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Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth
Accepted Manuscript Title: Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth Author: Martin J. Van Kranendonk Rajat Mazumder Kosei E. Yamaguchi Koji Yamada Minoru Ikehara PII: DOI: Reference:
S0301-9268(14)00331-3 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.015 PRECAM 4090
To appear in:
Precambrian Research
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
11-12-2013 1-9-2014 15-9-2014
Please cite this article as: Van Kranendonk, M.J., Mazumder, R., Yamaguchi, K.E., Yamada, K., Ikehara, M.,Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth, Precambrian Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.015 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
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Martin J. Van Kranendonk1, 2,*, Rajat Mazumder1, Kosei E. Yamaguchi3, Koji Yamada3, Minoru Ikehara4
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Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth
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*corresponding author: email [email protected]; tel +612 9385 2439; fax +612 9385 3327
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Highlights
ARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Studies
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School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, and Australian Centre for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052 Australia
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Department of Chemistry, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan, and NASA Astrobiology Institute
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The Kungarra Fm, records a conformable succession across the Great Oxidation Event
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Center for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan
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Sedimentological analysis reveals glacio‐eustatic regressive‐transgressive cycles
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Deposited was within an intracratonic basin deepening to the northwest
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A foreland basin model deepening o the northeast is not supported
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Abstract
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This paper presents the first, detailed sedimentological analysis of the Paleoproterozoic
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Kungarra Formation, the lowermost of three formations comprising the Turee Creek Group in
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Western Australia, which was deposited across the rise in atmospheric oxygen (the Great
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Oxidation Event, or GOE) and the transition from early to modern Earth.
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The data shows that the Kungarra Formation has a gradational, conformable lower contact with underlying banded iron-formation of the Hamersley Group and predominantly
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comprises an upward-shallowing succession from deepwater shales and siltstones, through
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rippled fine-grained sandstones and stromatolitic carbonates, to tidal flat deposits that
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immediately underlie coastal- fluvial deposits of the overlying Koolbye Formation.
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At the base of the Kungarra Formation is a gradual transition from alternating units of magnetic green shale and thin units of banded iron-formation that pass upsection to units of
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non-magnetic shale and ferruginous chert and grey chert, reflecting a gradual loss of iron
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from the world’s oceans accompanying the rise of atmospheric oxygen. A falling-stage
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system is recognised above this transition in the Hardey Syncline area, capped by
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stromatolitic carbonates and a period of exposure marked by an erosional unconformity and
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carbonate beachrock. Two glacio-eustatic cycles are recognised within the middle to upper
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parts of the Kungarra Formation, each of which is marked by the rapid onset of falling
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systems tracts and characterised by falling systems tracts during and following diamictite
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deposition.
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Stratigraphic data are used to infer a depobasin filled by a sediment wedge prograding
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from southeast to northwest, in contrast to previous models of a north-northeastward
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deepening foreland basin. The lack of seismites or internal unconformities within the
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formation precludes a foredeep setting. Rather, deposition is interpreted as having occurred
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within an intracratonic basin, with detritus sourced from erosion of uplifted bedrock to the
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southeast.
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Key words: Paleoproterozoic, sedimentology, glacio-marine succession, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia
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1. Introduction
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Earth experienced a fundamental revolution across the Archean-Proterozoic transition, when
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the rate and style of continental crust formation changed rapidly, the biosphere was thrown
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out of equilibrium, and the composition of the atmosphere changed dramatically from one
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with little, or no, free atmospheric oxygen to one with >10-5 present atmospheric level (PAL)
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O2 during the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) at 2.45–2.22 billion years (Ga) ago (Kirschvink
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et al., 2000; Farquhar et al., 2000; Holland, 2002; Bekker et al., 2004; Hannah et al., 2004;
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Johnson et al., 2009; Van Kranendonk et al., 2012). This transition was marked by the onset
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of global glaciations and the development of unconformities and terrestrial successions, and
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led, ultimately, to the development and flourishing of eukaryotic life (Horodyski and Knauth,
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1994; Eriksson et al., 1999; Kirschvink et al., 2000; Prave, 2002; Condie et al., 2009;
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Konhauser et al., 2011; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Eriksson and Condie, 2013; Mazumder and
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Van Kranendonk, 2013).
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A question remains, however, as to the extent and significance of the Paleoproterozoic
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glaciations. Suggested to be global in nature (including low-latitude glaciations: Evans et al.,
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1997; Williams and Schmidt, 1997: Kirschvink et al., 2000; Kopp et al., 2005) and similar to
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the better-documented ‘Snowball Earth’ events of the Neoproterozoic (Hoffman et al., 1998;
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Bekker et al., 2005), the true extent and significance of Paleoproterozoic glaciations remains
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unsubstantiated due to different numbers of glacial units on different continents (one in
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Western Australia, two in South Africa, three in North America), the predominantly
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terrestrial, rift-related, nature of many glacial units, and uncertainty regarding the veracity of
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paleomagnetic data (Martin, 1999; Bekker et al., 2001; Young et al., 2001; Hilburn et al.,
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2005; Eyles, 2008; Melezhik et al., 2012). Significantly, the transition from early Earth
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(warm, anoxic atmosphere) to more modern Earth (cool, oxygenated atmosphere) across the
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GOE is plagued by successions with internal unconformities, particularly at the base of
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glaciogenic successions, thereby precluding a thorough understanding of the nature of the rise
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in atmospheric oxygen and the response of the biosphere to this revolution.
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Western Australia is one of the few places in the world that document a near-
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continuous record of deposition across the rise of atmospheric oxygen within a conformable
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succession of marine sedimentary rocks known as the Turee Creek Group (Trendall and
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Blockley, 1970; Trendall, 1979; Thorne and Tyler, 1996). A single glacial diamictite unit has
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been described previously in Western Australia by Trendall (1981) and Martin (1999) from
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the Meteorite Bore Member (MBM) of the Kungarra Formation, the lowermost formation of
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the 2.45–2.22 Ga Turee Creek Group. The Meteorite Bore Member has been described as a
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glacio-marine deposit, however no detailed sedimentary facies analysis has been undertaken
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and inferences regarding the depositional environment are solely based on the petrography of
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the clastic rocks and lithofacies characteristics (Martin, 1999; Martin et al., 2000). Recently,
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however, a second unit of glaciogenic diamictite has been described from the type area of the
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Turee Creek Group (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press), so in order to better
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understand the full succession of events recorded across the rise of atmospheric oxygen in the
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Western Australian succession, we here describe the sedimentology of the Kungarra
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Formation and its transition from the underlying Hamersley Group.
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Detailed sedimentological analysis of the Kungarra Formation documents a lateral
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and vertical shift in sedimentary facies across the Turee Creek basin. Sedimentary facies
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analysis shows that the Kungarrra Formation consists of an overall shallowing-upward
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succession, with a sediment source to the southeast. Prior to glaciation, the basin experienced
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relative base-level rise, leading to periodic exposure. The two glacial episodes were each
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initiated by a falling stage systems tract prior to diamictite deposition, and accompanied by a
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transgressive systems tract during, and immediately following, diamictite deposition: these
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changes are attributed to drawdown by developing glaciers and recharge by glacial melting,
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respectively. Basin fill was via the development of a northwesterly prograding sediment
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wedge, but sedimentological and geochronological evidence does not support deposition in
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an active foreland basin, as previously proposed. Rather, the depositonal environment is
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interpreted to have been an intracratonic basin, with an uplifted source terrain to the
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southwest that may have accompanied an episode of failed rifting and/or re-activation of
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basement domes.
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2. Regional geology and previous work
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The Turee Creek Group crops out in the hinges of large-scale folds along the southern part of
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the Hamersley Range in Western Australia (Fig. 1). Trendall (1981) and Thorne and Tyler
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(1996) defined the clastic sedimentary rock succession of the c. 3.9 km thick Turee Creek
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Group as comprising the lower Kungarra, middle Koolbye, and upper Kazput formations
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(Fig. 2).
