Secular anthropometric changes in a sample of Italian adults

Fiorenzo Facchini Emanuela GualdiRusso Istituto di Antropologia, Universitd degli Studi di Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy

Received 3 August 1982 and accepted 20 October 1982 Keywords : Anthropometric traits, secular trend, debraehycephalization

Secular Anthropometric Changes in a Sample of Italian Adults Anthropometric traits of adults from Bologna (Italy), measured several times over a century, were evaluated for evidence of a secular trend. In addition to a considerable increase in the stature, weight and chest girth, increases were observed also in the biacromial and bicristal breadths and, to a small degree, in the sitting height. Regarding the head, a de-brachycephalization process, caused mainly by the decrease in tile maximum head breadth, was noticed. The secular trend phenomena are discussed with respect to genetic, environmental and demographic factors.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

O n e o f the first I t a l i a n researchers into the p h e n o m e n o n of the secular t r e n d was Costanzo (1939, 1940, 1944-47) with studies based on conscripts data. Successively other a n t h r o pologists studied the secular m e t r i c changes in adults ( C a p p i e r i , 1960; Grassivaro G a l l o , 1972; Guerci, 1977) in adolescents a n d c h i l d r e n (Tonelli, 1960; Benassi Graffi, 1965; F a c c h i n i , 1965; M a r t u z z i Veronesi, 1968; Tonelli et al., 1970; Pastorin et al., 1980; Veronesi M a r t u z z i et al., 1980), a n d in n e w b o r n s (Parmeggiani, 1969; F e n u Usai, 1980). M e t r i c c h a n g e s in I t a l i a n e m i g r a n t s were also e x a m i n e d ( D a m o n , 1965; Susanne, 1977, 1979). T h e s e researches were g e n e r a l l y restricted to height a n d w e i g h t changes over time. Changes o f some other m e t r i c traits were considered b y few anthropologists with reference to adolescents (Facchini, 1965; M a r t u z z i Veronesi, 1968) a n d c h i l d r e n (Pastorin el al., 1980). F o r further references a n d a m o r e extensive t r e a t m e n t see our previous r e p o r t (Benassi Graffi et al., 1980). T h e p u r p o s e of this p a p e r is to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on the secular t r e n d of several m e t r i c traits in adults a n d to e x a m i n e also possible genetic a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l factors. 2. M a t e r i a l s a n d M e t h o d s O u r s a m p l e consisted of 267 a d u l t males a n d Bologna. T h e age composition of the s a m p l e W e m e a s u r e d the following traits: stature, b i a c r o m i a l b r e a d t h , bicristal b r e a d t h , span, Table I

219 a d u l t females, u n r e l a t e d a n d living in is r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 1. weight, chest girth, sittii~g height vertex, m a x i m u m h e a d length, m a x i m u m h e a d

Age composition of the Bolognese sample

Age

Males

Females

19/21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-0x

108 83 44 26 6

82 53 45 34 5

Total

267

219

Journal of Human Evolution (1982) 11, 703-714

0047-2484/82/070703 + 12 $03.00/0

(~) 1982 Academic Press Inc. (London) Limited

704

F. F A C I G H I N I A N D E. G U A L D I - R U S S O

breadth, breadth of bizygomatic arch and total facial height. The anthropometric determinations were made using the technique of Martin & S a l l e r (1957-66). A survey of the trend in the first three traits--besides the age at m e n a r c h e - - h a d yet to be presented (Benassi Graffi el al., 1980). For this reason we shall confine ourselves to a brief mention of them. We calculated and examined also the following indices: stature -- sitting height ) Skelic Index (Manouvier) ~, sitt=lng h~lght • 100 ,

