- Email: [email protected]
Seasonal variation of plastic debris accumulation in the estuary of Wonorejo River, Surabaya, Indonesia
Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Technology & Innovation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eti
Seasonal variation of plastic debris accumulation in the estuary of Wonorejo River, Surabaya, Indonesia Setyo Budi Kurniawan, Muhammad Fauzul Imron
∗
Study Program of Waste Treatment Engineering, Department of Marine Engineering, Politeknik Perkapalan Negeri Surabaya, Jalan Teknik Kimia, Kampus ITS Keputih, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia Study Program of Environmental Engineering, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Kampus C UNAIR, Jalan Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
article
info
Article history: Received 7 July 2019 Received in revised form 27 August 2019 Accepted 14 September 2019 Available online 18 September 2019 Keywords: Cleanup recommendation Estuary Marine pollution Plastic pollution Seasonal variation
a b s t r a c t Plastic has emerged as a common pollutant in marine environments. The majority of the plastic debris in oceans originate from river streams. Some of these debris will end up being accumulated in estuaries. This study aimed to investigate the seasonal variation of plastic debris accumulation in the estuary of Wonorejo River in Surabaya, Indonesia. This research focused on the amount of visible plastic debris (VPD) accumulated along the seashore of Madura Strait during the dry and rainy seasons. Three representative sampling points (SPs) were chosen in the Wonorejo River Estuary area. Data normality was tested using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and resulted in normally distributed data. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the correlation between seasonal variation and the accumulation of VPD in all SPs. Tukey’s honest significance test was used to further analyze the significance of the accumulated VPD in each season. Result showed that the accumulation of VPD was significantly higher during the rainy season compared to dry season (p < 0.05). SP2 showed the highest accumulation of VPD in both seasons. The collected VPD during the dry season were 126.07 ± 12.00, 375.97 ± 16.72, and 291.13 ± 36.28 g/m2 from SP1, SP2, and SP3, respectively. By contrast, the collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the rainy season were 443.17 ± 8.92, 1162.37 ± 84.60, and 706.00 ± 39.06 g/m2 respectively. Low-density polyethylene was the major collected plastic component in all SPs during dry season, contributed up to 73.13% of collected VPD composition. During the rainy season, polyethylene terephthalate was dominating the plastic type distribution up to 59.77%. The manual estuary cleanup is suggested to be conducted frequently during the rainy season to achieve an improved cleaning efficiency. © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Plastic has become a major pollution concern in marine ecosystems (Haward, 2018; Law, 2017). Plastic is categorized as a persistent marine pollutant that could last for over 100 years in the environment (Worm et al., 2017). Extensive evidence has shown that plastic degrades over a substantial period. Nevertheless, degraded plastic remains harmful to Abbreviations: VPD, Visible Plastic Debris; SP, Sampling Point; SSP, Sub-Sampling Point; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene; HDPE, High-density polyethylene; PETE, Polyethylene terephthalate; PVC, Polyvinyl chloride; PS, Polystyrene ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.B. Kurniawan), [email protected] (M.F. Imron). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100490 2352-1864/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
the environment because it breaks into tiny pieces that are difficult to detect and clean (Eriksen et al., 2014). Tiny plastic particles are extremely dangerous to living organisms. Many studies have proven that tiny plastic particles are found inside living organisms, particularly marine biota (Carbery et al., 2018; Galgani, 2015; Ivar do Sul and Costa, 2016; Rech et al., 2018; Tanaka and Takada, 2016). Plastic particles exist inside marine biota owing to ingestion (Carbery et al., 2018). Some marine organisms cannot distinguish between food and plastic. Consequently, the ingested plastic particles accumulate inside their body. An interconnected eating–eaten phenomenon exists in food chains (Diepens and Koelmans, 2018). This phenomenon is considerably related to the biomagnification of plastic among living organisms in food chains (Barboza et al., 2018; Carbery et al., 2018; Rochman et al., 2013). Biomagnification has also become an alarming global issue because humans are also affected by plastic pollution resulting from this mechanism (Fernández Robledo et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2018). Plastic in a human body is a new case, which involves tiny pieces of plastics (called microplastics) are found in human bodies (Parker, 2018). Microplastics (plastic size < 5 mm) (Beer et al., 2018; Everaert et al., 2018; Kontrick, 2018; Wang et al., 2018) originate from two sources, namely, original tiny plastic products and the result of large plastic particle fragmentation (Kalogerakis et al., 2017; Tanaka and Takada, 2016). At present, some countries regulate the production and use of original tiny plastic particles to save the environment (Kentin and Kaarto, 2018). Consequently, the fragmentation of large plastic particles has become a problem that should be solved. The fragmentation of large plastic particles can be prevented by avoiding the entry of plastic waste into bodies of water. The entry of plastic waste into bodies of water bodies, particularly rivers, leads to plastic debris accumulation in estuaries and marine ecosystems (Browne et al., 2010; Hajbane and Pattiaratchi, 2017; Ivar do Sul and Costa, 2016; Vermeiren et al., 2016). Plastic debris are currently flowing continuously along river streams in developing countries, such as Indonesia. Accordingly, plastic debris will eventually accumulate in estuaries and become marine ecosystem pollutants. To prevent severe marine pollution, estuaries and coastline areas are often cleaned manually of plastic debris (Gallo et al., 2018). However, the cleaning processes and schedules are conducted anytime without considering the effects of seasonal variations on the accumulation of plastic debris in estuaries. Hence, the current research aimed to analyze the effects of seasonal variations in Indonesia on the accumulation of plastic debris in the estuary of the Wonorejo River in Surabaya. The presented results may clarify the fluctuation of plastic debris accumulation during dry and rainy seasons. Moreover, the results may also be used for the local government’s further consideration in choosing the proper and opportune time to conduct plastic cleanup in estuaries. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sampling point Three sampling points (SPs) were chosen along the seashore of the Wonorejo River estuary. Each SP represents a different condition in the estuary. SP1 is located on the river mouth, SP2 is located 250 m from the river mouth, and SP3 is located 500 m from the river mouth. All SPs are located in the intertidal area of Wonorejo estuary, which is directly adjacent to the Madura Strait. SSPs were chosen randomly for each SP to obtain data in triplicate (Al-Baldawi et al., 2018, 2015; Imron et al., 2019c; Purwanti et al., 2018; Titah et al., 2019). Fig. 1 shows all SPs in this research. 2.2. Visible plastic debris collection This research was conducted in Indonesia during two different seasons, namely, dry and rainy seasons. Samples in the dry and rainy seasons were collected from August to September 2018 and from December 2018 to January 2019, respectively. Wonorejo estuary is categorized as a diurnal tide area. All samples were collected during the high tide level of the Madura Strait at approximately 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. local time, when the intertidal area is covered with seawater (Kurniawan and Imron, 2019). Visible plastic debris (VPD) was taken inside the sampling boundary of 50 cm × 50 cm quadrant for each SSP. All VPD inside the quadrant were manually collected (for big VPD) and used 5 mm pore cloth nets (for small VPD). All collected VPD were placed inside the PP containers. All collected VPD were cleaned, soaked, and gently stirred using seawater (with temperature from 27.5 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C and salinity 30 ppt to 35 ppt) for floatation, thereby distinguishing them from other debris (Coppock et al., 2017). The seawater used at the time had a density that ranged from 1,019.4 kg/m3 to 1,022.6 kg/m3 . That is, VPD with density above 1022.6 kg/m3 cannot be floated. The supernatant obtained from the floatation procedure was filtered repeatedly using 5 mm pore cloth nets until no VPD was retained on the filter. Note that this method is limited when separating plastic with density than that of seawater. Plastic with higher density than seawater, such as PETE and PVC, were categorized using their physical characteristics (Cheung et al., 2016). The separation of PETE and PVC was limited to the researcher’s ability to separate them from other plastic types and impurities. All obtained VPD was stored inside sealable plastic containers for analysis (Fok and Cheung, 2015).