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Geochronological constraints for the Kungarra Formation are provided by the 2449±3
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Ma Woongarra Rhyolite that lies conformably below the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at the top
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of the conformably underlying Hamersley Group (Barley et al., 1997), and by the 2209±15
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Ma Cheela Springs Basalt of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (Fig. 2:
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Martin et al., 1998). A dolerite sill intruding the MBM, interpreted as coeval with eruption of
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the Cheela Springs Basalt, has a 207Pb/206Pb baddelyite age of 2208±15 Ma (Müller et al.,
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2005), although the precise age relationships of these units is controversial (Martin and
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Morris, 2010). Detrital zircons from a diamictite sample of the MBM indicate a maximum
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age of deposition of ca. 2420 Ma (Takehara et al., 2010). Metamorphism of the group does
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not exceed prehnite-pumpellyite-epidote facies (Smith et al., 1982). The Kungarra Formation
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conformably overlies the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at the top of the Hamersley Group and
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consists of ~1600 m of predominantly fine-grained sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone, in
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addition to which are coarse glaciogenic diamictites and a variety of other, volumetrically
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less significant, lithology (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press). Horwitz (1982, 1987) interpreted the Turee Creek Group to have been deposited in an
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asymmetric basin with a steeper-dipping southern margin into which clastics derived from the
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southwest were deposited. Blake and Barley (1992) interpreted the group to have been
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deposited in a back-arc compressive tectonic retro-arc basin, formed in response to
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subduction-related orogenesis along the southern Pilbara Craton and development of a
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northeast-migrating backarc thrust belt.
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Krapez (1996) provided a sequence stratigraphic model for the Turee Creek Group in which five depositional sequences were identified. Fourteen lithofacies assemblages were
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identified, including offshore, prodelta, delta-front, delta platform, and delta plain facies of a
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northeast-prograding braid-delta depositional system (Hardey Syncline area), and a laterally
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equivalent (Duck Creek Syncline) assemblage of offshore, slope, shelf, and supratidal-
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intertidal facies tracts of a silciclastic-carbonate depositional system. Overall, the basin was
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interpreted as an active foredeep, deepening to the north-northeast in advance of a thrust-fold
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belt system actively approaching from the south-southwest.
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Martin (1999) and Martin et al. (2000) re-iterated the foreland basin model for the
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Turee Creek Group, suggesting it formed in front of a developing orogenic front advancing
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from the south-southwest. Martin et al. (2000) re-interpreted the upper two sequences of the
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Krapez (1996) sequence stratigraphic model as belonging to the unconformably overlying
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Beasley River Quartzite of the lower Wyloo Group. Similar to Krapez (1996), however,
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Martin et al. (2000) also recognised an upward-shallowing succession for the Kungarra
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Formation beneath the Meteorite Bore Member, and interpreted the lowermost sediments of
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the formation to be distal turbidites, followed by a number of upward-shallowing prodelta to
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offshore marine cycles. Paleocurrent directions from the lower Kungarra Formation indicated
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southeast-directed flow, which they interpreted as being axial to the McGrath Trough,
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without giving reasons why.
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In this study, detailed stratigraphic data was collected from measured sections taken at three main areas: 1) the Hardey Syncline area (H on Fig. 1, Fig. 3), including a detailed
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section through glacial diamictites of the Meteorite Bore Member at its type locality just
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northwest of Meteorite Bore on the southern limb of the syncline, and a section through the
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uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation and its transition into the lower and middle parts of the
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Kungarra Formation on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline; 2) the Boundary Ridge
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locality, located ~50 km to the northwest of the Hardey Syncline, which includes a section
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through the upper part of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation and lower part of the Kungarra
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Formation (B on Fig. 1); 3) a section through the lower part of the Kungarra Formation at
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Deepdale, in the far northwestern part of the basin, approximately 150 km to the northwest of
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the Hardey Syncline (D on Fig. 1).
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3. Sedimentary facies analysis in the Hardey Syncline
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The Kungarra Formation is well exposed in the Hardey Syncline, where it conformably
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overlies very finely bedded banded iron-formation and magnetic, ferruginous and jaspilitic
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chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group (Figs. 3, 4: Trendall, 1981;
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Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Williford et al., 2011). The shallow-water (beach,
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fluvial, and aeolian) sandstones of the Koolbye Formation disconformably overlie the
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Kungarra Formation in this area.
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The highly magnetic rocks of the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation consist of strongly magnetic, massive black iron formation, strongly magnetic cherty banded iron-
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formation, and magnetic, greenish-black laminated iron formation, and weakly magnetic,
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green, millimetre-layered iron-formation (Figs. 5a-c). In thin section, the magnetic black
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banded iron-formation was found to consist predominantly of medium-grained, euhedral
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crystals of magnetite, subordinate, very small anhedral hematite crystals, and blades of
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riebeckite (Fig. 5d).
Three facies associations constitute the Kungarra Formation in the Hardey Syncline
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area, with a fourth facies association restricted to the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities
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(Table 1). Facies association 1 predominantly occupies the lowest part of the formation and
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consists of relatively deepwater facies formed in an offshore setting below the storm wave
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base, and includes predominantly green-weathering grey shale, thin units of millimetre-
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bedded grey and jaspilitic chert, and a monotonous facies of interbedded fine-grained
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sandstone-siltstone-mudstone. Facies association 2, best preserved in the middle part of the
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Kungarra Formation, consists of thinly bedded and current (asymmetric) and near symmetric
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combined flow rippled fine-grained sandstones and siltstones, with occasional thin beds of
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stromatolitic carbonate formed in a tide-storm activated shallow marine setting. Glacial
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diamictites belonging to the Meteorite Bore Member and a second, overlying (but unnamed),
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unit of the Kungarra Formation are found in the Hardey Syncline, and inferred to be
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relatively shallow water deposits. The rocks of facies association 4 are also glaciogenic, but
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are interpreted to represent a much deeper water setting and are restricted to the Boundary
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Ridge and Deepdale localities.
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Individual facies associations are composed of several sedimentary facies, classified
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on the basis of grain-size, texture, composition, primary sedimentary structures and
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depositional mechanisms. The characteristics of each individual facies are described and
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interpreted below.
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Five interbedded sedimentary facies constitute the facies association in the lower part of the
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Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality underlying glaciogenic rocks, and in a
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package overlying glaciogenic rocks at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities.
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3.1.1 Facies A: chert‐ferruginous chert
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Description: The rocks of Facies A comprise thin units (1-10 cm thick) of millimetre-bedded
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grey and white chert and grey-white and ferruginous bedded chert. Best developed at the
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Horseshoe Creek locality, this facies is interbedded with greenish-brown shale over a few
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metres thickness at the very base of the Kungarra Formation where it lies conformably on
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black, strongly magnetic banded iron-formation (oxide facies) and magnetic green, more
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massive iron-formation (silicate facies) of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (Fig. 4). The basal
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contact of the Kungarra Formation is here defined as the base of a 2 cm thick unit of non-
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magnetic, millimetre-bedded grey and white chert (C5 on Fig. 4). This thin chert unit is
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overlain by non-magnetic, featureless mudstone that is interbedded with a series of 2-10 cm
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thick units of millimetre-bedded jaspilitic to grey chert (C6-C8 on Fig. 4, Figs 5e, 5f).
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Interpretation: This facies is interpreted to represent a deepwater chemical precipitate in a
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starved basin. The transition from shale to bedded grey and white and weakly ferruginous
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chert is interpreted to reflect alternating environmental conditions between periods of distal
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clastic sedimentation and a starved basin with chemical sedimentation under conditions of
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very low oxygen (Morris and Horwitz, 1983; Barrett and Fralick, 1989; Eriksson et al.,
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1998).