Relative Sitting Height Index k,

sitting height ) sm-at~re • 100 ,

( weight ~ , Ponderal Index \ ~ j ( m a x i m u m head breadth ) Cephalic Index ~, ~ m - h ~ - a d ~ x 100 and morphological facial height ) Morphological Facial Index ~ b r e a d t h o f b ~ z y g o m a t ~ arrch • 100 . The computed means were then compared with those reported by various authors in previous studies on the Bolognese population beginning from 1896 (Tables 2 and 3). In this connection it must be noticed that it is important to consider the sample composition.* Samples differing in size and of unknown socio-economic composition were sometimes used in comparisons. Obviously, data compared are based on measurements of different investigators. When the author used a different technique, we took this difference into account (see average corrections of the stature, when it was measured in a horizontal position or on the corpse, in our previous study of 1980; and corrections of Cephalic Index of Livi in the present study). T h e authors did not always determine the whole set of traits we studied and they hardly ever reported the variance. For this reason we conducted the comparative analysis simply by using the mean values. 3. R e s u l t s

The mean values (and S.D.s) of all the evaluated traits and indices are reported in Tables 2 and 3, together with the values compared.

Metric Traits Stature, weight and chest girth. Both sexes show notable changes of these traits over the century. During this period, males increased in stature by 6-7 cm, in weight by 11.89 kg, * The comparisons with data of Graffi (1930) and of Frassetto (1932) for instance were avoided when other data were available for the comparison. This decision was influenced by the consideration that both studies are based on selected samples. The '"prolific" parents studied by Frassetto were prevailingly in old age--seven children at least were necessary for the parents to be considered "prolific"--and of low social status. The University girl-students examined by Graffi were of a high social status.

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SECULAR ANTHROPOMETRIC CHANGES Figure 1. Trend of sitting height vertex in the Bolognese population. O : Riccardi (1891); • present study (1979).

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a n d in chest girth b y 7"68 cm. F e m a l e s increased in stature b y 6.4 cm. a n d in chest g i r t h b y 8"95 cm. d u r i n g a century, a n d in weight b y 3.95 kg d u r i n g 50 years.

Sitting height vertex (Figure 1). T h i s height has increased b y 0.9 c m for the male sex a n d b y 2" 1 c m for the female sex d u r i n g 88 years. I f the increase has b e e n g r a d u a l , d a t a from the l i t e r a t u r e are not enough to establish it, b u t a 0.10 cm i n c r e m e n t per decade for m e n a n d 0.24 i n c r e m e n t per d e c a d e for w o m e n took place.

Span. A 1"2 c m decrease in m a l e s - - f r o m 176.7 c m in R i c c a r d i ' s study to 175.52 c m in o u r s t u d y - - a n d a 5.4 c m increase in females - - f r o m 156.9 cm in R i c c a r d i ' s (1886) study to 162"29 c m in present s t u d y - - o c c u r r e d over the last 93 years.

Biacromial breadth (Figure 2). I n the m a l e sex, after a decrease of 0.8 c m in the first 45 years, there was a n increase of 2"7 c m in a b o u t h a l f a c e n t u r y after 1927. I n a similar length o f time (50 years) a 1.5 c m increase was noticed in the female sex. 45

Figure 2. Trend of biacromial breadth in the Bolognese population. El: Peli (1881); m: Zisa (1927); A: Alestra (1929); • present study (1979).

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Bicristal breadth (Figure 3). No c h a n g e o c c u r r e d in m e n until 1927 (29.4 c m in Peli's s t u d y of 1881 a n d 29'6 in Zisa's study of 1930). After this d a t e an increase of 3.3 c m is shown in our d a t a . I n females, after a decrease of 2"5 c m ( s a m p l i n g errors?) c h a n g i n g from 29.8 c m a c c o r d i n g to Alestra (1931 ) to 27"3 c m a c c o r d i n g to D a g n i n i ( 1 9 4 1 ) - - i n a 12-year period, there was a 4'2 c m increase in the last 38 years. Figure 3. Trend of bicristal breadth in the Bolognese population. [] Peli (1881); m: Zisa (1927); ~ : Alestra (1929); A ; Dagnini (1941); • : present study.