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
3
Fig. 1. Sampling point.
2.3. Visible plastic debris calculation All collected VPD were thermally dried in an oven at 70 ◦ C (Ogawa Seiki, Japan) for 24 h. Dried VPD was weighed using a digital balance (± 0.5 g precision) (Kenko, Indonesia). Thereafter, the collected VPD was grouped into seven different types, namely, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PETE, PVC, and others. The grouping process was conducted on the basis of the label/ code, common visual characteristics, and density. The density of VPD was measured according to Banas (2017) and the grouping of VPD was conducted following Kurniawan and Imron (2019). 2.4. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed using Minitab 16.0 (Imron et al., 2019c,a; Kurniawan et al., 2018). Data distribution was analyzed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov method and determined to be normally distributed. One-way ANOVA was used to further analyze the correlation between seasonal variation and the collected VPD (Imron et al., 2019b; Mu and Wang, 2014). The significance difference between the collected VPD in the dry and rainy seasons was analyzed using Tukey’s honest significance test (Purwanti et al., 2019). Statistical analysis was concluded by comparing the p-values with α = 0.05. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 2 presents all the collected VPD from each sampling location. The collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the dry season were 126.07 ± 12.00, 375.97 ± 16.72, and 291.13 ± 36.28 g/m2 , respectively. By contrast, the collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the rainy season were 443.17 ± 8.92, 1162.37 ± 84.60, and 706.00 ± 39.06 g/m2 , respectively. Fig. 2 shows that the amount of VPD in each SP was significantly higher during the rainy season than that during the dry season. The result of the one-way ANOVA showed a high correlation between the two seasons and the collected VPD (p < 0.05). VPD was collected during the high tide level of seawater because many debris and other floating materials were carried by high tidal waves (Cózar et al., 2015; Kurniawan and Imron, 2019). Moreover, the large amount of plastic debris collected during the rainy season was highly correlated with the river stream. The river flowed substantial amount of water to the ocean in the rainy season, thereby bringing all materials that were previously deposited in the river to the ocean ecosystem. During the rainy season, the deposited debris on land were also washed up by rain water and carried to the nearest body of water. This case will lead to debris flowing to the river and end up being deposited in estuaries or marine ecosystems (Cheung et al., 2019). The collected VPD from SP1 was slightly fewer than those from SP2 and SP3 during both seasons. This observation had high correlation with the force of the Wonorejo River stream. SP1 was observed to analyze the effects of the river stream on the accumulation of plastic debris in the estuary. The Wonorejo River stream flowed toward the Madura Strait and brought some floating materials with it, thereby lowering the tendency of deposition in this area (Kurniawan and Imron,
4
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
Fig. 2. Collected Visible Plastic Debris (VPD) from each Sampling Point (SP). Values are presented in Mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters above the graph indicate significant difference of the collected VPD between two seasons.
Fig. 3. Composition of the collected Visible Plastic Debris (VPD) from each Sampling Point (SP) during the dry and rainy seasons.
2019; Lebreton et al., 2017; Sigler, 2014). The amount of the collected VPD from SP2 was also observed to be higher than those from other SPs whether in the dry or rainy season. This result was considerably influenced by the location of SPs. Fig. 1 shows that SP2 was located on the small basin in the Wonorejo River estuary, which is a geographical location that prevents the horizontal movement of debris along the coastline (Signa et al., 2013). Plastic debris can only be washed up and carried in line with the ocean wave direction. This geographical structure creates a trap for all floating plastic debris, thereby resulting in the abundant amount of the collected VPD from this SP. Fig. 3 depicts the distribution of plastic type from all collected VPD. Fig. 3 shows that the highest percentage of collected VPD was LDPE in all SPs during the dry season and PETE in all SPs during the rainy season. LDPE was found in the form of plastic bags and snack packs, whereas PETE was generally found in the form of plastic water bottles. In the dry season, LDPE was found in SP1, SP2, and SP3 up to 72.30%, 73.13%, and 72.60%, respectively. The second highest collected VPD was PP, which reached 15.10%, 17.20%, and 17.22% from SP1, SP2, and SP3, respectively. PS was found to be the third most abundant plastic type with the composition ranging from 3.20% to 6.70% from all SPs. Other plastic type was found in a small percentage. The floating characteristic of LDPE led to the movement and deposition of this type in the estuaries. The abundant LDPE was correlated with its consumption in daily activities. Given that this plastic type is produced as used as plastic bags, it has an extremely thin layer characteristic, thereby enabling it to easily float on water bags (Emblem, 2012; Kyaw et al., 2012). In the rainy season, PETE was collected from SP1, SP2, and SP3, which reached 52.13%, 56.03%, and 59.77%, respectively. The second most abundant VPD type was LDPE, which reached 22.20%, 22.15%, and 17.20%, from SP1, SP2, and SP3,
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
5