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3.1.2 Facies B: mudstone
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Description: The basal facies of the Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality is
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interbedded with, and passes up to, ~250 m of generally featureless mudstone (Fig. 6) and is
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3.1 Facies Association 1: mudstone‐siltstone‐sandstone‐chert‐ ferruginous chert
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interbedded with rocks belonging to Facies C and D. Mudstone of this facies are massive,
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brown-weathering green to pale grey rocks with very fine grain size and occasional, very
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faint primary bedding (Fig. 7a). Siltstones have a faintly recognisable clastic texture and
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comprise less than 5% of this facies.
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Interpretation: Thickness, nature of contact with associated facies, and lithological attributes
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indicate that this facies formed in an offshore depositional setting (Johnson and Baldwin,
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1996; Bose et al., 1997). Such thick mudstone-dominated successions are interpreted to imply
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mud accumulation in areas of high sediment supply in a distal region to the sediment source
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(Swift and Thorne, 1991).
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3.1.3 Facies C: Fine‐grained massive sandstone facies
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Description: This facies is characterized by fine-grained massive sandstone that is
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interbedded with mudstone (Fig. 6). Individual beds are up to 10cm thick and have sharp and
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erosive lower contacts, but gradational upper contacts (Fig. 7b). Occasionally, broad
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concave-upward dish structures with vertical pillars (Fig. 7c) are present. Pillars are few mm
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to 1cm-thick.
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Interpretation: The lower sharp and erosive and upper gradational contacts of this facies and
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its association with laterally persistent mudstone clearly indicate that these were deposited
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from turbulent suspension and hence are turbidites (Bouma, 1962; Lowe, 1982; Kneller and
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Branney, 1995; Stow and Johansson, 2000). The presence of mudstones between sandstones
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indicates quiescent time intervals between the emplacements of successive flows. Local dish
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and pillar structures indicate very rapid deposition from a turbulent suspension (Lowe, 1975;
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Lowe and Lopiccolo, 1976; Bose et al., 1997; Leeder, 1999).
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3.1.4 Facies D: Fine‐grained massive to parallel laminated sandstone facies
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Description: This facies is up to 20cm-thick and is generally inter-bedded with mudstone
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(Fig. 6). It is characterized by a lower massive unit which grades into parallel laminated unit
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(Fig. 7d). Sandy laminae of this facies are bounded by very thin double mud layers (Fig. 7e).
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Interpretation: This facies is a product of deposition from decelerating flow at upper stage
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plane bed-ripple transition (Simon et al., 1965; Southard and Boguchawal, 1990; Kneller and
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Branney, 1995; Shanmugam, 2002). Such hydrodynamic condition may arise in a variety of
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depositional environment ranging from deep to shallow marine (Shepard et al., 1969; Allen,
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1984; Stow et al., 1996; Leeder, 1999; Pattison, 2005). Absence of combined flow bed forms
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and wave ripples in this and associated facies precludes its formation in a wave agitated
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shallow marine environment. Confinement of this facies in a mudstone-dominated succession
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indicates formation in a deeper offshore setting below the storm wave base (Bose et al., 1997;
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Mazumder, 2005). Shepard et al. (1969, their fig. 19a; see also Shanmugam, 2003, his fig. 6a)
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described such facies from La Jolla Canyon (offshore California) at a depth of 1039m and
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interpreted them as turbidites. Shanmugam (2003) reinterpreted the parallel laminated unit
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originally described by Shepard et al. (1969) as tidally influenced deposit because of
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distinctive double mud drapes (Shanmugam, 2003, his fig. 6a: see also Visser, 1980; Eriksson
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and Simpson, 2000; Mazumder, 2004). Similar planar to cross-laminated sandstone with
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spectacular mud drapes have been reported by Shanmugam et al. (1994), Lien et al (2006,
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their fig. 7b) and Mazumder and Arima (2013, their fig. 3c) from deep marine sandstones.
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3.1.5 Facies E: Fine‐grained rippled sandstone
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Description: This facies is locally up to 12 cm thick and is characterized by fine-grained,
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thinly bedded sandstone with ripples. The ripple forms are asymmetric in profile and have
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amplitude and wavelength 1–1.5 cm and 5–9 cm, respectively. Individual ripple sets are
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separated by thin mudstone partings.
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Interpretation: This facies is interpreted to result from dense suspension currents charged
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with fine sand with flow slackening, based on the ripple morphologies, which indicate very
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rapid suspension fall out (Lowe, 1982; Allen, 1984; Stow et al., 1996). The association of this
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facies with thick mudstones and an absence of wave generated structures and emergence
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features indicate it was generated in an offshore setting below the storm wave base (Bose et
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al., 1997; Mazumder, 2005).
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3.2 Facies Association 2: very fine‐ to coarse‐grained sandstone‐ stromatolitic carbonate
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This facies association is comprised of eight facies and dominated by siliciclastic sedimentary
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rocks, but contains thin clastic carbonate beds and stromatolitic carbonate beds in the
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Horseshoe Creek section (Fig. 8). Rocks of this facies association occur immediately beneath
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the Meteorite Bore Member around the Hardey Syncline, between the two glaciogenic
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diamictites at the Horseshoe Creek section, and also above the second diamictite at the
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Horseshoe Creek section.
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3.2.1 Facies A: Fine‐grained well sorted rippled sandstone
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Description: This facies is characterized by sheet-like, fine-grained, well sorted sandstone
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with abundant symmetric to near-symmetric ripples (Fig. 9a) separated by thin streaks of
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mudstone. The ripple amplitude and wavelength varies between 0.5–0.8cm and 5–8cm,
289
respectively. The ripple crest lines show bifurcation (Fig. 9b). Two alternating types of
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sandstone bed include: (i) a thinner bedded variety, consisting of sandstone layers, 1-2cm
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thick, which display flat and wavy ripple lamination and alternate with; (ii) relatively thicker
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(~5cm thick), single, beds of sandstone, which have sharp, planar, and locally erosive bases,
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and wave rippled tops (Fig. 9c).
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Interpretation: Two different energy regimes can be inferred from the two alternating types
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of sandstone beds: the thicker sandstone beds with sharp planar and locally erosive lower
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contacts and wave rippled tops indicate deposition during a relatively higher energy period,
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whereas the relatively thinner sandstone beds with wavy laminations indicate deposition
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during moderate energy conditions (cf. Johnson, 1977; De Raaf et al., 1977; Cotter, 1990).
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The geometry and internal stratification style of the thicker sandstone beds are similar to
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offshore sand sheet beds (cf. Anderton, 1976; Johnson, 1977; Cotter, 1990; Johnson and
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Baldwin, 1996). Each sandstone bed represents deposition during a single storm event with
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its wave rippled top indicates wave oscillations during the waning phase of the storm
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(Johnson, 1977; De Raaf et al., 1977; Cotter, 1990; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996).
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3.2.2. Facies B: Fine‐grained massive to plane laminated sandstone
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Description: This fine-grained sandstone facies is either massive or plane laminated (Fig. 9d)
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and overlies facies A with planar and sharp contacts. Individual beds are up to 10cm thick
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and are laterally continuous, giving rise to a sheet-like geometry. The lower part of this
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sandstone facies is massive and is followed upward by plane lamination. The sandstone bed
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tops bear small, low-amplitude wave ripples, in places.
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Interpretation: The gradual upward transition from massive to plane lamination within this
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facies indicates deposition from turbulent suspension (Brenchley and Newall, 1982; Kneller
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and Branney, 1995; Bose et al., 1997). However, the presence of wave ripples at the tops of
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these beds indicates wave reworking after sand deposition from suspension, possibly from the
314
near surface generated by storms (Brenchley and Newall, 1982; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996).