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v. FACCHINI AND E. GUALDI-RUSSO

Maximum head length. I n the last half-century a 1;98 mm lengthening--from the 188 mm of Zisa to our values--was noticed in the male sex (0.38 m m per decade). A more complex feature, probably connected to the variability of the sample, was noticeable in females. After a 5 mm decrease in a 12 year period from Alestra's study (183 mm) to Dagnini's (178 mm), a lengthening of 2.66 m m (0.7 m m per decade) occurred after 1941.

Maximum head breadth. There has been an 8.94 m m decrease in male head breadth in the last 50 years (1.72 mm per decade), from 158 mm (Zisa) to 149.06 m m (present study). In females, over the same period, a similar decrease (10.65 mm) occurred, from 153 mm (Alestra) to 142.35 (present study). Data from Dagnini's (1941) evaluation show that this decrease was more rapid in the first 12 years (2"13 m m in one decade) than in the other 38 years (0.7 mm per decade). Breadth of bizygomatic arch. The only available data on the Bolognese population in the literature are those of Graffii. According to this comparison, females increased their breadth of 3 m m during the last 50 years.

Indices Ponderal index. Very small changes are found from the comparison of our data with those of Frassetto (1932) in a 50-year period (in males: +0.049; in females: --0.153).

Skelic index. In this case too the only data available for the comparison purpose are those of Frassetto (1932) and Graffi (1930). In the last 50 years an increase of 2"85 was evident in males. In females no change is observed in comparing our data with those of Frassetto (+0-44), while there is a remarkable change if the comparison is done with data of Graffi (+4.84).

Relative sitting height index. There were very small changes of the index during 88 years in both sexes [according to Riccardi's (1891) values]. The small decrease was a little more pronounced in females (males : --0.07; females: --0'34).

Cephalic index (Figure 4). Comparisons with cephalic index values computed by Livi were done by decreasing his averages by one (see Facchini et al., 1977; Livi, 1907). In fact Livi calculated the index on the basis of length and breadth measurements taken not by a caliper but by a particular instrument called quadro a mamma (Livi, 1896). An index decrease follows the prevailing decrease in the maximum head breadth and the small increase in the maximum head length of both the sexes. The males maintained nearly the same values from 1876 to 1927 (+1.3). From 1927 to 1979 the values decreased by 5"66. A decrease of 4.72 occurred in the female index in the last half-century. Figure 4. Trend of cephalic index in the Bolognese population. O : Livi (1896); m : Zisa (1927), zS: Alestra (1929); • present study.

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SECULAR A N T H R O P O M E T R I C CHANGES