respectively. PP became the third most collected VPD type with the composition ranging from 10.66% to 14.51%. The abundant PETE and PP in the rainy season was highly correlated with the river stream condition. Given its common produced product from PETE and PP, it tends to be deposited along with the river stream (not reaching up the estuary) owing to the solid built plastic characteristic (Braun and Braun, 2013; Geyer et al., 2017; Grumpiornot, 2018; Maddah, 2016; Ryedale District Council, 2019). During the rainy season, all deposited plastic in a river pathway were forced by the powerful river stream and flowed along the river to the estuary, thereby resulting in the high amount of this plastic type found in the estuary (Cheung et al., 2019). PETE and PP may also be deposited on land previously; the run-off of rain water washed the land surface and brought all floating materials, including PETE and PP, along with its stream (Luo et al., 2009). This phenomenon also increased the amount of VPD sent to the estuary and marine ecosystem. Given that this research was conducted in the developing country of Indonesia, a different result can be obtained in other countries that have their own regulations in using and handling plastic. Further study related to the composition and distribution of used plastic in daily life will considerably support the current results (Eriksen et al., 2014; Rech et al., 2018). For example, the mapping of plastic debris distribution in estuaries and coastlines may also be an interesting topic. This topic may also contribute immensely to the planning of clean-up strategies and future regulations related to the use of plastic items and handling of plastic waste (Blanco et al., 2018; Haward, 2018; Kurniawan and Imron, 2019; Vox et al., 2016). 4. Conclusion The accumulation of VPD in the estuary of Wonorejo River was significantly higher during the rainy season than the dry season (p < 0.05) owing to the mass transport along the river stream. The highest VPD accumulation was obtained in SP2 because of its geographical location. LDPE was found to be the major composition of VPD during the dry season, reaching 73.13%. By contrast, PETE was found to be abundant during the rainy season and dominated the plastic type composition by up to 59.77%. The manual cleaning process of VPD in the estuary is suggested often during the rainy season to obtain high efficiency in cleaning results. Cleaning in the river mouth or along river streams is not suggested because of the movement of floating masses (including plastic debris) that make the VPD collection difficult and less efficient. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Kurita Asia Research Grant (KARG) provided by the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation (KWEF) in Japan. The authors are grateful to Universitas Airlangga for sponsoring this publication and Prof. Yulinah Trihadiningrum for her support in the course of this research. References Al-Baldawi, I.A., Abdullah, S.R.S., Anuar, N., Hasan, H.A., 2018. Phytotransformation of methylene blue from water using aquatic plant (Azolla pinnata). Environ. Technol. Innov. 11, 15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2018.03.009. Al-Baldawi, I.A., Abdullah, S.R.S., Anuar, N., Suja, F., Mushrifah, I., 2015. Phytodegradation of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) in diesel-contaminated water using scirpus grossus. Ecol. Eng. 74, 463–473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.11.007. Banas, T., 2017. How to Calculate the Density of Plastic [WWW Document]. Sciencing. URL https://sciencing.com/calculate-density-plastic-5974063. html (accessed 6.10.19). Barboza, L.G.A., Dick Vethaak, A., Lavorante, B.R.B.O., Lundebye, A.K., Guilhermino, L., 2018. Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133, 336–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.047. Beer, S., Garm, A., Huwer, B., Dierking, J., Nielsen, T.G., 2018. No increase in marine microplastic concentration over the last three decades – A case study from the baltic sea. Sci. Total Environ. 621, 1272–1279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.101. Blanco, I., Loisi, R.V., Sica, C., Schettini, E., Vox, G., 2018. Agricultural plastic waste mapping using GIS. A case study in Italy. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 137, 229–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.06.008. Braun, D., Braun, D., 2013. Simple methods for identification of plastics. In: Simple Methods for Identification of Plastics. http://dx.doi.org/10.3139/ 9781569905425.fm. Browne, M.A., Galloway, T.S., Thompson, R.C., 2010. Spatial patterns of plastic debris along estuarine shorelines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 3404–3409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es903784e. Carbery, M., O’Connor, W., Palanisami, T., 2018. Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ. Int. 115, 400–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007. Cheung, P.K., Cheung, L.T.O., Fok, L., 2016. Seasonal variation in the abundance of marine plastic debris in the estuary of a subtropical macro-scale drainage basin in South China. Sci. Total Environ. 562, 658–665. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.048. Cheung, P.K., Hung, P.L., Fok, L., 2019. River microplastic contamination and dynamics upon a rainfall event in Hong Kong. China. Environ. Process 6, 253–264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40710-018-0345-0. Coppock, R.L., Cole, M., Lindeque, P.K., Queirós, A.M., Galloway, T.S., 2017. A small-scale, portable method for extracting microplastics from marine sediments. Environ. Pollut. 230, 829–837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.017. Cózar, A., Sanz-Martín, M., Martí, E., González-Gordillo, J.I., Ubeda, B., Á.gálvez, J., Irigoien, X., Duarte, C.M., 2015. Plastic accumulation in the mediterranean sea. PLoS One 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121762. Diepens, N.J., Koelmans, A.A., 2018. Accumulation of plastic debris and associated contaminants in aquatic food webs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52, 8510–8520. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b02515. Emblem, A., 2012. Plastics properties for packaging materials. Packag. Technol. Fundam. Mater. Process 287–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/ 9780857095701. Eriksen, M., Lebreton, L.C.M., Carson, H.S., Thiel, M., Moore, C.J., Borerro, J.C., Galgani, F., Ryan, P.G., Reisser, J., 2014. Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: More than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One 9, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913.