315
Such sediments were probably stirred into suspension in the near shore zone and carried
316
offshore by surface currents (Kulm et al., 1975; Brenchley and Newall, 1982). Alternatively,
317
deep wave stirring of fine sandy sediments already on the shelf might have been moved
318
laterally by wind driven currents (Creager and Sternberg, 1972).u
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3.2.3. Facies C: Medium‐grained sandstone with convolute lamination
320
Description: This facies is characterized by medium grained sandstone with convolute
321
lamination and is mostly associated with Facies A (Figs. 8, 10, 11). The sandstone beds are
322
lobate and have sharp upper contacts with the bounding facies (Fig. 12a). Typically, these
323
beds consist of convolutes of thinly bedded medium-grained sandstone and mudstone with
324
truncated (eroded) tops. Each convolute is similar in size to adjacent ones within a single
325
horizon, and can be traced for 10s of metres along strike. Individual convolutes are typically
326
on the order of 10-30 cm. Measured long axes of convolute closures below the upper
327
diamictite at the Horseshoe Creek locality are given in Table 2, measured from bedding that
328
dips 090°/64°S. Untilting of the bedding via a two-step process (first step = untilting of the
329
lower Wyloo Group bedding (strike/dip 110°/30°SSW); second step = untilting of the
330
remaining component of the Turee Creek Group bedding: cf. Ramsay, 1961), indicates long
331
axes of the convolutes oriented almost due north and thus a paleo-shoreline oriented in that
332
direction. This is consistent with the orientation of measured ripple crests (n = 10; untilted
333
orientation towards 353°), which have an asymmetry indicative of flow to the east and thus a
334
shoreline orientation also north-south.
335
Interpretation: Convolute lamination is a complex form of load structure and its formation in
336
sediments indicate penecontemporaneous loading and subsequent dewatering (Dzulynisk,
337
1996; Lowe, 1975; Leeder, 1999 and references therein). Such penecontemporaneous loading
338
and consequent dewatering can be induced by storm generated microseisms (Brenchley and
339
Newall, 1977; Bose, 1983; Allen, 1984; Myrow et al., 2002) or by earthquake shocks
340
(Johnson, 1977; Seilacher, 1984; Pratt, 1994, 1997; Bose et al., 1997; Bhattacharya and
341
Bandyopadhya, 1998; Mazumder et al., 2006, 2009; Van Loon, 2009 and references therein).
342
However the lack of lateral persistency of these convolute laminated sandstones over long
343
distances, their close association with the storm generated facies (Facies A and D), and an
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absence of other earthquake generated deformation structures (seismites, syneresis cracks:
345
Seilecher, 1984; Mazumder et al., 2009; Van Loon, 2009) strongly suggest that the Kungarra
346
Formation convolutes are storm induced loading structures. As with other convolute
347
laminations of this type, the Kungarra convolutes were thus most likely formed during
348
oceanic storms when standing waves were generated as a consequence of collision of waves,
349
of equal or sub-equal period, from different directions. This gave rise to a pressure fluctuation
350
approximately double the frequency of the individual waves that propagated with a high
351
velocity as micro-seisms through the sea-bed, causing liquefaction (Johnson, 1977; Johnson
352
and Baldwin, 1996; Leeder, 1999).
353
3.2.4. Facies D: Medium‐grained hummocky cross‐stratified sandstone
354
Description: This facies is characterized by medium grained sandstone with hummocky
355
cross-stratification (Fig. 12b) and is associated with Facies A. The amplitude and wavelength
356
of the hummocks are on an average 8cm and 30cm, respectively, and the dips of the foresets
357
are 8–12o. Laminae thickness increases towards the hummock crest giving rise to the
358
characteristic hummock and swale pattern (Fig. 12b). In most cases, the hummocks are
359
completely preserved but the swales are truncated. .The top of hummock cross-stratified beds
360
do not bear any evidence of wave reworking.
361 362
Interpretation: Hummocky cross-stratification is widely reported from shallow-marine
363
successions and interpreted as product of storms (Harms et al., 1975; Dott and Bourgeois,
364
1982; Duke, 1985; Dumas et al., 2005; Dumas and Arnott, 2006; Basilici et al., 2012). This
365
hummocky cross-stratified facies indicates a setting above (but near) the storm wave base
366
where aggradation rates during storms was high enough to preserve hummocks and generated
367
low unidirectional currents to produce low-angle, cross-stratification (see Dumas and Arnott,
368
2006). High rates of sedimentation from incipient suspension and limited lateral migration of
369
individual bed forms promote preservation of convex-upward depositional surfaces
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(hummocks) (NØttvedt and Kreisa, 1987). The lack of wave reworking on top of the
371
hummocky cross-stratified beds further constrains their generation in between the storm and
372
fair-weather wave bases (cf. Bose et al., 1997; Mazumder, 2005).
373
3.2.5. Facies E: Very fine‐grained cross‐laminated muddy sandstone
374
Description: This facies is characterized by very fine-grained sandstone with spectacular,
375
rhythmic, climbing ripple cross-lamination with alternate thick and thin foreset planes, which
376
occurs near the very top of the Kungarra Formation, a few metres beneath the coastal-fluvial
377
quartz-rich sandstones of the Koolbye Formation. The ripple crests are sharp and the foreset -
378
toeset contacts are angular (Fig. 12c). The ripples are generally asymmetric, although at
379
places, they are near-symmetric in profile. The sandy foreset planes are laterally bounded by
380
thin mud drapes, giving rise to double mud drapes, and foreset laminae are sometimes
381
liquefied. Ripple crest orientations were oriented mostly N-S, indicating a SW-oriented
382
paleocurrent direction (see Section 5). Near the very top of the Kungarra Formation, ripples
383
within this facies become more irregular in orientation, with changes of up to 60° across
384
superposed bedding planes, and also change character from straight crested to bifurcating
385
(Figs 12d, e).
386
Interpretation: Climbing ripple cross lamination implies high suspension fall out on laterally
387
migrating ripples (Jopling and Walker, 1968; Allen, 1970; Ashley et al., 1982). Ashley et al
388
(1982) have experimentally generated a similar kind of climbing ripple cross-lamination with
389
planar fore set planes in presence of suspended sediments (Ashley et al., 1982, their fig. 7a).
390
The thick-thin alternation in foreset lamina thickness and presence of double mud drapes are
391
consistent with deposition in a sub tidal setting (see Visser, 1980; De Boer et al., 1989;
392
Mazumder, 2004). The near-symmetric ripples are combined flow ripples and indicate wave
393
influence. The facies is thus interpreted to represent formation in a tide-wave interactive
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subtidal (lower) to intertidal setting (cf. Johnson and Baldwin, 1996; Williams, 2000;
395
Mazumder and Arima, 2005, 2013).
396
3.2.6. Facies F: Coarse‐grained, large‐scale, cross‐stratified sandstone
397
Description: This facies is characterized by large-scale cross-stratified, well-sorted coarse-
398
grained sandstone (Fig. 13a) and occurs at two intervals in the Horseshoe Creek section, both
399
of which are near the base of successive glaciogenic diamictites (Figs 8, 10, 11). The set
400
thickness of the cross-stratified units is up to 50cm. This facies overlies very fine-grained
401
sandstone with climbing ripple lamination (Facies E) and represents the upper part of a
402
coarsening up sequence (Fig. 8). Reconstruction of measurements foresets indicates a
403
direction of flow (ENE) at almost 90° to that defined by ripples in the finer-grained
404
sandstones of this facies association (paleoflow direction NW: see Section 5).
405
Interpretation: Coarser grain-size, large-scale cross stratification (dune) suggests that this
406
facies represents longshore bar (De Raaf et al., 1977; Reineck and Singh, 1980; Bose et al.,
407
1988; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996). The coarsening upward nature of the succession (Fig. 9)
408
indicates a fall in sea level during which the bars formed. The association of facies E and F is
409
indicative of a near coastal regressive marginal marine setting (Eriksson, 1979; Johnson and
410
Baldwin, 1996; Eriksson et al., 1998; Pant and Shukla, 1999).
