b e t h e r e is a big difference b e t w e e n 30 p e r c e n t of t he boys i n t e n d e d only 13 p e r c e n t of t he girls h a d
t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i r e c t i o n s of s t u d y . t he a n s w e r s of boys a n d girls. More to p u r s u e t he s c i e n c e lines N or T, t he s a m e pl ans. More t h a n 40 per-
c e n t of th e b o y s a n d 17 p e r c e n t of t he girls were p l a n n i n g to t a k e a twoy e a r t e c h n i c a l or i e nt e d vocat i onal line. Altogether, a r o u n d 70 p e r c e n t of the b o y s w h o w e r e c o n t i n u i n g in t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y c h o s e s o m e ki nd of s c i e n c e o r t e c h n i c a l o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n , while a big p r o p o r t i o n of girls c h o s e n o n - science a n d n o n - t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n s . C o n c e r n i n g a n o c c u p a t i o n in t he field of science t h e r e w as a c o m m o n neg ativ e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a c a r e e r as a s c i e n c e t e a c h e r . However, boys in g r a d e 9 w e r e v e r y pos i t i ve to a n y o c c u p a t i o n (except s c i e n c e t e a c h e r ) w h e r e t h e y could utilize t he science t h e y l e a r n e d at school. A m ong t he girls in g r ad e 9 t h e r e is a negative a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a n y o c c u p a t i o n in t he field of science. T h a t s t u d e n t s , b o t h boys a n d girls, in t he sci ence lines in the u p p e r s e c o n d a r y are positive a b o u t a c a r e e r in t he field of science is no surpri se, b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g to find t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s are v e r y negative a b o u t a c a r e e r as science t e a c h e r .
Discussion In S w e d e n , t h e r e is a u n i f o r m a n d relatively h i g h s t a n d a r d a m o n g p u p i l s in t h e n i n e - y e a r c o m p u l s o r y school. T h e e n r o l l m e n t in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y h a s i n c r e a s e d s i nce 1971 w h e n 78 p e r c e n t of t he age g r o u p w e n t to t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g school s while t he figure in 1983 was a l m o s t 96 p e r c e n t . S t u d e n t s from all p o p u l a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970. In t h e lower g r a d e s in c o m p u l s o r y school t he differences were r a t h e r small, but at the intermediate and
s e n i o r level a n d e s p e c i a l l y in t h e u p p e r
s e c o n d a r y (N- a n d T-lines) t he i m p r o v e m e n t s were consi derabl e. T h e r e ar e c e r t a i n l y m a n y r e a s o n s w h y p u p i l s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970. One r e a s o n m a y be t h a t t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s at t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e level ha ve improved. O t h e r v a r i a b l e s p o s s i b l y a c c o u n t i n g for t h e i n c r e a s e in a c h i e v e m e n t are b e t t e r e d u c a t e d a n d m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s in 1983 t h a n in 1970, a n d c h a n g e s s u b s e q u e n t to a l t e r a t i o n s of syllabi, s u c h as b e t t e r a d j u s t m e n t of c o u r s e b o o k s to all s t u d e n t s .
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F u r t h e r m o r e , a g e n e r a l d e b a t e on t e a c h i n g a n d w o r k i n g m e t h o d s d u r i n g th e 1970s h a s p r o b a b l y influenced the t e a c h i n g h a b i t s a n d t he a w a r e n e s s to t h e pupils' t h o u g h t . Si nce 1970 t h e r e have b e e n r e f o r m s t o w a r d s pupilcentered teaching, interdisciplinary studies, project oriented teaching, etc., w h i c h m i ght have h a d a n effect on t he a c h i e v e m e n t level of pupils. All t h e s e c h a n g e s are in line with the i n t e n t i o n s of t he c u r r i c u l u m . W i t h i n t h e S w e d i s h s c h o o l s y s t e m t h e overall i n c r e a s e in s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t h a s b e e n to t he b e n e f i t of t h e lower achieving s t u d e n t s , a n d this c h a n g e h a s n o t b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t at the e x p e n s e of the m o s t able and t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s . I m p o r t a n t e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e s e r e s u l t s are c h a n g e s in c u r r i c u l a a n d in syllabi. T h i s o u t c o m e w a s t h e expl i ci t pol i t i cal a n d e d u c a t i o n a l goal of the changes. An e q u i v a l e n t e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d is a c o r n e r s t o n e of t he S w e d i s h e d u c a t i o n a l policy. T h e SISS f u r n i s h e s c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t , in this p a r t i c u l a r r e s p e c t at least, o u r e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s h a d u p to t h e n b e e n s u c c e s s f u l (Marklund, 1989}. T he b e t w e e n - s c h o o l v a r i a n c e in S w e d e n is low c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T he idea of p r o v i d i n g all p u p i l s w i t h the s a m e basic e d u c a t i o n h a s largely b e e n realized. It is a positive sign to find t h a t t h e r e are less di fferences in science a c h i e v e m e n t b e t w e e n b o y s a n d girls in 1983 t h a n in 1970. Boys still p e r f o r m b e t t e r b u t t h e gap h a s d i m i n i s h e d a n d it m u s t be m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e s w i t h i n a g r a d e are c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e v a r i a n c e between grades and the variance due b e t w e e n boys and girls.