6
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
Everaert, G., Van Cauwenberghe, L., De Rijcke, M., Koelmans, A.A., Mees, J., Vandegehuchte, M., Janssen, C.R., 2018. Risk assessment of microplastics in the ocean: Modelling approach and first conclusions. Environ. Pollut. 242, 1930–1938. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.069. Fernández Robledo, J.A., Yadavalli, R., Allam, B., Pales Espinosa, E., Gerdol, M., Greco, S., Stevick, R.J., Gómez-Chiarri, M., Zhang, Y., Heil, C.A., Tracy, A.N., Bishop-Bailey, D., Metzger, M.J., 2019. From the raw bar to the bench: Bivalves as models for human health. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 92, 260–282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2018.11.020. Fok, L., Cheung, P.K., 2015. Hong Kong at the pearl river estuary: A hotspot of microplastic pollution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 99, 112–118. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.050. Galgani, F., 2015. Marine litter, future prospects for research. Front. Mar. Sci. 2, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00087. Gallo, F., Fossi, C., Weber, R., Santillo, D., Sousa, J., Ingram, I., Nadal, A., Romano, D., 2018. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ. Sci. Eur. 30, http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782. Grumpiornot, 2018. How to Identify Different Types of Plastic [WWW Document]. Owlcation. URL https://owlcation.com/stem/How-plastic-is-reallyrecycled (accessed 4.25.19). Hajbane, S., Pattiaratchi, C.B., 2017. Plastic pollution patterns in offshore, nearshore and estuarine waters: A case study from Perth, Western Australia. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00063. Haward, M., 2018. Plastic pollution of the world’s seas and oceans as a contemporary challenge in ocean governance. Nature Commun. 9, 667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03104-3. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Soegianto, A., 2019a. Characterization of mercury-reducing potential bacteria isolated from keputih non-active sanitary landfill leachate, Surabaya, Indonesia under different saline conditions. J. Environ. Manag. 241, 113–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019. 04.017. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Soegianto, A., Wahyudianto, F.E., 2019b. Phytoremediation of methylene blue using duckweed (Lemna minor). Heliyon 5, e02206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02206. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Titah, H.S., 2019c. Potential of bacteria isolated from diesel-contaminated seawater in diesel biodegradation. Environ. Technol. Innov. 14, 100368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100368. Ivar do Sul, J.A., Costa, M.F., 2016. Plastic pollution risks in an estuarine conservation unit. J. Coast. Res. 65, 48–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/si65-009.1. Kalogerakis, N., Karkanorachaki, K., Kalogerakis, G.C., Triantafyllidi, E.I., Gotsis, A.D., Partsinevelos, P., Fava, F., 2017. Microplastics generation: Onset of fragmentation of polyethylene films in marine environment mesocosms. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00084. Kentin, E., Kaarto, H., 2018. An EU ban on microplastics in cosmetic products and the right to regulate. Rev. Eur. Comp. Int. Environ. Law 27, 254–266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/reel.12269. Kontrick, A.V., 2018. Microplastics and human health: Our great future to think about now. J. Med. Toxicol. 14, 117–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s13181-018-0661-9. Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., 2019. The effect of tidal fluctuation on the accumulation of plastic debris in the Wonorejo River Estuary, Surabaya, Indonesia. Environ. Technol. Innov. 15, 100420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100420. Kurniawan, S.B., Purwanti, I.F., Titah, H.S., 2018. The effect of pH and aluminium to bacteria isolated from aluminium recycling industry. J. Ecol. Eng. 19, 154–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.12911/22998993/86147. Kyaw, B.M., Champakalakshmi, R., Sakharkar, M.K., Lim, C.S., Sakharkar, K.R., 2012. Biodegradation of low density polythene (LDPE) by pseudomonas species. Indian J. Microbiol. 52, 411–419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0250-6. Law, K.L., 2017. Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9, 205–229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060409. Lebreton, L.C.M., Van Der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J.W., Slat, B., Andrady, A., Reisser, J., 2017. River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Commun. 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611. Luo, H., Luo, L., Huang, G., Liu, P., Li, J., Hu, S., Wang, F., Xu, R., Huang, X., 2009. Total pollution effect of urban surface runoff. J. Environ. Sci. 21, 1186–1193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62402-X. Maddah, H.A., 2016. Unipol propylene full PFD. Am. J. Polym. Sci. 6, 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5923/j.ajps.20160601.01. Mu, W., Wang, X., 2014. Inference for one-way ANOVA with equicorrelation error structure. Sci. World J. 2014, 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 341617. Parker, L., 2018. In a first, microplastics found in human poop [WWW Document]. Planet or Plast. URL https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ environment/2018/10/news-plastics-microplastics-human-feces/ (accessed 6.14.19). Purwanti, I.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., 2019. Potential of pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from aluminium-contaminated site in aluminium removal and recovery from wastewater. Environ. Technol. Innov. 15, 100422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100422. Purwanti, I.F., Simamora, D., Kurniawan, S.B., 2018. Toxicity test of tempe industrial wastewater on cyperus rotundus and scirpus grossus. Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol. 9, 1162–1172. Rech, S., Borrell Pichs, Y.J., García-Vazquez, E., 2018. Anthropogenic marine litter composition in coastal areas may be a predictor of potentially invasive rafting fauna. PLoS One 13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191859. Rochman, C.M., Hoh, E., Kurobe, T., Teh, S.J., 2013. Ingested plastic transfers hazardous chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. Sci. Rep. 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep03263. Ryedale District Council, 2019. Different types of plastics and their classification [WWW Document]. Environment. URL https://www.ryedale.gov.uk/ attachments/article/690/Different_plastic_polymer_types.pdf (accessed 4.25.19). Sigler, M., 2014. The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic wildlife: Current situations and future solutions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 225, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2184-6. Signa, G., Tramati, C.D., Vizzini, S., 2013. Contamination by trace metals and their trophic transfer to the biota in a mediterranean coastal system affected by gull guano. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 479, 13–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps10210. Smith, M., Love, D.C., Rochman, C.M., Neff, R.A., 2018. Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Curr. Environ. Heal. Rep. 5, 375–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z. Tanaka, K., Takada, H., 2016. Microplastic fragments and microbeads in digestive tracts of planktivorous fish from urban coastal waters. Sci. Rep. 6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep34351. Titah, H.S., Purwanti, I.F., Tangahu, B.V., Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., Abdullah, S.R.S., Ismail, N., 2019. Izzati, kinetics of aluminium removal by locally isolated brochothrix thermosphacta and vibrio alginolyticus. J. Environ. Manag. 238, 194–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.011. Vermeiren, P., Muñoz, C.C., Ikejima, K., 2016. Sources and sinks of plastic debris in estuaries: A conceptual model integrating biological, physical and chemical distribution mechanisms. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 113, 7–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.10.002. Vox, G., Loisi, R.V., Blanco, I., Mugnozza, G.S., Schettini, E., 2016. Mapping of agriculture plastic waste. Agric. Agric. Sci. Procedia 8, 583–591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2016.02.080. Wang, J., Zheng, L., Li, J., 2018. A critical review on the sources and instruments of marine microplastics and prospects on the relevant management in China. Waste Manag. Res. 36, 898–911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X18793504. Worm, B., Lotze, H.K., Jubinville, I., Wilcox, C., Jambeck, J., 2017. Plastic as a persistent marine pollutant. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 42, 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060700.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Environmental Technology & Innovation journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eti