411
3.2.7. Facies G: Massive to laminated/cross‐laminated carbonate
412
Description: Thin (1-10 cm) beds of carbonate with locally preserved ripples and laminar
413
bedding occur interbedded with rippled very fine-grained sandstone and siltstone of Facies E
414
below the Meteorite Bore Member on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline (Fig. 13b).
415
Ripples are often preserved in local domains, rather than in discrete beds, and locally well
416
develop lamination passes along strike into massive, featureless carbonate. At one locality, a
417
30 cm thick layer of poorly stratified carbonate was observed to have an erosional lower
418
contact with rippled fine-grained siliciclastic sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 13c), and
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contains crude desiccation cracks (Fig. 13d), suggestive of deposition under very shallow
420
water, to possibly even periodically exposed conditions. A separate horizon contains low-
421
amplitude (5 cm height, 20 cm half-wavelength) domical stromatolites (Fig. 13e).
422
Interpretation: These unusual carbonate horizons are interpreted as calcarenites, and at least
423
two beds were deposited in shallow, and perhaps even exposed, conditions (one with
424
desiccation cracks and downcutting lower contact, and one with stromatolites). This is
425
certainly diagnostic of very shallow deposition and probable diagenetic recrystallization of
426
carbonate sands that has obliterated sedimentary textures, possibly as beach-rock deposition.
427
3.2.8 Facies H: Stromatolitic carbonate
428
Description: Three thin units of stromatolitic carbonate (calcite) have been identified in the
429
middle part of the Kungarra Formation, below the Meteorite Bore Member, in both the
430
Horseshoe Creek section on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline and on the southern
431
limb of the Hardey Syncline at Meteorite Bore (Figs. 8, 10). These horizons contain broad
432
(10-40 cm wide by 20 cm high) domical stromatolites that consist of crinkly microbial
433
laminations interbedded with bedded siliciclastics, and carbonate-bearing flanks (Fig. 13f).
434
Larger domes are constructed from aggregates of smaller domical structures that display
435
well-defined growth walls and upwardly increasing diameter (Fig. 13g). Stromatolite crests
436
may be highly elongate, indicative of growth in flowing water (Fig. 13h).
437
The lower stromatolite member consists of elongated, single columns with long column
438
crests, stretching parallel to each other in a rather straight pattern for several decimeters to
439
more than two meters. These columns make up lenticular – domal bioherms of several metres
440
to tens of metres of lateral extend and thickness. The lower parts of the bioherms are,
441
however, laterally linked and build elongated domes which start to isolate from each other
442
from a height of c. 20 cm, constructing intercolumnar traps for carbonate mud rocks and
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stromatolitic debris. In the uppemost parts of the columns, they build rare branches that are
444
wide and flat.
445
Interpretation: Stromatolites generally thrive in the photic zone, in areas of low to moderate
446
current energy (Walter, 1976). These stromatolites clearly grew in a system with relatively
447
high siliciclastic sediment supply, but were able to thrive and precipitate carbonate along
448
flank areas during (?seasonal?) periods of low sediment supply and/or increased carbonate
449
ion concentration in seawater. The presence of stromatolites in cross-laminated siliciclastic
450
sediment indicates a shallow water depositional environment (Walter, 1976; Hofmann et al.,
451
1980; see Sakurai et al., 2005, their fig. 10c).
452
The base of this succession can be interpreted as a shallow intertidal to subtidal setting,
453
passing upward to a subtidal setting influenced by high energy uni- or bidirectional currents
454
in the middle of the stromatolitic section. Subsequently, lower energy conditions in a shallow
455
subtidal setting witnessed development of stromatolites with branching columns. The
456
elongated columns in the middle of this stromatolite section are arranged parallel to tidal
457
currents and reflect changing sediment supply and current velocity from high energy to
458
successively lower energy but with a higher burial rate by fine sediment influx (e.g.,
459
Altermann, 2007). Thus, an overall deepening up scenario is inferred, which is supported by
460
the occurrence of overlying lithic arenite sheets, which can be interpreted as long-shore bars,
461
and then by lithic arenites with convoluted bedding in which convolutes have long axes
462
pointing in varying directions, which can be interpreted as storm deposits of below fair
463
weather wave base.
464
3.3 Facies association 3: Glaciogenic diamictite‐sandstone
465
Diamictite of demonstrably glaciogenic origin is preserved around the Hardey Syncline (Fig.
466
3: Trendall, 1979; Martin, 1999; Martin et al., 2000). The lower of two glaciogenic
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diamictites, the Meteorite Bore Member, varies in thickness from southeast (thicker) to
468
northwest (thinner); at the type section at Meteorite Bore on the southern limb of the Hardey
469
Syncline, massive, coarse diamictite and interbedded sandstone-siltstone of the Meteorite
470
Bore Member is ~420 m thick (Fig. 14), whereas on the north limb of the syncline, only 15
471
km away, coarse diamictite and sandstone of the Meteorite Bore Member is only 300 m thick
472
(Fig. 8).
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At Horseshoe Creek, a second unit of glaciogenic diamictite occurs near the top of the
us
473
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Kungarra Formation, stratigraphically above the Meteorite Bore Member (Fig. 8: Van
475
Kranendonk and Mazumder, in review).
476
Description: This facies consists predominantly of thick beds (to 30 m) of massive matrix-
477
supported diamictite with no, or very poor internal structure, and sparsely interbedded thin
478
(<1 m) units of fine to medium sandstone to fine, pebbly siltstone with subangular to
479
subrounded clasts (gritstone: Fig. 15a). Diamictite of the meteorite Bore Member on the
480
northern limb of the Hardey Syncline locally contains a single bed, 3 m thick, of medium to
481
coarse, well sorted, quartz-rich sandstone. This unit pinches out completely along strike over
482
a distance of <100m and is broadly trough shaped. Small, highly irregular lenses of medium-
483
grained, quartz-rich sandstone are scattered irregularly and sparsely throughout the
484
diamictite, but reach a maximum size of only 1 m long by 30-40 cm thick.
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The coarse diamictite contains randomly scattered, outsize clasts (dropstones) that are
486
well rounded to subangular and range in size from 1–80 cm (Fig. 15b). The outsize clasts lie
487
within a matrix of silt to medium sandstone, comprising lithic wacke that consists of quartz-
488
sericite-chlorite with scattered, generally angular to sub-rounded quartz and feldspar grains
489
(Fig. 15c). The outsize clasts are demonstrably of glacial origin due to the presence of
490
facetted and striated faces (Fig. 15d), presence of tabular clasts oriented vertically with
Page 20 of 91
respect to bedding and that penetrate down into underlying siltstone-sandstone (Fig. 15e), and
492
by a lack of graded bedding or clast imbrication in any of the diamictite (see also Martin,
493
1999). Dropstones predominantly consist of feldspar and/or quartz porphyritic rhyolite, with
494
lesser amounts of bedded to massive carbonate, sandstone, finely layered chert and
495
ferruginous chert, granite, and leucogabbro. Notable in the Meteorite Bore section is the fact
496
that the dominant clast population varies upsection, from rhyolite across the lower half, to
497
carbonate in the third quarter (Fig. 15f), and sandstone in the top quarter of the section.
498
Whereas rhyolite clasts occur throughout the entire section, carbonate and sandstone clasts
499
are restricted to the upper parts of the section. The largest clast, an 80 cm angular block of
500
rhyolite, occurs near the top of the diamictite. This type of diamictite is not present at either
501
the Boundary Ridge or Deepdale sections.