709

4. D i s c u s s i o n

As we pointed out above, it is i m p o r t a n t to take into consideration the composition of the various samples. For this reason we mention the different composition of female samples from the same period (Gram, 1930; Frassetto, 1932). This led us to use these data in the comparisons, but it can be pointed out that the small statural difference between well-off girls of Graffi's study and actual data (a 1 cm difference) is consistent with other researches. I n fact R o c h e (1979) also pointed out that tile trend of stature in U.S.A. stopped for the u p p e r social strata as early as 1918, but.this did not h a p p e n for the lower strata. Also, data from other countries indicate more marked changes in the lower classes.* T h e comparisons show that the Bolognese male has increased 4'05 % in stature, 8"75 % in chest girth and 19.30% in weight, over a century. A very similar increase in stature during 90 years was observed in men during National Service (from 165-3 cm in 1879-83 to 171.1 cm in 1968-69) (Guerci, 1977). T h e Bolognese female has increased during the same period 4.19% in stature and 10.93% in chest girth, and, during h a l f a century, 10.50% in weight. D a t a on w e i g h t - h e i g h t relationships show a secular increase in weight for height either in males (a 1-77 kg increment for every centimeter ofstatural increase in a b o u t a century) or in females (a 1.21 kg increment for every centimeter of statural increase in 50 years). Also biacromial breadth (males: 4.81 o/o in a century; females: 5.34 o/o in half a century) and bicristal breadth (males: I 1.77 % in a century; females; 5.54% in h a l f a century) have increased while other metric traits show little change. T h e sitting height has increased by 1.01% in males and by 2"55~ in females. A secular trend in biacromial and bicristal b r e a d t h and in stature with a tendency for macroskelia was also noticed in the Bolognese adolescent (Veronesi Martuzzi et al., 1980). I n contrast to the remarkable increases in stature, small changes in sitting height were also observed by other authors (see numerous references on b o d y proportions in Malina, 1979). It m a y be supposed the stature tends to increase prevailingly owing to a lengthening of the leg. Skelic index and relative sitting height index have had very little changes. T h e span has remained unchanged in the male sex during a century ( - - 0 . 6 7 % ) , while it has increased in the female sex (3.44%). Comparative data for cranial traits are sparse and comparisons of facial traits are based only on samples selected from Gratii (1930) and Frassetto (1932). O n the basis of these data a 50-year period shows an increase for females of both the breadth of bizygomatic arch (2'28%) and in the total facial height (5.27%), with a consequent increase in morphological facial index (2.80%). These increases result in a change from a condition of mesoprosopy (range variation of this class for males : 84-87"9; tbr females : 81-84.9) to * Regarding other traits, the different conduct of the two contemporaneous samples (of Frassetto, 1932, and Graltl, 1930) may be easily explained for some traits: the small weight of girl-students has perhaps linked with aesthetic factors and the high weight of "prolific" women with numerous pregnancies and advanced age; the higher value of skelic index'in "prolific" parents is probably connected with a decrease of their sitting height with aging owing to the compression of invertebral, discs and to the accentuation of spinal physiological curves. Interesting observations on the effects of aging on adult sining height, in addition to trend effects, were recently reported by Relethford & Lees (1981).

710

F. FACCHINI AND E. GUALDI-RUSSO

leptoprosopy. The total facial-height has had, on the contrary, an insignificant increase in males (0.35 %) in the last 50 years. The cephalic index shows that the Bolognese changed from brachycephalia to mesocephalia (range variation of this class for males: 76-80.9, for females: 77-81.9) with a 5-26% decrease in the index in males over a century and of 5-65 % in females over half a century. The variation of this index was not a gradual process during a century, but it seems to start after 1927. The de-brachycephalization, which is occurring in Europe, follows, according to Billy (1966) the First World War, as a probable consequence of the breakdown of isolates. Present studies on the problem of influence of exogamy on cephalic proportions are exiguous (Billy, 1971, 1981; Ferak & Lichardova, 1969; Gloor, 1981; Strouhal, 1971). It is well known that the de-brachycephalization process was preceded by an opposite trend. This trend was pointed out in various European populations beginning in the Metals Age (Hug, 1940; Giot, 1949; Sauter, 1952; Biasutti, 1967; Necrasov, 1981; Wiercinski, 1981; etc.). As far as the Bolognese population is concerned, the de-brachycephalization is well documented crossing from the mesocrany of Etruscans (5th 4th cent. B.C.) to the increasing brachycrany of the 15th-19th century A.D. The few skeletal remains of the Bronze Age (2nd millennium B.C.) and the Villanovian period (9th-6th cent. B.c.) do not allow conclusions (Facchini et al., 1980) concerning trends for these periods.

180 170

Figure 5. Italian c o n s u m p t i o n per capita of f u n d a m e n t a l n o u r i s h m e n t s (meat, vegetables a n d fruits, cereals).

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SECULAR

ANTHROPOMETRIC

Figure 6. Italian consumption per capita of milk, sugar, oliveoil (expressed in kg) and wine (expressed in litres).