Seasonal variation of plastic debris accumulation in the estuary of Wonorejo River, Surabaya, Indonesia Setyo Budi Kurniawan, Muhammad Fauzul Imron
∗
Study Program of Waste Treatment Engineering, Department of Marine Engineering, Politeknik Perkapalan Negeri Surabaya, Jalan Teknik Kimia, Kampus ITS Keputih, Sukolilo, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia Study Program of Environmental Engineering, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universitas Airlangga, Kampus C UNAIR, Jalan Mulyorejo, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
article
info
Article history: Received 7 July 2019 Received in revised form 27 August 2019 Accepted 14 September 2019 Available online 18 September 2019 Keywords: Cleanup recommendation Estuary Marine pollution Plastic pollution Seasonal variation
a b s t r a c t Plastic has emerged as a common pollutant in marine environments. The majority of the plastic debris in oceans originate from river streams. Some of these debris will end up being accumulated in estuaries. This study aimed to investigate the seasonal variation of plastic debris accumulation in the estuary of Wonorejo River in Surabaya, Indonesia. This research focused on the amount of visible plastic debris (VPD) accumulated along the seashore of Madura Strait during the dry and rainy seasons. Three representative sampling points (SPs) were chosen in the Wonorejo River Estuary area. Data normality was tested using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and resulted in normally distributed data. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the correlation between seasonal variation and the accumulation of VPD in all SPs. Tukey’s honest significance test was used to further analyze the significance of the accumulated VPD in each season. Result showed that the accumulation of VPD was significantly higher during the rainy season compared to dry season (p < 0.05). SP2 showed the highest accumulation of VPD in both seasons. The collected VPD during the dry season were 126.07 ± 12.00, 375.97 ± 16.72, and 291.13 ± 36.28 g/m2 from SP1, SP2, and SP3, respectively. By contrast, the collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the rainy season were 443.17 ± 8.92, 1162.37 ± 84.60, and 706.00 ± 39.06 g/m2 respectively. Low-density polyethylene was the major collected plastic component in all SPs during dry season, contributed up to 73.13% of collected VPD composition. During the rainy season, polyethylene terephthalate was dominating the plastic type distribution up to 59.77%. The manual estuary cleanup is suggested to be conducted frequently during the rainy season to achieve an improved cleaning efficiency. © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Plastic has become a major pollution concern in marine ecosystems (Haward, 2018; Law, 2017). Plastic is categorized as a persistent marine pollutant that could last for over 100 years in the environment (Worm et al., 2017). Extensive evidence has shown that plastic degrades over a substantial period. Nevertheless, degraded plastic remains harmful to Abbreviations: VPD, Visible Plastic Debris; SP, Sampling Point; SSP, Sub-Sampling Point; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene; HDPE, High-density polyethylene; PETE, Polyethylene terephthalate; PVC, Polyvinyl chloride; PS, Polystyrene ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.B. Kurniawan), [email protected] (M.F. Imron). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100490 2352-1864/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
the environment because it breaks into tiny pieces that are difficult to detect and clean (Eriksen et al., 2014). Tiny plastic particles are extremely dangerous to living organisms. Many studies have proven that tiny plastic particles are found inside living organisms, particularly marine biota (Carbery et al., 2018; Galgani, 2015; Ivar do Sul and Costa, 2016; Rech et al., 2018; Tanaka and Takada, 2016). Plastic particles exist inside marine biota owing to ingestion (Carbery et al., 2018). Some marine organisms cannot distinguish between food and plastic. Consequently, the ingested plastic particles accumulate inside their body. An interconnected eating–eaten phenomenon exists in food chains (Diepens and Koelmans, 2018). This phenomenon is considerably related to the biomagnification of plastic among living organisms in food chains (Barboza et al., 2018; Carbery et al., 2018; Rochman et al., 2013). Biomagnification has also become an alarming global issue because humans are also affected by plastic pollution resulting from this mechanism (Fernández Robledo et al., 2019; Smith et al., 2018). Plastic in a human body is a new case, which involves tiny pieces of plastics (called microplastics) are found in human bodies (Parker, 2018). Microplastics (plastic size < 5 mm) (Beer et al., 2018; Everaert et al., 2018; Kontrick, 2018; Wang et al., 2018) originate from two sources, namely, original tiny plastic products and the result of large plastic particle fragmentation (Kalogerakis et al., 2017; Tanaka and Takada, 2016). At present, some countries regulate the production and use of original tiny plastic particles to save the environment (Kentin and Kaarto, 2018). Consequently, the fragmentation of large plastic particles has become a problem that should be solved. The fragmentation of large plastic particles can be prevented by avoiding the entry of plastic waste into bodies of water. The entry of plastic waste into bodies of water bodies, particularly rivers, leads to plastic debris accumulation in estuaries and marine ecosystems (Browne et al., 2010; Hajbane and Pattiaratchi, 2017; Ivar do Sul and Costa, 2016; Vermeiren et al., 2016). Plastic debris are currently flowing continuously along river streams in developing countries, such as Indonesia. Accordingly, plastic debris will eventually accumulate in estuaries and become marine ecosystem pollutants. To prevent severe marine pollution, estuaries and coastline areas are often cleaned manually of plastic debris (Gallo et al., 2018). However, the cleaning processes and schedules are conducted anytime without considering the effects of seasonal variations on the accumulation of plastic debris in estuaries. Hence, the current research aimed to analyze the effects of seasonal variations in Indonesia on the accumulation of plastic debris in the estuary of the Wonorejo River in Surabaya. The presented results may clarify the fluctuation of plastic debris accumulation during dry and rainy seasons. Moreover, the results may also be used for the local government’s further consideration in choosing the proper and opportune time to conduct plastic cleanup in estuaries. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sampling point Three sampling points (SPs) were chosen along the seashore of the Wonorejo River estuary. Each SP represents a different condition in the estuary. SP1 is located on the river mouth, SP2 is located 250 m from the river mouth, and SP3 is located 500 m from the river mouth. All SPs are located in the intertidal area of Wonorejo estuary, which is directly adjacent to the Madura Strait. SSPs were chosen randomly for each SP to obtain data in triplicate (Al-Baldawi et al., 2018, 2015; Imron et al., 2019c; Purwanti et al., 2018; Titah et al., 2019). Fig. 1 shows all SPs in this research. 2.2. Visible plastic debris collection This research was conducted in Indonesia during two different seasons, namely, dry and rainy seasons. Samples in the dry and rainy seasons were collected from August to September 2018 and from December 2018 to January 2019, respectively. Wonorejo estuary is categorized as a diurnal tide area. All samples were collected during the high tide level of the Madura Strait at approximately 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. local time, when the intertidal area is covered with seawater (Kurniawan and Imron, 2019). Visible plastic debris (VPD) was taken inside the sampling boundary of 50 cm × 50 cm quadrant for each SSP. All VPD inside the quadrant were manually collected (for big VPD) and used 5 mm pore cloth nets (for small VPD). All collected VPD were placed inside the PP containers. All collected VPD were cleaned, soaked, and gently stirred using seawater (with temperature from 27.5 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C and salinity 30 ppt to 35 ppt) for floatation, thereby distinguishing them from other debris (Coppock et al., 2017). The seawater used at the time had a density that ranged from 1,019.4 kg/m3 to 1,022.6 kg/m3 . That is, VPD with density above 1022.6 kg/m3 cannot be floated. The supernatant obtained from the floatation procedure was filtered repeatedly using 5 mm pore cloth nets until no VPD was retained on the filter. Note that this method is limited when separating plastic with density than that of seawater. Plastic with higher density than seawater, such as PETE and PVC, were categorized using their physical characteristics (Cheung et al., 2016). The separation of PETE and PVC was limited to the researcher’s ability to separate them from other plastic types and impurities. All obtained VPD was stored inside sealable plastic containers for analysis (Fok and Cheung, 2015).