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A ~43 m thick, second unit of coarse diamictite near the top of the Kungarra Formation in the Horseshoe Creek section (Fig. 8), contains many of the same features as the
504
underlying Meteorite Bore Member, including randomly scattered, outsize clasts that are
505
subrounded to well rounded and range in size from 1–40 cm (Figs 16a). The outsize clasts lie
506
within a matrix of silt to medium sandstone with well-rounded to subangular grains. The
507
outsize clasts are not distributed in graded bedding nor are they imbricated. Dropstones
508
predominantly consist of bedded to massive carbonate and calc-silicate (Fig. 16b), sandstone,
509
finely layered chert and ferruginous chert, and feldspar and/or quartz porphyritic rhyolite.
510
Boulder-size clasts are commonly facetted, with well-developed glacial striae, including
511
multiple directions of striae on some boulders (Figs 16c, 16d).
512
Interpretation: Diamictites can originate through a number of different processes, including
513
mass waste flow, deposition from melting icesheets, and tectonic disruption (Eyles, 2008).
514
However, the presence of striated faces on facetted boulders, the scattered nature of outsize
515
clasts throughout up to 600 m of diamictite, and the clearly penetrating nature of some
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boulders into lower strata clearly supports previous interpretations of the units as glaciogenic
517
in origin (Trendall, 1979; Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Van Kranendonk and
518
Mazumder, in press). Martin (1999) interpreted the coarse diamictite facies of the Meteorite
519
Bore Member as having been deposited in a glaciomarine setting, through melting of an
520
icesheet over a marine basin. We concur with this interpretation, but suggest that the unit was
521
deposited under relatively shallow water conditions, based on observations from underlying
522
and overlying lithology (facies association 2) and presence of the lens of well sorted quartz-
523
rich sandstone, which suggests a channelized input from a nearshore source.
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The change upsection in clast composition at the Meteorite Bore section is similar to
an
524
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516
that observe in more recent glacial deposits, where shallow water units deposited during a
526
falling stage systems tract associated with onset of glaciations (ice-related drawdown of
527
sealevel) are eroded and cannibalised by glaciation and incorporated into diamictite during
528
glacial melting (Plint and Nummendal, 2000). The occurrence of the largest dropstones near
529
the top of the MBM suggests that this represents the peak in glacial melting and furthest
530
outflow of the icesheets.
532 533
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4. Sedimentary Facies Analysis at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities A new discovery at the Deepdale locality is significant in terms of interpreted
534
lithostratigraphy. Previously, Martin (1999) interpreted the glaciogenic diamictites there to be
535
overlain by a unit, several metres thick, of banded iron-formation. This observation was used
536
by him to suggest that the glacial diamictites were deposited as part of the Boolgeeda Iron
537
Formation of the Hamersley Group, in a deepwater part of the basin, even though he
538
considered they were the temporal equivalents of the Meteorite Bore Member further to the
539
east. Swanner et al. (2013) agreed, but used this, in combination with sulphur isotope data, to
Page 22 of 91
540
suggest that the Deepdale glaciogenic diamictites were a temporally distinct, older, unit
541
relative to the Meteorite Bore Member.
542
Our mapping of this area has cast a different light on this relationship (Fig. 17). Rather than forming part of a conformable sequence, careful mapping has revealed that the
544
banded iron-formation above the glacial diamictites belong to an unconformably overlying,
545
younger succession dominated by mudstones that, although unconstrained in terms of either
546
age or stratigraphic affinity (the area is mapped at only 1:250,000 regional scale, based on
547
geology undertaken in 1963-64: Williams et al., 1972), most likely represents the basal part
548
of the c. 1800 Ma Ashburton Formation in the upper Wyloo Group, based on descriptions in
549
Seymour et al. (1998) and Johnson (2013).
550
4.1 Facies Association 4: Glaciogenic diamictite (deepwater facies)
551
Glaciogenic diamictites are only three metres thick and occur at the very base of the
552
Kungarra Formation at the Boundary Ridge section (Fig. 1), where they lie conformably on
553
banded iron-formation and jaspilitic to grey layered chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation of
554
the Hamersley Group (Figs 18, 19a: Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Williford et al.,
555
2011). At this locality, the base of the Turee Creek Group (base of Kungarra Formation) is
556
defined as the first appearance of mudstones with scattered outsize clasts. Underlying rocks
557
of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (Hamersley Group) consist dominantly of millimetre-
558
bedded, magnetic banded iron-formation, which transitions into the Turee Creek Group
559
across a conformably overlying, 10 cm thick, unit of millimetre-bedded chert that shows clear
560
compositional grading upsection from jaspilitic chert interbedded with thin seams of
561
magnetic iron-formation, to jaspilitic chert, then to jaspilitic chert with thin beds of grey chert
562
and, finally, grey chert (Fig. 19b).
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563
Glaciogenic sedimentary rocks at the Boundary Ridge locality include four distinct lithofacies, including, mudstone with scattered outsize clasts, lithic sandstone with scattered
565
outsize clasts, conglomerate with predominantly carbonate clasts, and thinly bedded
566
calcisiltite.
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564
At Deepdale, glaciogenic diamictites and associated rocks are ~3 m thick and, as at
568
the Boundary Ridge locality, lie conformably on banded iron-formations of the Hamersley
569
Group (Fig. 20). The base of the Turee Creek Group (Kungarra Formation) is defined at this
570
locality as the first mudstone with scattered outsize clasts lying directly on banded iron-
571
formation of the Hamersley Group.
572
4.1.1 Facies A: Mudstone with outsize clasts
573
Description: Mudstone with scattered outsize clasts to 30 cm occurs at several intervals
574
throughout the Boundary Ridge section, including the basal unit of the section, as a unit
575
interbedded with medium-grained lithic sandstone containing scattered outsize clasts, and at
576
the top of the glaciogenic succession (Fig. 18). The mudstone of this unit is very thinly
577
bedded and dark green in colour (Fig. 21a), and was observed in the field to contain locally
578
abundant fine-grained pyrite that detailed analysis has shown is dominantly detrital in origin
579
and derived from Neoarchean source rocks, although some pyrite grains are demonstrably the
580
result of biogenic sulfate reduction on the basis of highly fractionated δ34S values (Williford
581
et al., 2011). Scattered throughout the mudstone of this facies are well-rounded outsize clasts,
582
generally 5-10 cm in diameter, but reaching a maximum of 30 cm in the uppermost unit (Fig.
583
21b). At least some of the outsize clasts have a clearly penetrating relationship down into
584
underlying mudstone, indicative of an origin from floating ice sheets (Fig. 21a).
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Page 24 of 91
Diamictite with very coarse, well rounded to subangular boulder-size clasts of
586
porphyritic rhyolite (to 40 cm) in a mudstone-siltstone matrix forms the uppermost part of the
587
glaciogenic section at Deepdale (Martin, 1999).
588
Interpretation: The overall similarity of this diamictite to the Boundary Ridge section
589
strongly supports a glaciogenic origin, but whether deposited directly from a floating ice
590
sheet, or by turbidity currents of reworked glaciogenic rocks from shallower water
591
environments has not been investigated in detail. However, the penetrative nature of clasts
592
within diamictites with a mudstone matrix at Boundary Ridge unequivocally indicate at least
593
local deposition directly from melting of a floating ice sheet (cf. Martin, 1999).
594
4.1.2 Facies B: Quartz‐rich sandstone with outsize clasts
595
Description: The Boundary Ridge glaciogenic section contains three beds of medium-grained
596
quartz-rich sandstone with scattered, subangular to well-rounded outsize clasts to 15 cm
597
(Figs. 18, 21c, d). Whereas the sandstones have the appearance of being generally massive in
598
outcrop, they are in fact thinly bedded at a 1-3 millimetre scale. Angular to subrounded clasts
599
consist primarily of quartz, but kerogenous clasts, oolitic limestone, and detrital pyrite grains
600
were also observed (Figs 21e, f). These clasts lie within in a siltstone matrix, and contain
601
irregular patches of fine silt that may derive from melted ice pellets (Fig. 15c).