to d i f f e r e n c e s in a c h i e v e m e n t
B e c a u s e s c i e n c e b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t in soci et y and e v e r y d a y life it is a p r o b l e m that, c o m p a r e d with boys, a low p e r c e n t a g e of girls c h o o s e s ci ence in s chool s as a r e s u l t of w h i c h fewer w o m e n will be f o u n d in c a r e e r s in science a n d technology. Several c a m p a i g n s in the early 1980s a d d r e s s e d this i s s u e a n d a t t e m p t e d to enrol m o r e girls in science. An e x a m p l e of s u c h efforts, was to a w a r d e x t r a p o i n t s to girls opt i ng for traditionally "masculine" lines. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it h a s b e e n s h o w n t h a t school c h i l d r e n develop a m ore a n d m o r e n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c i e n c e d u r i n g p r i m a r y a n d lower s e c o n d a r y schooling. This obviously h a s a negative effect u p o n the f u r t h e r c h o i c e of e d u c a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n s a n d c a r e e r s in s c i e n c e for t h e s c h o o l children. This is a highly i m p o r t a n t i s s u e for f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in Sweden. W h y do a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s science in general t u r n negative? T h e r e m u s t be e x p l a n a t i o n s for this. Is it the c o n t e n t a n d / o r t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s of science t h a t c a u s e t h i s p h e n o m e n o n or is it d u e to o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d a n d / o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors? W hy do girls, a n d n o t boys d r a m a t i c a l l y c h a n g e their
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a t t i t u d e s towards science a n d technology in society d u r i n g the senior level in the c o m p u l s o r y school? Efforts s h o u l d be focussed in this issue b e c a u s e the a t t i t u d e s a m o n g the pupils, their prospects a n d h o p e s for the f u t u r e were d i s h e a r t e n i n g . Pupils s a w more "cons" t h a n "pros" in science a n d t e c h n o l o g y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e h a p p y f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t of society. Nonetheless, s c h o o l c h i l d r e n of all ages agree t h a t science a n d technology are i m p o r t a n t to the development of a country.
References Comber, L.C. & Keeves, J.P. (1973). A n empirical s t u d y o f science ed u ca tio n in nineteen countries. Stockholm a n d New York: Almqvist & Wiksell a n d J o h n Wiley (Halsted Press). Husdn, T., Bergling, K., Fagerlind, I., Holm, L., J o h a n s s o n , P.O., Liljefors, R., & M a t t s s o n , I. (1973). S v e n s k s k o l a i i n t e r n a t i o n e l l belysning: N a t u r o r i e n t e r a n d e timnen. (The S w e d i g h school in I n t e r n a t i o n a l Comparisons: Science). Stockholm: A l m q v i s s t & Wiksell International. IEA (1988). Sc i e nc e a c h i e v e m e n t in s e v e n t e e n countries. report. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
A preliminary
M a r k l u n d , I. (1989). How two e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s l e a r n e d from comparative studies: The Swedish experience. In: A.C. Purves (Ed): International comparisons a n d educational reform, (pp. 35-44). R.R. Donnelley. ASCD, Virginia, USA. M a r k l u n d , S. & Bergendal, G. (1979). T r e n d s in S w e d i s h e d u c a t i o n a l policy. Stockholm: The Swedish Institute. Noonan, R. (1987). Second science s t u d y - some Swedish results, (pp. 7291). In: 2 7 t h General A s s e m b l y Meeting in S t o c k h o l m , Open day seminar, A u g u s t 1986. Stockholm: National Board of Education, pp. 7291. Noonan, R. & E n g s t r 6 m , J-A. (1986). Science a c h i e v e m e n t in S w e d i s h schools: R e s u l t s f r o m the IEA S e c o n d International Science S t u d y . R e p o r t No. 75. I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n . University of Stockholm: University of Stockholm. Riis, U., Andersson, M., Btivertoft, I., Engstr6m, J.A., Grahn, R., Lindberg, D.H., Lindberg, Y., Marklund, I., Myrberg, M., Noonan, R., Norlin, A., & Pilstr6m, H. (1988). Naturvetenskaplig undervisning i s v e n s k skola: h u v u d r e s u l t a t f r a n en IEA u n d e r s f i k n i n g . (Science e d u c a t i o n in S w e d i s h schools. Main r e s u l t s from an IEA study). Report series F 88:1. Vad stiger forskningen? (What does r e s e a r c h tell?) Stockholm: National Board of Education.