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
3
Fig. 1. Sampling point.
2.3. Visible plastic debris calculation All collected VPD were thermally dried in an oven at 70 ◦ C (Ogawa Seiki, Japan) for 24 h. Dried VPD was weighed using a digital balance (± 0.5 g precision) (Kenko, Indonesia). Thereafter, the collected VPD was grouped into seven different types, namely, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS, PETE, PVC, and others. The grouping process was conducted on the basis of the label/ code, common visual characteristics, and density. The density of VPD was measured according to Banas (2017) and the grouping of VPD was conducted following Kurniawan and Imron (2019). 2.4. Statistical analysis Statistical analysis was performed using Minitab 16.0 (Imron et al., 2019c,a; Kurniawan et al., 2018). Data distribution was analyzed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov method and determined to be normally distributed. One-way ANOVA was used to further analyze the correlation between seasonal variation and the collected VPD (Imron et al., 2019b; Mu and Wang, 2014). The significance difference between the collected VPD in the dry and rainy seasons was analyzed using Tukey’s honest significance test (Purwanti et al., 2019). Statistical analysis was concluded by comparing the p-values with α = 0.05. 3. Results and discussion Fig. 2 presents all the collected VPD from each sampling location. The collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the dry season were 126.07 ± 12.00, 375.97 ± 16.72, and 291.13 ± 36.28 g/m2 , respectively. By contrast, the collected VPD from SP1, SP2, and SP3 during the rainy season were 443.17 ± 8.92, 1162.37 ± 84.60, and 706.00 ± 39.06 g/m2 , respectively. Fig. 2 shows that the amount of VPD in each SP was significantly higher during the rainy season than that during the dry season. The result of the one-way ANOVA showed a high correlation between the two seasons and the collected VPD (p < 0.05). VPD was collected during the high tide level of seawater because many debris and other floating materials were carried by high tidal waves (Cózar et al., 2015; Kurniawan and Imron, 2019). Moreover, the large amount of plastic debris collected during the rainy season was highly correlated with the river stream. The river flowed substantial amount of water to the ocean in the rainy season, thereby bringing all materials that were previously deposited in the river to the ocean ecosystem. During the rainy season, the deposited debris on land were also washed up by rain water and carried to the nearest body of water. This case will lead to debris flowing to the river and end up being deposited in estuaries or marine ecosystems (Cheung et al., 2019). The collected VPD from SP1 was slightly fewer than those from SP2 and SP3 during both seasons. This observation had high correlation with the force of the Wonorejo River stream. SP1 was observed to analyze the effects of the river stream on the accumulation of plastic debris in the estuary. The Wonorejo River stream flowed toward the Madura Strait and brought some floating materials with it, thereby lowering the tendency of deposition in this area (Kurniawan and Imron,
4
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
Fig. 2. Collected Visible Plastic Debris (VPD) from each Sampling Point (SP). Values are presented in Mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters above the graph indicate significant difference of the collected VPD between two seasons.
Fig. 3. Composition of the collected Visible Plastic Debris (VPD) from each Sampling Point (SP) during the dry and rainy seasons.
2019; Lebreton et al., 2017; Sigler, 2014). The amount of the collected VPD from SP2 was also observed to be higher than those from other SPs whether in the dry or rainy season. This result was considerably influenced by the location of SPs. Fig. 1 shows that SP2 was located on the small basin in the Wonorejo River estuary, which is a geographical location that prevents the horizontal movement of debris along the coastline (Signa et al., 2013). Plastic debris can only be washed up and carried in line with the ocean wave direction. This geographical structure creates a trap for all floating plastic debris, thereby resulting in the abundant amount of the collected VPD from this SP. Fig. 3 depicts the distribution of plastic type from all collected VPD. Fig. 3 shows that the highest percentage of collected VPD was LDPE in all SPs during the dry season and PETE in all SPs during the rainy season. LDPE was found in the form of plastic bags and snack packs, whereas PETE was generally found in the form of plastic water bottles. In the dry season, LDPE was found in SP1, SP2, and SP3 up to 72.30%, 73.13%, and 72.60%, respectively. The second highest collected VPD was PP, which reached 15.10%, 17.20%, and 17.22% from SP1, SP2, and SP3, respectively. PS was found to be the third most abundant plastic type with the composition ranging from 3.20% to 6.70% from all SPs. Other plastic type was found in a small percentage. The floating characteristic of LDPE led to the movement and deposition of this type in the estuaries. The abundant LDPE was correlated with its consumption in daily activities. Given that this plastic type is produced as used as plastic bags, it has an extremely thin layer characteristic, thereby enabling it to easily float on water bags (Emblem, 2012; Kyaw et al., 2012). In the rainy season, PETE was collected from SP1, SP2, and SP3, which reached 52.13%, 56.03%, and 59.77%, respectively. The second most abundant VPD type was LDPE, which reached 22.20%, 22.15%, and 17.20%, from SP1, SP2, and SP3,
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
5