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Outsize clasts are most commonly quartz and feldspar porphyritic rhyolite, but
603
carbonate clasts were also observed. The uppermost sandstone bed at the Boundary Ridge
604
section contains a large-scale slump structure, indicative of deposition from turbidity currents
605
(Fig. 22a).
606
Interpretation: The relatively coarse-grained nature of the sandstone units compared with
607
surrounding mudstone units, the thin bedding within the sandstones, and the presence of
608
slump folds suggest that these sandstone units represent deepwater turbidites derived from a
Page 25 of 91
glaciogenic source (diamictite with dropstones) during periods of relative sealevel lowstand
610
compared to the surrounding mudstone units.
611
4.1.3 Facies C: Conglomerate with carbonate clasts
612
Description: A thin unit of conglomerate with dominantly carbonate clasts lies at the base of
613
sandstone bed 3 at the Boundary Ridge section (Figs. 18, 22b). Clasts are up to 15
614
centimetres in diameter and vary from moderately well rounded to subrounded. Some clasts
615
display a clear penetrative fabric into underlying mudstone, indicative of deposition as
616
dropstones (Fig. 22c).
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Carbonate conglomerate is also present at Deepdale, where it is 15 cm thick, pale brown weathering, and consists of predominantly carbonate pebbles to granules in a matrix of
619
mixed fine-grained carbonate and siliciclastic material (Fig. 22d). Crude bedding at a
620
centimetre scale was observed in outcrop.
621
Interpretation: As with the interbedded mudstones (Facies A at Boundary Ridge), the
622
penetrative fabrics of some carbonate clasts into the mudstone matrix of this facies clearly
623
indicate deposition under the influence of a floating icesheet, in deepwater conditions. That
624
the clasts are predominantly of carbonate rocks, rather than the more common rhyolite clasts
625
of the other facies here and in the Hardey Syncline area, indicates preferential glacial erosion
626
of a carbonate unit, perhaps due to the erosion and cannibalisation of shallow water units
627
deposited during a falling stage systems tract associated with onset of glaciations (ice-related
628
drawdown of sealevel) (Plint and Nummedal, 2000).
629
Ac ce p
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618
At Deepdale, no evidence of direct deposition by glaciers was observed in this unit
630
and thus there is the possibility that the carbonate conglomerate here represents a distal mass
631
flow deposit rather than a direct glaciogenic deposit. Nevertheless, the composition of this
632
unit indicates that it was derived from a distinct source to that in overlying units.
Page 26 of 91
4.1.4 Facies D: Calcilutite
634
A 1 cm thick unit of calcilutite was observed between the underlying carbonate conglomerate
635
and the overlying sandstone bed 3. Composed exclusively of pale cream, fine-grained
636
carbonate, very fine-scale bedding (<1 mm) was observed in outcrop (Fig. 22e). In thin
637
section, this unit was observed to consist of fine dolomite rhombs in a silty matrix (Fig. 22f).
638
A few scattered, very well rounded clasts occur within the calcilutite at the Boundary Ridge
639
locality, these do not show unequivocal evidence of a glaciogenic origin.
us
cr
ip t
633
At Deepdale, a 1 cm thick unit of calcilutite lies directly on the carbonate
641
conglomerate of Facies C (Fig. 22d). It is a featureless unit in outcrop, but that may only
642
reflect its very fine grain size.
643
Interpretation: The very fine-scale bedding preserved within the calcilutite suggests that this
644
unit is a deepwater turbidite deposit derived from erosion of an exposed carbonate platform.
645
The fact that this unit directly overlies diamictite with exclusively carbonate clasts provides
646
supporting evidence of a distal carbonate platform being actively eroded during periods of
647
glacial advance (diamictite) and retreat (calcilutite).
648
4.1.5 Facies E: Polymict cobble conglomerate and sandstone
649
Description: Polymict cobble to pebble conglomerate with well-rounded to subangular clasts
650
and a sandstone matrix occurs in the middle part of the glaciogenic section at Deepdale (Fig.
651
20). Clasts predominantly consist of white, feldspar- and quartz-porphyritic rhyolite, but also
652
include aphanitic grey rocks and carbonate (Fig. 23a). A 15 cm thick unit of medium-grained
653
lithic sandstone with rhythmic bedding occurs within the conglomerate (Fig. 23b). Well
654
defined planar beds are 2-10 millimetres thick, defined by slight changes in grain size, from
655
medium sand to fine silt.
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640
Page 27 of 91
Interpretation: The well bedded nature of the sandstone unit within this facies, combined
657
with the polymict composition of the conglomerate clasts and their generally well rounded
658
nature, suggests this facies was deposited through sediment gravity flow, with the
659
conglomerate representing a mass flow deposit and the sandstone component representing
660
lower energy deposition of turbidites.
661
4.1.6 Facies F: Quartz‐rich sandstone
662
Description: A 10 cm thick unit of white, medium-grained quartz-rich sandstone overlies the
663
polymict pebble conglomerate at Deepdale. No distinctive sedimentary features were
664
observed in this unit.
665
Interpretation: The compositional maturity of these rocks indicates reworking by currents
666
and/or wave in shallow marine condition during sea level fall (Boggs, 2009).
667 668
4.2 Facies Association 5: Mudstone, Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone, jaspilitic chert, calcarenite
669
Description: At the Boundary Ridge locality, mudstone that is interbedded with thin units of
670
ferruginous chert, an Mn-rich ferruginous unit, and beds of calcarenite conformably overlie
671
glaciogenic sedimentary rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member.
cr
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d
te
Ac ce p
672
ip t
656
Mudstone of this facies is very thinly bedded and contains large elliptical concretions,
673
up to 40 cm long by 20 cm wide in silicified mudstone units 10-20 cm thick located close
674
above the glacial diamictites (Fig. 24a-c).
675
A black-weathering, millimetre-bedded unit, 40-40 cm thick, and consisting of
676
alternating black and pale yellow layers (Fig. 24d), contains up to 8.4 wt % Mn, 38.68 wt %
677
Fe2O3(total) and 8.1 wt %2-4 wt % Al2O3.
Page 28 of 91
678
Thin units (5 cm thick) of millimetre-bedded ferruginous (hematitic) chert overlie the
679
laminated Mn-rich unit at the Boundary Ridge locality, but are markedly less Fe-rich than
680
corresponding units of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation and non-magnetic. Three units of well bedded and locally cross-laminated calcarenite are preserved in
682
the Boundary Ridge section, ~100 m stratigraphically above the glacial diamictites. These
683
units are only up to 30 cm thick and occur together over an interval of only 5-10 m at this
684
locality. Bedding is at a millimetre-scale, but cross-lamination sets can be up to 4 cm thick
685
(Fig. 24e).
686
Interpretation: This facies association clearly represents the deep water deposition of fine-
687
grained siliciclastic material and chemical sdiments, below storm wave base. The black and
688
yellow layered unit represents a Mn-rich, ferruginous mudstone and would appear to mark
689
the next (post-Fe) stage associated with the rise of atmospheric oxygen.
d
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681
The local occurrence of cross-bedded calcarenites higher up in this facies suggests
691
periods of far-distant transport of reworked carbonate material originally precipitated in a
692
shallower depositional environment into the deeper water part of the basin.