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J A N - / ~ E ENGSTROM is a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t at the Institute of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n , S t o c k h o l m University. He is c u r r e n t l y a n a l y z i n g the Swedish IEA Science data, with special e m p h a s i s on a t t i t u d e s towards science. RICHARD NOONAN was the Swedish National R e s e a r c h Co-ordinator of the IEA Science Study, a n d associate Professor of the I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Education, Stockholm University. He is now Managing Director of the Inter Science R e s e a r c h Corporation, Stockholm, Sweden
0191--491X/90 $0.00 + .50 (~) 1990 Pergamon Press plc
SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT A N D ATTITUDES IN SWEDISH SCHOOLS Jan-Ake Engstr6m* and Richard Noonant *Institute of International Education, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden ?Inter Science Research Corporation, Stockholm, Sweden
Introduction B a c k g r o u n d of the S t u d y In this article, we have s u m m a r i z e d key findings from the Swedish s t u d y in the lEA S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science S t u d y (SISS). The first r e p o r t of the initial findings of the S w e d i s h s t u d y w a s p r e s e n t e d at a c o n f e r e n c e in 1986 (Noonan, 1987), a n d later p u b l i s h e d in Noonan & E n g s t r 6 m (1986). The full n a t i o n a l report of Swedish SISS was presented in 1988 (Riis et al., 1988) t o g e t h e r with t h e m a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l results, p u b l i s h e d in a p r e l i m i n a r y r e p o r t (lEA, 1988). References will also be d r a w n from the First I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science S t u d y (FISS) c o n d u c t e d by lEA in 1970, in which Sweden also took p a r t (Comber & Keeves, 1973; Hus~n et al., 1973). Some f e a t u r e s of S w e d e n a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y of the S w e d i s h school s y s t e m will be described so far t h a t the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n results from the lEA Science projects and the policy of the Swedish school system m a y be u n d e r s t o o d . Some F e a t u r e s of Sweden and of the Swedish School System C o m p u l s o r y elementary schooling was established in 1842. After the Second World War, the entire educational system was gradually trans-
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f o r m e d t h r o u g h a series of reforms. These r e f o r m s i n c l u d e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a compulsory, n i n e - y e a r c o m p r e h e n s i v e school (legislated for t h e entire c o u n t r y in 1962), followed by a n o n - c o m p u l s o r y i n t e g r a t e d
u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. The reforms were l a u n c h e d u n d e r the dual b a n n e r of e q u a l i t y of o p p o r t u n i t y a n d the f o r m a t i o n of citizens for a m o d e r n pluralistic a n d democratic society (Marklund & Bergendal, 1979). The n i n e - y e a r c o m p r e h e n s i v e school is divided into t h r e e levels: j u n i o r (grades 1-3), i n t e r m e d i a t e (grades 4-6) a n d s e n i o r (grades 7-9). There are no t u i t i o n fees or charges for learning materials or school meals. There are very few private schools. All pupils are t a u g h t the s a m e subjects in the early grades, b u t in the later grades there is some a m o u n t of choice in subjects. Roughly one miUion pupils, i.e., all children between the ages of 7 a n d 16, a t t e n d the n l n e - y e a r c o m p u l s o r y school, a n d t o d a y over 90 per cent of the c o m p u l s o r y school-leavers go on to u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. The 1970s witnessed a major expansion of u p p e r s e c o n d a r y schooling a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . The i n t e g r a t e d u p p e r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l w a s i n t r o d u c e d in 1971. It is divided into 25 lines with three m a i n sectors of study: (1) arts a n d social subjects, (2) economics a n d commercial subjects, a n d (3) scientific a n d technical subjects. In each of t h e s e sectors there are academic and vocational courses.
Upper Secondary School
Compulsory School
[° /
Age
Figure 1:
7
8
19
10
11
12
13
14
16
/
/
16
17
18
19
The S t r u c t u r e of the Swedish School System - The Compulsory and Upper Secondary School
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These lines of s t u d y are of varying length, from half a y e a r to four years. The m a j o r i t y of s t u d e n t s t a k e one of t h e 25 lines. Some 6 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s t a k e special c o u r s e s for t h e m o r e specialized v o c a t i o n s . The s t r u c t u r e of the Swedish school s y s t e m is s h o w n in Figure 1. At t h e j u n i o r level, science is n o t t a u g h t as a s e p a r a t e subject, a l t h o u g h p u p i l s l e a r n a b o u t t h e local n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s o m e e l e m e n t s of technology. At the i n t e r m e d i a t e level, 2 f o r t y - m i n u t e periods per week are given to science subjects, i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s of technology. At t h e s e n i o r level, p u p i l s receive 5 f o r t y - m i n u t e periods per week of science s u b j e c t s i n c l u d i n g e l e m e n t s of technology. All p u p i l s completing their c o m p u l s o r y schooling are eligible for u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. T h e r e are five t h r e e - y e a r t h e o r e t i c a l lines, t w o of w h i c h involve a d v a n c e d s c i e n c e c o u r s e s : N-line ( N a t u r a l S c i e n c e ) a n d T- line (Technology). Fifteen p e r c e n t of all s t u d e n t s in u p p e r s e c o n d a r y schools is enrolled in t h e s e two lines. Approximately 45 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s in the N-line a n d 15 p e r c e n t in the T-line are girls. About 25 p e r c e n t of upper s e c o n d a r y school- leavers go on to higher education. The r e m a i n d e r enters the labor m a r k e t or enrolls in some form of e d u c a t i o n later on in life. In N- a n d T-lines, biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i c s are t a u g h t as s e p a r a t e s u b j e c t s together with a b o u t 12 other subjects. S t u d e n t s in the Tline are t a u g h t technology as a separate subject while biology is t a u g h t as an optional subject. The Swedish SISS S t u d y The S a m p l e The i n t e r n a t i o n a l design is built u p o n d a t a from three populations, r e p r e s e n t i n g 10-year olds, 14-year olds a n d pupils in t h e l a s t y e a r of the s e c o n d a r y level in science s p e c i a l i s t e d u c a t i o n . In S w e d e n , d a t a were collected from nine populations as s h o w n in Table 1. S e l e c t e d p u p i l s f r o m p o p u l a t i o n 1A a n d 1B r e p r e s e n t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y defined population of 10-year olds, population 2A a n d 2B the 14-year olds, a n d p o p u l a t i o n 3A r e p r e s e n t s the science specialists in the l a s t y e a r of s e c o n d a r y level. P o p u l a t i o n 2C is of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in Sweden, since it r e p r e s e n t s the end of obligatory school. D a t a were collected from nationally representative probability samples of schools a n d schoolchildren. The s a m p l e s were d r a w n in two stages. In the first stage, s a m p l e s of schools were d r a w n with probability proportional to size.