respectively. PP became the third most collected VPD type with the composition ranging from 10.66% to 14.51%. The abundant PETE and PP in the rainy season was highly correlated with the river stream condition. Given its common produced product from PETE and PP, it tends to be deposited along with the river stream (not reaching up the estuary) owing to the solid built plastic characteristic (Braun and Braun, 2013; Geyer et al., 2017; Grumpiornot, 2018; Maddah, 2016; Ryedale District Council, 2019). During the rainy season, all deposited plastic in a river pathway were forced by the powerful river stream and flowed along the river to the estuary, thereby resulting in the high amount of this plastic type found in the estuary (Cheung et al., 2019). PETE and PP may also be deposited on land previously; the run-off of rain water washed the land surface and brought all floating materials, including PETE and PP, along with its stream (Luo et al., 2009). This phenomenon also increased the amount of VPD sent to the estuary and marine ecosystem. Given that this research was conducted in the developing country of Indonesia, a different result can be obtained in other countries that have their own regulations in using and handling plastic. Further study related to the composition and distribution of used plastic in daily life will considerably support the current results (Eriksen et al., 2014; Rech et al., 2018). For example, the mapping of plastic debris distribution in estuaries and coastlines may also be an interesting topic. This topic may also contribute immensely to the planning of clean-up strategies and future regulations related to the use of plastic items and handling of plastic waste (Blanco et al., 2018; Haward, 2018; Kurniawan and Imron, 2019; Vox et al., 2016). 4. Conclusion The accumulation of VPD in the estuary of Wonorejo River was significantly higher during the rainy season than the dry season (p < 0.05) owing to the mass transport along the river stream. The highest VPD accumulation was obtained in SP2 because of its geographical location. LDPE was found to be the major composition of VPD during the dry season, reaching 73.13%. By contrast, PETE was found to be abundant during the rainy season and dominated the plastic type composition by up to 59.77%. The manual cleaning process of VPD in the estuary is suggested often during the rainy season to obtain high efficiency in cleaning results. Cleaning in the river mouth or along river streams is not suggested because of the movement of floating masses (including plastic debris) that make the VPD collection difficult and less efficient. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Kurita Asia Research Grant (KARG) provided by the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation (KWEF) in Japan. The authors are grateful to Universitas Airlangga for sponsoring this publication and Prof. Yulinah Trihadiningrum for her support in the course of this research. References Al-Baldawi, I.A., Abdullah, S.R.S., Anuar, N., Hasan, H.A., 2018. Phytotransformation of methylene blue from water using aquatic plant (Azolla pinnata). Environ. Technol. Innov. 11, 15–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2018.03.009. Al-Baldawi, I.A., Abdullah, S.R.S., Anuar, N., Suja, F., Mushrifah, I., 2015. Phytodegradation of total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) in diesel-contaminated water using scirpus grossus. Ecol. Eng. 74, 463–473. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.11.007. Banas, T., 2017. How to Calculate the Density of Plastic [WWW Document]. Sciencing. URL https://sciencing.com/calculate-density-plastic-5974063. html (accessed 6.10.19). Barboza, L.G.A., Dick Vethaak, A., Lavorante, B.R.B.O., Lundebye, A.K., Guilhermino, L., 2018. Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133, 336–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.05.047. Beer, S., Garm, A., Huwer, B., Dierking, J., Nielsen, T.G., 2018. No increase in marine microplastic concentration over the last three decades – A case study from the baltic sea. Sci. Total Environ. 621, 1272–1279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.101. Blanco, I., Loisi, R.V., Sica, C., Schettini, E., Vox, G., 2018. Agricultural plastic waste mapping using GIS. A case study in Italy. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 137, 229–242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.06.008. Braun, D., Braun, D., 2013. Simple methods for identification of plastics. In: Simple Methods for Identification of Plastics. http://dx.doi.org/10.3139/ 9781569905425.fm. Browne, M.A., Galloway, T.S., Thompson, R.C., 2010. Spatial patterns of plastic debris along estuarine shorelines. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 3404–3409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es903784e. Carbery, M., O’Connor, W., Palanisami, T., 2018. Trophic transfer of microplastics and mixed contaminants in the marine food web and implications for human health. Environ. Int. 115, 400–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.007. Cheung, P.K., Cheung, L.T.O., Fok, L., 2016. Seasonal variation in the abundance of marine plastic debris in the estuary of a subtropical macro-scale drainage basin in South China. Sci. Total Environ. 562, 658–665. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.048. Cheung, P.K., Hung, P.L., Fok, L., 2019. River microplastic contamination and dynamics upon a rainfall event in Hong Kong. China. Environ. Process 6, 253–264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40710-018-0345-0. Coppock, R.L., Cole, M., Lindeque, P.K., Queirós, A.M., Galloway, T.S., 2017. A small-scale, portable method for extracting microplastics from marine sediments. Environ. Pollut. 230, 829–837. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.017. Cózar, A., Sanz-Martín, M., Martí, E., González-Gordillo, J.I., Ubeda, B., Á.gálvez, J., Irigoien, X., Duarte, C.M., 2015. Plastic accumulation in the mediterranean sea. PLoS One 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0121762. Diepens, N.J., Koelmans, A.A., 2018. Accumulation of plastic debris and associated contaminants in aquatic food webs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 52, 8510–8520. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b02515. Emblem, A., 2012. Plastics properties for packaging materials. Packag. Technol. Fundam. Mater. Process 287–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1533/ 9780857095701. Eriksen, M., Lebreton, L.C.M., Carson, H.S., Thiel, M., Moore, C.J., Borerro, J.C., Galgani, F., Ryan, P.G., Reisser, J., 2014. Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: More than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One 9, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913.