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Factors and Causes of the Trend in Bologna The graph of some traits as stature, chest girth, weight, bicristal breadth and biacromial breadth, follows an interesting course (for first three traits see Benassi Graffi et al., 1980) and it is possible--especially for stature--to distinguish three different phases: Phase I :

an increasing trend at the end of the 19th century (in relation to the industrial revolution) ;

Phase I I : a stasis from the beginning of the 20th century to, perhaps, 1945 (in relation to the World Wars I and I I ) ; Phase I I I : a more accentuated increasing trend perhaps after 1945 (in relation to the post-war renascence). In connection with these phases, we attempt to provide an interpretation for the trend of the anthropometric traits in Bologna. The improvement of living conditions and, for the most part, rmtrition are the more plausible environmental causes of the trend, especially in phase I I I . T h e improvement in nutrition is difficult to document, but wc may suppose the situation in Bologna was similar to the general Italian situation. Data published by Istituto Centralc di Statistica (1977) indicate that the consumption of some fbod-stuffs, such as wheat, fresh fruit, meat, milk, olive-oil and sugar, very important for growth, is increasing constantly, beginning from the first decades of the 20th century, with a remarkable increment in the last few decades. This fact is in accordance with the secular trend ofanthropometric traits, especially in phase I I I (Figures 5 and 6). Demographic factors offer other possible clues. Often under good living conditions both fertility and mortality decrease (Wolanski, 1978). A progressive decrease in the birth frequency took place in Bologna from 1861 (30'8% o) to 1951 (10-5% o). Afterwards the frequency has remained constant. Also the death frequency decreased until 1951 (from

712

F. F A C G H I N I A N D E. G U A L D I - R U S S O

32"1% G i n 1 8 6 1 t o 11.0% o i n 1 9 5 1 ) and then it became stable. Both factors s h o w a decreasing trend until some decades ago, while the stature and the other metric traits present an opposite trend in the same period. T h e school level is a good predictor of the trend (Iagolnitzer et al., 1977). A n illiteracy decrease has taken place in Bologna since the beginning of the 20th century (from 366.07% o in 1871, 186.68% o i n 1901, to 10"25% 0 in 1971). T h e decreasing trend of these factors (fertility, mortality, illiteracy) indicates improved living conditions and higher social level, to which also the trend of a n t h r o p o m e t r i c traits must be connected. Perhaps merely environmental reasons for secular trends are not satisfactory, a n d genetic factors are probably involved. For instance, the increased resident population since 1861 (from 973/km 2 to 3,486/km 2 in 1971)--not explainable on the basis of the n u m b e r of b i r t h s - - m a y be explained as an urbanization process consequent to the industrialization. T h e immigration in fact was always higher than emigration (Figure 7)and reached a peak in 1931-36. W e think that this immigration has partially modified the anthropological composition of Bolognese population, by fostering ethnic hybridizations. Figure 7. Immigration frequency for every 1000 Bolognese inhabitants (above the x-axis) and emigration frequency (below). The reported values are triennial means and the year indicated is the central one. Note that the surface area of Bologna became 140'73 krn" from 115"74 km 2 in 1951 because of the inclusion of Borgo Panigale. (Data were kindly supplied by Istituto di Statistica of Bologna University.)

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Because of the increased exogamy, a heterosis hypothesis is plausible for some metric traits as stature, while the de-brachycephalization process m a y be explained by gene flow or perhaps a decrease in selective pressures. It is probable that dolichomorph individuals were included in the immigrants in Bologna, especially those from the Appennines and from the South of Italy. Further, the hypothesis (Olivier et al., 1979) of a selective pressure in favour of tall dolichocephals, that raised the previous low fitness for these t y p e s - owing to their lesser resistence to epidemic and endemic diseases--cannot be excluded. N o d o u b t the p h e n o m e n o n of secular trends is very complex either because different traits are involved in this process or because probably various factors--genetic and environmental--affected, to a different degree, every one of them and with a different reciprocal interaction. It is difficult to understand this p h e n o m e n o n for a single population, and even more difficult to find a unitary and satisfactory answer for the numerous h u m a n groups involved

SECULAR ANTHROPOMETRIG CHANGES i n t h i s process.

The play upon interactions among genetic and environmental

713 f a c t o r s is

m u t a b l e a n d t h e g e n e t i c p o t e n t i a l a n d e c o s e n s i t i v i t y a r e as d i f f e r e n t a n d v a r i a b l e i n e t h n i c g r o u p s as i n i n d i v i d u a l s .

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