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Table 1:
S a m p l e s a nd Population Definitions in the Swedish SISS S t u d y
Populatio n
Definition
1A
Gr ade 3,
(9-10 y e a r s old)
1397
1.2
1B 2A 2B 2C
Gr a de Gr ade Gr ade Gr ade
(10-11 (13-14 (14-15 (15-16
1518 1649 1590 5353
1.3 1.5 1.3 4.4
3A 3B 3C
Gr ade 12, s c i e nc e specialists Gr ade 12, n o n - s c i e n c e specialists Gr ade 11, s t u d e n t s in t echni cal vocational lines
2849 1592
21.8 10.0
1094
4.6
1994
6.3
19036
2.9
3D
4, 7, 8, 9,
N. s a m p l e students
years years years years
old) old) old) old)
Gr ade 11, s t u d e n t s in n o n - t e c h n i c a l vocational lines
Total
Percentage of pop.
In the s e c o n d stage, one class was selected at r a n d o m from t h e s a m p l e d s ch o o ls , a n d all p u p i l s in t he class w ere t e s t e d . T h e s a m p l e s from t h e d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e d r a w n i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h e r e s p o n s e r a t e of s c h o o l s w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 p e r c e n t . T h e m a i n r e a s o n for a lower r e s p o n s e r a t e in 1983 c o m p a r e d with t he first s t u d y in 1970 is t h a t the 1983 s t u d y did n o t have c o m p u l s o r y p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A n a l y s e s h a v e show n, however, t h a t t h e lower r e s p o n s e r a t e h a d no i m p o r t a n t effect u p o n the initial s a m p l i n g design. Th e I n s t r u m e n t s Th e SISS s t u d y i n c l u d e s s c i e nc e a c h i e v e m e n t tests, a t t i t u d e scales an d b a c k g r o u n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . E a c h of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s is free to i n c l u d e a d d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l items. In S w e d e n t he following a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s wer e given to s e l e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n s : Piaget t e s t s , w o r d k n o w l e d g e tests, spatial ability tests and m a t h e m a t i c s tests.
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
447
Pupils in gr a de s 3 and 4 a n s w e r e d 112 items on t he science t est and p u p i l s in g r a d e s 7-9 a n s w e r e d 135 items. T he s c i e n c e s p e c i a l i s t s in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y a n s w e r e d 145 i t e m s in t he s c i e n c e t est s, a n d t he nons c i e n c e s t u d e n t s a n s w e r e d 90 items. Sci ence speci al i st s received s e p a r a t e t e s t s in biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d p h y s i c s . E a c h t e s t s e s s i o n l a s t e d for 40 m i n u t e s a n d the n o r m a l n u m b e r of test sessi ons per s t u d e n t was either 5 or 6. According to t he t e s t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , 40 m i n u t e s per t est was a d e q u a t e . About 600 teachers were asked about their background, teaching m e t h o d s a n d i n t e r e s t in t h e field of s c i e n c e . N e a r l y 7 0 0 s c h o o l h e a d m a s t e r s w er e a s k e d a b o u t school b u i l d i n g s a n d facilities, e q u i p m e n t , staffing a n d time allocation.
Results from the Swedish SISS S t u d y T h e f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d h e r e are i n t e n d e d to p r o v i d e a b r o a d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t in s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t a n d a t t i t u d e s b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a n d t h e s e c o n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t u d y of s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e s t a t u s of s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t t o d a y will also be c o n s i d e r e d in t h e s e results. Science Achievement Pupils in the c o m p u l s o r y school a n s w e r e d correct l y on m ore t h a n half of th e cognitive items, a n d the p r o p o r t i o n of c o r r e c t a n s w e r s i n c r e a s e d by a b o u t five p e r c e n t p e r year. T w e n t y - t w o i t em s (bridge items) were similar for g r a d e s 3 a n d 4, a n d 18 items for grade 7, 8 and 9 in the 1970 and 1983 y e a r s t u d i e s . In t h o s e items the pupils of all p o p u l a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970, Figure 2 s h o w s a c h i e v e m e n t levels for the v a r i o u s g r a d e s in 1970 a n d 1983. In g r a d e s 3 a n d 4 t h e r e is a slight i n c r e a s e in a c h i e v e m e n t . T he biggest difference is f o u n d in gr a de 7. Pupils b e g a n t he lower s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l (grade 7) with a h i g h e r a c h i e v e m e n t level in 1983 c o m p a r e d with 1970. T o w a r d s t he end of the c o m p u l s o r y school (grade 9), t h e r e is only a m a r g i n a l d i f f e r e n c e in a c h i e v e m e n t . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t he o b s e r v e d i n c r e a s e s in a c h i e v e m e n t in lower s e c o n d a r y h a s its roots in t he "middle-stage" teaching, especially in grade 6. S cien ce specialists in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y also h a d h i g h e r r e s u l t s in 1983 t h a n in 1970. Figure 3 s h o w s h o w t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of r e s u l t s on 18 bridge items a m o n g s t u d e n t s in the N-line have m oved u p w a r d s b e t w e e n
448
J.-,~. Engstr6m and R. Noonan
1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 8 3 . T h e m e a n s c o r e in 1 9 7 0 w a s 12.4 w h i l e in 1 9 8 3 it is o n e i t e m b e t t e r , 13.4. T h e p i c t u r e is a b o u t t h e s a m e for T-line s t u d e n t s . % SCORE 8O
60
~9~,////f///" 40
1983
20
....................... 1 9 7 0
0
I
I
3
T
4
=
I
7
'
8
9
GRADE
F i g u r e 2:
A c h i e v e m e n t (Mean % Score) 1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 8 3 for G r a d e s 3 a n d 4 o n 2 2 Bridge I t e m s a n d G r a d e s 7, 8 a n d 9 o n 18 Bridge Items
FREQUENCY (%) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4
.