6
S.B. Kurniawan and M.F. Imron / Environmental Technology & Innovation 16 (2019) 100490
Everaert, G., Van Cauwenberghe, L., De Rijcke, M., Koelmans, A.A., Mees, J., Vandegehuchte, M., Janssen, C.R., 2018. Risk assessment of microplastics in the ocean: Modelling approach and first conclusions. Environ. Pollut. 242, 1930–1938. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.069. Fernández Robledo, J.A., Yadavalli, R., Allam, B., Pales Espinosa, E., Gerdol, M., Greco, S., Stevick, R.J., Gómez-Chiarri, M., Zhang, Y., Heil, C.A., Tracy, A.N., Bishop-Bailey, D., Metzger, M.J., 2019. From the raw bar to the bench: Bivalves as models for human health. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 92, 260–282. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2018.11.020. Fok, L., Cheung, P.K., 2015. Hong Kong at the pearl river estuary: A hotspot of microplastic pollution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 99, 112–118. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.050. Galgani, F., 2015. Marine litter, future prospects for research. Front. Mar. Sci. 2, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2015.00087. Gallo, F., Fossi, C., Weber, R., Santillo, D., Sousa, J., Ingram, I., Nadal, A., Romano, D., 2018. Marine litter plastics and microplastics and their toxic chemicals components: the need for urgent preventive measures. Environ. Sci. Eur. 30, http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0139-z. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782. Grumpiornot, 2018. How to Identify Different Types of Plastic [WWW Document]. Owlcation. URL https://owlcation.com/stem/How-plastic-is-reallyrecycled (accessed 4.25.19). Hajbane, S., Pattiaratchi, C.B., 2017. Plastic pollution patterns in offshore, nearshore and estuarine waters: A case study from Perth, Western Australia. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00063. Haward, M., 2018. Plastic pollution of the world’s seas and oceans as a contemporary challenge in ocean governance. Nature Commun. 9, 667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03104-3. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Soegianto, A., 2019a. Characterization of mercury-reducing potential bacteria isolated from keputih non-active sanitary landfill leachate, Surabaya, Indonesia under different saline conditions. J. Environ. Manag. 241, 113–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019. 04.017. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Soegianto, A., Wahyudianto, F.E., 2019b. Phytoremediation of methylene blue using duckweed (Lemna minor). Heliyon 5, e02206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02206. Imron, M.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Titah, H.S., 2019c. Potential of bacteria isolated from diesel-contaminated seawater in diesel biodegradation. Environ. Technol. Innov. 14, 100368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100368. Ivar do Sul, J.A., Costa, M.F., 2016. Plastic pollution risks in an estuarine conservation unit. J. Coast. Res. 65, 48–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2112/si65-009.1. Kalogerakis, N., Karkanorachaki, K., Kalogerakis, G.C., Triantafyllidi, E.I., Gotsis, A.D., Partsinevelos, P., Fava, F., 2017. Microplastics generation: Onset of fragmentation of polyethylene films in marine environment mesocosms. Front. Mar. Sci. 4, http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.00084. Kentin, E., Kaarto, H., 2018. An EU ban on microplastics in cosmetic products and the right to regulate. Rev. Eur. Comp. Int. Environ. Law 27, 254–266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/reel.12269. Kontrick, A.V., 2018. Microplastics and human health: Our great future to think about now. J. Med. Toxicol. 14, 117–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s13181-018-0661-9. Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., 2019. The effect of tidal fluctuation on the accumulation of plastic debris in the Wonorejo River Estuary, Surabaya, Indonesia. Environ. Technol. Innov. 15, 100420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100420. Kurniawan, S.B., Purwanti, I.F., Titah, H.S., 2018. The effect of pH and aluminium to bacteria isolated from aluminium recycling industry. J. Ecol. Eng. 19, 154–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.12911/22998993/86147. Kyaw, B.M., Champakalakshmi, R., Sakharkar, M.K., Lim, C.S., Sakharkar, K.R., 2012. Biodegradation of low density polythene (LDPE) by pseudomonas species. Indian J. Microbiol. 52, 411–419. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0250-6. Law, K.L., 2017. Plastics in the marine environment. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9, 205–229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060409. Lebreton, L.C.M., Van Der Zwet, J., Damsteeg, J.W., Slat, B., Andrady, A., Reisser, J., 2017. River plastic emissions to the world’s oceans. Nature Commun. 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15611. Luo, H., Luo, L., Huang, G., Liu, P., Li, J., Hu, S., Wang, F., Xu, R., Huang, X., 2009. Total pollution effect of urban surface runoff. J. Environ. Sci. 21, 1186–1193. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(08)62402-X. Maddah, H.A., 2016. Unipol propylene full PFD. Am. J. Polym. Sci. 6, 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5923/j.ajps.20160601.01. Mu, W., Wang, X., 2014. Inference for one-way ANOVA with equicorrelation error structure. Sci. World J. 2014, 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 341617. Parker, L., 2018. In a first, microplastics found in human poop [WWW Document]. Planet or Plast. URL https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ environment/2018/10/news-plastics-microplastics-human-feces/ (accessed 6.14.19). Purwanti, I.F., Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., 2019. Potential of pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from aluminium-contaminated site in aluminium removal and recovery from wastewater. Environ. Technol. Innov. 15, 100422. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2019.100422. Purwanti, I.F., Simamora, D., Kurniawan, S.B., 2018. Toxicity test of tempe industrial wastewater on cyperus rotundus and scirpus grossus. Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol. 9, 1162–1172. Rech, S., Borrell Pichs, Y.J., García-Vazquez, E., 2018. Anthropogenic marine litter composition in coastal areas may be a predictor of potentially invasive rafting fauna. PLoS One 13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0191859. Rochman, C.M., Hoh, E., Kurobe, T., Teh, S.J., 2013. Ingested plastic transfers hazardous chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. Sci. Rep. 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep03263. Ryedale District Council, 2019. Different types of plastics and their classification [WWW Document]. Environment. URL https://www.ryedale.gov.uk/ attachments/article/690/Different_plastic_polymer_types.pdf (accessed 4.25.19). Sigler, M., 2014. The effects of plastic pollution on aquatic wildlife: Current situations and future solutions. Water Air Soil Pollut. 225, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-2184-6. Signa, G., Tramati, C.D., Vizzini, S., 2013. Contamination by trace metals and their trophic transfer to the biota in a mediterranean coastal system affected by gull guano. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 479, 13–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps10210. Smith, M., Love, D.C., Rochman, C.M., Neff, R.A., 2018. Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Curr. Environ. Heal. Rep. 5, 375–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0206-z. Tanaka, K., Takada, H., 2016. Microplastic fragments and microbeads in digestive tracts of planktivorous fish from urban coastal waters. Sci. Rep. 6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep34351. Titah, H.S., Purwanti, I.F., Tangahu, B.V., Kurniawan, S.B., Imron, M.F., Abdullah, S.R.S., Ismail, N., 2019. Izzati, kinetics of aluminium removal by locally isolated brochothrix thermosphacta and vibrio alginolyticus. J. Environ. Manag. 238, 194–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.011. Vermeiren, P., Muñoz, C.C., Ikejima, K., 2016. Sources and sinks of plastic debris in estuaries: A conceptual model integrating biological, physical and chemical distribution mechanisms. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 113, 7–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.10.002. Vox, G., Loisi, R.V., Blanco, I., Mugnozza, G.S., Schettini, E., 2016. Mapping of agriculture plastic waste. Agric. Agric. Sci. Procedia 8, 583–591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2016.02.080. Wang, J., Zheng, L., Li, J., 2018. A critical review on the sources and instruments of marine microplastics and prospects on the relevant management in China. Waste Manag. Res. 36, 898–911. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242X18793504. Worm, B., Lotze, H.K., Jubinville, I., Wilcox, C., Jambeck, J., 2017. Plastic as a persistent marine pollutant. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 42, 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060700.