"
"
12.4
iI '3"4 , ,
'"
2
.... , ..... --"""T
0 0
2
4
,
,
,
,
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
SCORE
F i g u r e 3:
A c h i e v e m e n t D i s t r i b u t i o n s for S t u d e n t s in t h e N a t u r a l S c i e n c e Line (N) a n d 1 9 8 3 o n 18 B r i d g e I t e m s
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
449
W h e n u s i n g percentiles for comparison, it was f o u n d t h a t the top 5 a n d the top 10 p e r c e n t of the s t u d e n t s did as well in 1983 as t h e y did in 1970. The i n c r e a s e s in the total m e a n scores are m a i n l y derived from the low achieving s t u d e n t s . In Figure 4, r e s u l t s are p r e s e n t e d for s t u d e n t s in the N-line for the different percentiles. Again, the picture is a b o u t the same for s t u d e n t s in the T-line. % SCORE 100 Top 5% Top 10% Top 25%
80 Mean
60
Bottom 25% Bottom 10%
40
20
I
I
1970
1983
YEAR
Figure 4:
M e a n Percent Score 1970 a n d 1983 for Selected Quantiles of S t u d e n t s in the Naural Science Line (18 Bridge Items)
On the three s e p a r a t e tests: biology, c h e m i s t r y a n d physics, it was f o u n d t h a t the s t u d e n t s scored h i g h e s t in biology followed by physics; the lowest m e a n scores were found in chemistry. Boys a n d Girls On all school levels the differences in a c h i e v e m e n t between boys and girls in 1970 d i m i n i s h e d in 1983. In Table 2, figures from the cognitive tests are given for boys and girls in grades 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9.
450
J.-/~. Engstr#m and R. Noonan
T a b l e 2:
R e s u l t s o n Cognitive T e s t s for B o y s a n d Girls in P e r c e n t on 22 I t e m s for G r a d e s 3 a n d 4 a n d 18 I t e m s for G r a d e s 7 - 9 in 1 9 7 0 a n d 1983
1970 .
.
.
.
4
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
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.
.
1983 .
.
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.
.
.
.
.
G
B-G
B
G
BG
Mean STD N
53.8 15.6 499
51.5 15.0 458
2.3
54.4 14.6 650
51.9 14.8 650
2.5
Mean STD N
61.6 14.5 502
56.5 12.9 491
5.1 -
62.2 14.2 720
58.1 13.3 692
4.1 -
Mean STD N
52.5 11.3 592
46.9 8.5 522
5.6 -
57.9 15.8 719
54.0 13.5 769
3.9
Mean STD N
58.5 13.2 526
51.7 10.8 604
6.8 -
62.0 16.3 720
56.3 14.5 640
5.7 -
Mean STD N
65.4 10.9 781
57.4 9.6 716
8.0
65.8 16.3 2261
60.2 14.7 2228
5.6 -
T h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s r e m a i n e d Boys
.
B
Grade 3
.
performed
better
than
girls,
although
-
t h e s a m e in 1983.
girls
increased
their
a c h i e v e m e n t level m o r e t h a n b o y s . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e d i m i n i s h i n g difference b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s o n a c h i e v e m e n t in s c i e n c e . A m o n g s c i e n c e s p e c i a l i s t s in t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y it w a s f o u n d t h a t b o t h b o y s a n d girls h a d i n c r e a s e d t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t level o v e r time. In t h e N-line, b o y s i n c r e a s e d
t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t level s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n
girls.
R e s u l t s on cognitive t e s t s for b o y s a n d girls in t h e N- a n d T-line are given in Table 3. T h e v a r i a t i o n , in t e r m s of s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of r e s u l t s , b e t w e e n b o t h boys and notable
girls h a v e d e c r e a s e d
result
is t h e m e a n
remarkably
scores
between
1970 and
1983. A
of girls in t h e T- l i n e s w h i c h h a v e
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
increased more than
451
11 p e r c e n t f r o m 1 9 7 0 to 1983. It m u s t , h o w e v e r , b e
n o t e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r of girls in t h e 1 9 7 0 s t u d y w a s o n l y a b o u t 4 p e r c e n t c o m p a r e d to a l m o s t 15 p e r c e n t in 1983.
T a b l e 3:
R e s u l t s o n Cognitive T e s t s for B o y s a n d Girls in P e r c e n t o n 18 I t e m s for N- a n d T-line in 1 9 7 0 a n d 1983.
1970 .
.
.
Line N
T
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1983 .
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.
B
G
B-G
B
G
BG
Mean STD N % N
64.4 17.6 342 66.2
59.1 13.9 175 33.8
5.3
70.4 13.4 797 55.7
64.5 10.8 633 44.3
5.9
Mean STD N %N
58.0 16.5 323 96.1
50.3 20.5 13 3.9
7.7
61.8 12.2
61.4 12.5 208 14.7
0.4
-
-
1 2 1 1
-
85.3
-
-
-
Attitudes Towards Science All t h e
children
in t h e
study
answered
a number
of questions
r e g a r d i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s s c h o o l , s c i e n c e , a n d s c i e n c e in s o c i e t y . In g r a d e s 3 a n d 4, girls a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e p o s i t i v e a b o u t s c h o o l t h a n b o y s although
t h e d i f f e r e n c e is n o t v e r y big. F r o m g r a d e 7 u p to g r a d e 9 t h e
attitudes
towards
school are negative. The attitudes towards science and
s c i e n c e in s o c i e t y a r e l i k e w i s e q u i t e f a v o r a b l e a m o n g t h e y o u n g p u p i l s of g r a d e s 3 a n d 4. D u r i n g g r a d e s 7 - 9 t h e s e a t t i t u d e s
change direction and
b e c o m e n e g a t i v e , t h e s a m e t r e n d a s w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d school. W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g is t h a t girls g e n e r a l l y s h o w r e m a r k a b l e o s c i l l a t i o n s in t h e i r a t t i t u d e s .
In g r a d e 7 t h e y a r e d e f i n i t e l y n e g a t i v e a n d a l s o m u c h
m o r e s o t h a n t h e b o y s ; d u r i n g g r a d e 8 t h e i r a t t i t u d e s s e e m to reflect m o r e genuine
a m b i v a l e n c e ; a n d in g r a d e 9 t h e y t e n d to y i e l d a b o u t t h e s a m e ,
m o d e r a t e l y n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s a s b o y s . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n of
452
J.-/~. Engstr6m and R. Noonan
the o s c i l l a t i o n s i n girls' a t t i t u d e s an example is given below. One of the a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n s was, "Science subjects i n school are i n t e r e s t i n g " . The pu p ils co u ld a n s w e r e i t h e r agree, n o t agree or I do n o t know. T he a n s w e r p a t t e r n s for girls and boys are s h o w n in Figure 5. PER CEN IO0
PER CENT ANSWERS 100
ANSWERS
Girls
Boys
8O
80 [ ~ I A o re e ~]Do
Not Know
60
]
Agree
]
DO Not Know
m
Disagree
60 •
Oillgrel
40
4O
20
2O
7 GRADE
Figure 5:
8
9
. . . . . . . ~//f/~ ~JJJJJJ~
0 3
7
8
GRADE
"Science S u b j e c t s in School are Interesting" - A nsw ers from Girls and Boys, in G r ades 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9
In grade 3 and 4 t he a t t i t u d e s are al m ost the s a m e for boys a n d girls. T h e n f r om g r a d e 7, while b o y s s t e a d i l y get a little bit m o r e negative y e a r by year, girls v a r y m u c h over t he y e a r s up to grade 9. In grade 9, b o y s a n d girls t e n d to yield the s a m e negative attitude. T he m a i n c h a n g e s in th e girls a t t i t u d e s f o u n d in grade 8 are a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of I d o not know answers. S t u d e n t s in t he science lines in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y yield a b o u t t he s a m e negative a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s c hoo l as p u p i l s in t h e l ast g r a d e in t he c o m p u l s o r y school. S t u d e n t s in t he T-line h a v e a m o r e negat i ve a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s s c h o o l t h a n s t u d e n t s in t he N- line. Yet, t h e s e s t u d e n t s in t he s cien ce lines have actively s h o w n t hei r positive a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s science in t h e i r choice of s t u d i e s in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y . This is also s h o w n in t he r e s u l t s from t he a t t i t u d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h e s e s t u d e n t s are very positive to s c i e n c e a n d t h e y believe t h a t with s c ience it is possi bl e to solve e v e r y d a y p r o b l e m s a n d t h a t science is i m p o r t a n t for t he d e v e l o p m e n t of t he c o u n t r y . The Choice of F u r t h e r E d u c a t i o n a n d O c c u p a t i o n For in f or m at i on a b o u t w h a t pupils expect to do after finishing grade 9, two q u e s t i o n s w e r e a s k e d . T he first q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n e d w h e t h e r or n o t
Sweden: Attitudes and Achievement
453
t h e y p l a n to c o n t i n u e t h e i r studies. F r o m t he r e s u l t s it is f o u n d t h a t al m ost 95 p e r c e n t of all p u p i l s in gr a de 9 are p l a n n i n g to go on to t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y school. In t h e s e c o n d ques t ion, t h e pupi l s w ho p l a n to c o n t i n u e their Here than while
s t u d i e s w er e a s k e d to d e s c r i b e t h e r e is a big difference b e t w e e n 30 p e r c e n t of t he boys i n t e n d e d only 13 p e r c e n t of t he girls h a d
t h e i r i n t e n d e d d i r e c t i o n s of s t u d y . t he a n s w e r s of boys a n d girls. More to p u r s u e t he s c i e n c e lines N or T, t he s a m e pl ans. More t h a n 40 per-
c e n t of th e b o y s a n d 17 p e r c e n t of t he girls were p l a n n i n g to t a k e a twoy e a r t e c h n i c a l or i e nt e d vocat i onal line. Altogether, a r o u n d 70 p e r c e n t of the b o y s w h o w e r e c o n t i n u i n g in t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y c h o s e s o m e ki nd of s c i e n c e o r t e c h n i c a l o r i e n t e d e d u c a t i o n , while a big p r o p o r t i o n of girls c h o s e n o n - science a n d n o n - t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n s . C o n c e r n i n g a n o c c u p a t i o n in t he field of science t h e r e w as a c o m m o n neg ativ e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a c a r e e r as a s c i e n c e t e a c h e r . However, boys in g r a d e 9 w e r e v e r y pos i t i ve to a n y o c c u p a t i o n (except s c i e n c e t e a c h e r ) w h e r e t h e y could utilize t he science t h e y l e a r n e d at school. A m ong t he girls in g r ad e 9 t h e r e is a negative a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a n y o c c u p a t i o n in t he field of science. T h a t s t u d e n t s , b o t h boys a n d girls, in t he sci ence lines in the u p p e r s e c o n d a r y are positive a b o u t a c a r e e r in t he field of science is no surpri se, b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g to find t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s are v e r y negative a b o u t a c a r e e r as science t e a c h e r .
Discussion In S w e d e n , t h e r e is a u n i f o r m a n d relatively h i g h s t a n d a r d a m o n g p u p i l s in t h e n i n e - y e a r c o m p u l s o r y school. T h e e n r o l l m e n t in t he u p p e r s e c o n d a r y h a s i n c r e a s e d s i nce 1971 w h e n 78 p e r c e n t of t he age g r o u p w e n t to t h e u p p e r s e c o n d a r y a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g school s while t he figure in 1983 was a l m o s t 96 p e r c e n t . S t u d e n t s from all p o p u l a t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970. In t h e lower g r a d e s in c o m p u l s o r y school t he differences were r a t h e r small, but at the intermediate and
s e n i o r level a n d e s p e c i a l l y in t h e u p p e r
s e c o n d a r y (N- a n d T-lines) t he i m p r o v e m e n t s were consi derabl e. T h e r e ar e c e r t a i n l y m a n y r e a s o n s w h y p u p i l s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r in 1983 t h a n in 1970. One r e a s o n m a y be t h a t t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s at t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e level ha ve improved. O t h e r v a r i a b l e s p o s s i b l y a c c o u n t i n g for t h e i n c r e a s e in a c h i e v e m e n t are b e t t e r e d u c a t e d a n d m o r e e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s in 1983 t h a n in 1970, a n d c h a n g e s s u b s e q u e n t to a l t e r a t i o n s of syllabi, s u c h as b e t t e r a d j u s t m e n t of c o u r s e b o o k s to all s t u d e n t s .
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J.-~. EngstrSm and R. Noonan
F u r t h e r m o r e , a g e n e r a l d e b a t e on t e a c h i n g a n d w o r k i n g m e t h o d s d u r i n g th e 1970s h a s p r o b a b l y influenced the t e a c h i n g h a b i t s a n d t he a w a r e n e s s to t h e pupils' t h o u g h t . Si nce 1970 t h e r e have b e e n r e f o r m s t o w a r d s pupilcentered teaching, interdisciplinary studies, project oriented teaching, etc., w h i c h m i ght have h a d a n effect on t he a c h i e v e m e n t level of pupils. All t h e s e c h a n g e s are in line with the i n t e n t i o n s of t he c u r r i c u l u m . W i t h i n t h e S w e d i s h s c h o o l s y s t e m t h e overall i n c r e a s e in s c i e n c e a c h i e v e m e n t h a s b e e n to t he b e n e f i t of t h e lower achieving s t u d e n t s , a n d this c h a n g e h a s n o t b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t at the e x p e n s e of the m o s t able and t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s . I m p o r t a n t e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e s e r e s u l t s are c h a n g e s in c u r r i c u l a a n d in syllabi. T h i s o u t c o m e w a s t h e expl i ci t pol i t i cal a n d e d u c a t i o n a l goal of the changes. An e q u i v a l e n t e d u c a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d is a c o r n e r s t o n e of t he S w e d i s h e d u c a t i o n a l policy. T h e SISS f u r n i s h e s c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t , in this p a r t i c u l a r r e s p e c t at least, o u r e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s h a d u p to t h e n b e e n s u c c e s s f u l (Marklund, 1989}. T he b e t w e e n - s c h o o l v a r i a n c e in S w e d e n is low c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T he idea of p r o v i d i n g all p u p i l s w i t h the s a m e basic e d u c a t i o n h a s largely b e e n realized. It is a positive sign to find t h a t t h e r e are less di fferences in science a c h i e v e m e n t b e t w e e n b o y s a n d girls in 1983 t h a n in 1970. Boys still p e r f o r m b e t t e r b u t t h e gap h a s d i m i n i s h e d a n d it m u s t be m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e v a r i a n c e s w i t h i n a g r a d e are c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n t h e v a r i a n c e between grades and the variance due b e t w e e n boys and girls.
to d i f f e r e n c e s in a c h i e v e m e n t
B e c a u s e s c i e n c e b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t in soci et y and e v e r y d a y life it is a p r o b l e m that, c o m p a r e d with boys, a low p e r c e n t a g e of girls c h o o s e s ci ence in s chool s as a r e s u l t of w h i c h fewer w o m e n will be f o u n d in c a r e e r s in science a n d technology. Several c a m p a i g n s in the early 1980s a d d r e s s e d this i s s u e a n d a t t e m p t e d to enrol m o r e girls in science. An e x a m p l e of s u c h efforts, was to a w a r d e x t r a p o i n t s to girls opt i ng for traditionally "masculine" lines. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it h a s b e e n s h o w n t h a t school c h i l d r e n develop a m ore a n d m o r e n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c i e n c e d u r i n g p r i m a r y a n d lower s e c o n d a r y schooling. This obviously h a s a negative effect u p o n the f u r t h e r c h o i c e of e d u c a t i o n a l d i r e c t i o n s a n d c a r e e r s in s c i e n c e for t h e s c h o o l children. This is a highly i m p o r t a n t i s s u e for f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h in Sweden. W h y do a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s science in general t u r n negative? T h e r e m u s t be e x p l a n a t i o n s for this. Is it the c o n t e n t a n d / o r t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s of science t h a t c a u s e t h i s p h e n o m e n o n or is it d u e to o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d a n d / o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors? W hy do girls, a n d n o t boys d r a m a t i c a l l y c h a n g e their
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a t t i t u d e s towards science a n d technology in society d u r i n g the senior level in the c o m p u l s o r y school? Efforts s h o u l d be focussed in this issue b e c a u s e the a t t i t u d e s a m o n g the pupils, their prospects a n d h o p e s for the f u t u r e were d i s h e a r t e n i n g . Pupils s a w more "cons" t h a n "pros" in science a n d t e c h n o l o g y w i t h r e g a r d to t h e h a p p y f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t of society. Nonetheless, s c h o o l c h i l d r e n of all ages agree t h a t science a n d technology are i m p o r t a n t to the development of a country.
References Comber, L.C. & Keeves, J.P. (1973). A n empirical s t u d y o f science ed u ca tio n in nineteen countries. Stockholm a n d New York: Almqvist & Wiksell a n d J o h n Wiley (Halsted Press). Husdn, T., Bergling, K., Fagerlind, I., Holm, L., J o h a n s s o n , P.O., Liljefors, R., & M a t t s s o n , I. (1973). S v e n s k s k o l a i i n t e r n a t i o n e l l belysning: N a t u r o r i e n t e r a n d e timnen. (The S w e d i g h school in I n t e r n a t i o n a l Comparisons: Science). Stockholm: A l m q v i s s t & Wiksell International. IEA (1988). Sc i e nc e a c h i e v e m e n t in s e v e n t e e n countries. report. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
A preliminary
M a r k l u n d , I. (1989). How two e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m s l e a r n e d from comparative studies: The Swedish experience. In: A.C. Purves (Ed): International comparisons a n d educational reform, (pp. 35-44). R.R. Donnelley. ASCD, Virginia, USA. M a r k l u n d , S. & Bergendal, G. (1979). T r e n d s in S w e d i s h e d u c a t i o n a l policy. Stockholm: The Swedish Institute. Noonan, R. (1987). Second science s t u d y - some Swedish results, (pp. 7291). In: 2 7 t h General A s s e m b l y Meeting in S t o c k h o l m , Open day seminar, A u g u s t 1986. Stockholm: National Board of Education, pp. 7291. Noonan, R. & E n g s t r 6 m , J-A. (1986). Science a c h i e v e m e n t in S w e d i s h schools: R e s u l t s f r o m the IEA S e c o n d International Science S t u d y . R e p o r t No. 75. I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n . University of Stockholm: University of Stockholm. Riis, U., Andersson, M., Btivertoft, I., Engstr6m, J.A., Grahn, R., Lindberg, D.H., Lindberg, Y., Marklund, I., Myrberg, M., Noonan, R., Norlin, A., & Pilstr6m, H. (1988). Naturvetenskaplig undervisning i s v e n s k skola: h u v u d r e s u l t a t f r a n en IEA u n d e r s f i k n i n g . (Science e d u c a t i o n in S w e d i s h schools. Main r e s u l t s from an IEA study). Report series F 88:1. Vad stiger forskningen? (What does r e s e a r c h tell?) Stockholm: National Board of Education.
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J A N - / ~ E ENGSTROM is a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t at the Institute of I n t e r n a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n , S t o c k h o l m University. He is c u r r e n t l y a n a l y z i n g the Swedish IEA Science data, with special e m p h a s i s on a t t i t u d e s towards science. RICHARD NOONAN was the Swedish National R e s e a r c h Co-ordinator of the IEA Science Study, a n d associate Professor of the I n s t i t u t e of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Education, Stockholm University. He is now Managing Director of the Inter Science R e s e a r c h Corporation, Stockholm, Sweden