693
5. Paleocurrent data
694
Paleocurrent data was collected from outcrops at several levels in the stratigraphy, from
695
cross-bed sets and from asymmetric ripple crests. The data is presented in Table 3 and was
696
rotated to the paleohorizontal using a two-step untilting process involving first, untilting of
697
the bedding dip of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (110°/30° SW) and then
698
the remaining dip component of the Kungarra Formation. The reconstructed data show that
699
paleocurrents switched between two dominant directions; to the northwest in deeper water
700
facies, and to the northeast-southwest in shallower water facies (Fig. 25). The best controls
701
on these two different paleocurrent directions are from the coarse-grained, cross-stratified
Ac ce p
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690
Page 29 of 91
702
sand sheet at the base of the first diamictite, interpreted as a longshore bar (Facies
703
Association 2F), and from the section between the two diamictites, interpreted as deeper
704
water facies. The data is interpreted to show that there was shoreline oriented ENE-WSW and that
ip t
705
sediment was transported into the deeper part of the basin to the NW, which is consistent
707
with the lithostratigraphic thinning of the Meteorite Bore Member between the south and
708
northern limbs of the Hardey Syncline area, and between these areas and the Boundary Ridge
709
and Deepdale areas.
710
6. Carbon and Oxygen isotope data
711
6.1 Samples
712
Six samples of carbonate rocks were sampled for C and O isotopic analyses (Table 4).
713
Samples include two separate analyses of the thinly bedded calcilutite from within the glacial
714
section, and four samples of bedded calcarenites from just above the glacial section at the
715
Boundary Ridge locality. These are compared with data previously obtained from thin units
716
of bedded carbonate rocks from below the glacial diamictites in the lower part of the
717
Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality, from carbonate diamictite at Deepdale,
718
and from stromatolitic dolomites in the overlying Kazput Formation of the uppermost Turee
719
Creek Group (Table 4: Lindsay and Brasier, 2002). It is important to note here that the
720
samples from the lower Kungarra Formation analysed by Lindsay and Brasier (2002) were
721
wrongly ascribed by these authors to the stratigraphically higher Kazput Formation, but
722
mapping of the area clearly shows they are from the lower part of the Kungarra Formation,
723
below the Meteorite Bore Member (Fig. 3).
Ac ce p
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706
Page 30 of 91
6.2 Method
725
The powdered bulk samples were reacted with 100% anhydrous phosphoric acid (H3PO4) for
726
800 seconds at 90°C of equilibrium temperature in a vacuum. The released CO2 was purified
727
and analyzed for carbon and oxygen isotope compositions using an isotope ratio mass
728
spectrometer (IsoPrime, GV Instruments, UK) installed at CMCR, Kochi University.
The analytical precision was better than 0.05‰ for the carbon isotope ratio and
cr
729
ip t
724
0.06‰ for the oxygen isotope ratio of standard reference material NBS-19 (carbonate
731
standard distributed by IAEA) (Table 4). The results are expressed using standard delta
732
notation with reference to the Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) standard.
733
6.3 Results
734
Carbon and oxygen isotope data from this study are presented in Table 4 and compared to the
735
whole of the Turee Creek Group in Table 5 and in Figure 26. A clear secular change with
736
stratigraphic height is apparent, varying from negative δ13C values below the glacial
737
diamictites, to mildly negative values in rocks from within and just above the glacial section,
738
to slightly positive values in rocks from well above the glacial section (Kazput Formation).
739
Similarly, δ18O values vary from slightly negative below and within the glacial section, to
740
more highly negative values in rocks from above the glacial diamictites (Fig. 26).
741
7. Discussion
742
7.1 Stratigraphic trends
743
Facies analysis shows that the Kungarra Formation represents a generally shallowing-
744
upward, predominantly siliciclastic, succession, within which are a number of reversals in
745
relative base level. Commencing with deep water facies, the Kungarra Formation culminates
746
in a subtidal - intertidal flat succession immediately beneath the well sorted quartz-rich
Ac ce p
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730
Page 31 of 91
coastal-fluvial succession of the conformably overlying Koolbye Formation (Mazumder et
748
al., in press).
749
Facies association 1 of the Kungarra Formation formed in a relatively deep-water, offshore
750
setting below the storm wave base, partly in a starved basin, as indicated by the presence of
751
ferruginous cherts at the base of the formation (cf. Stow et al., 1996; Bose et al., 1997;
752
Shanmugam, 2003; Mazumder and Arima, 2013). The lower Kungarra Formation units lack
753
characteristic features of turbidites and thus we agree with previous interpretations that these
754
rocks were deposited at the distal end of a delta (e.g., Krapez, 1996; Martin et al., 2000).
755
The basal contact of the Kungarra Formation at Horseshoe Creek, and to a lesser extent at the
756
Boundary Ridge section, shows a transition from Hamersley Group banded iron-formation to
757
Turee Creek Group shales across a unit(s) of progressively more iron-lean ‘shale’ and chert
758
(Figs 4, 19). The progressively less iron-rich composition of siliceous chemical sedimentary
759
rocks upsection suggests a progressive decrease in the amount of dissolved iron in the
760
seawater, which is consistent with the observed sulphur-isotopic evidence for a rise of oxygen
761
across this interval and resultant scrubbing of the world’s oceans of dissolved iron (Williford
762
et al., 2011), following which Mn-rich units were deposited with, presumably, progressively
763
increasing levels of atmospheric oxygen.
764
The lower Kungarra succession contrasts with the abundant evidence - from combined flow
765
ripples and wave ripples, and from the presence of stromatolitic carbonates and even possible
766
beachrock - for the depositional environment of facies association 2 in the middle to upper
767
Kungarra Formation at the Hardey Syncline under a wave-agitated, shallow marine setting,
768
between the storm weather wave base and periodically exposed conditions (De Raaf et al.,
769
1977; Brenchley and Newall, 1977; Johnson, 1977; Bose, 1983; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996;
770
Myrow and Southard, 1996; Bose et al., 1997; Dumas and Arnott, 2006; Basilici et al., 2012).
Ac ce p
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747
Page 32 of 91
This part of the succession is consistent with a shallowing-upwards trend, during the
772
progradation of a marine delta system.
773
The upper part of the Kungarra Formation at Horseshoe Creek shows evidence for shorter
774
periods of relative sea level rise and fall associated with two well-defined glacio-eustatic
775
cycles (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press). The first cycle commences with the onset
776
of a basin deepening event at the erosional base of the carbonate beach rock with desiccation
777
cracks. Periods of rapid sea level fall are represented by the sudden appearance (sharp lower
778
contacts) of the sand sheets that immediately underlie each of the two diamictites (S1 at 250
779
m and S2 at 800 m in Fig. 8). The presence of large scale cross-bedding with shore parallel
780
paleocurrent in these coarse, highly mature (quartz-rich) sand sheets indicate these are long
781
shore bars (Johnson and Baldwin, 1996; Pant and Shukla, 1999; Sarkar et al., 2005). The
782
sharp lower contacts of these two sand sheets suggest the rapid onset of falling stage systems
783
tracts (Plint and Nummedal, 2000), a feature supported by the appearance of carbonate clasts
784
within the upper part of the MBM (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press).
785
Periods of relative sea level rise (transgressive systems tracts) during and following on from
786
diamictite deposition are indicated by: a) wave-rippled sandstones above the nearshore sand
787
sheets; b) intervals of mudstone above each of the diamictites (at 750–800 m and 1260 m in
788
Fig. 8); and c) the thicknesses of the glacial diamictites, which are thicker (50–400 m) than
789
the 15–30 m depth of seawater indicated by wave-generated ripples in units immediately
790
underlying each of the diamictites. Such transgressive systems tracts are common at the end
791
of major glaciations as water volume is transferred from continental ice sheets to the oceans
792
(Ghienne, 2003). Similar evidence for post-glacial transgression is preserved at both the
793
Deepdale and Boundary Ridge localities, where the re-appearance of ferruginous mudstones
794
and cherts above glacial diamictites indicates a temporary return to starved, deep basinal
795
conditions. Significantly, the appearance of Mn-rich ferruginous mudstones above the
Ac ce p
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771
Page 33 of 91
796
Boundary Ridge glaciogenic succession suggests that oxygen levels had risem at least
797
temporally, to significant levels by this time. Glacial conditions are additionally characterised in the Kungarra Formation by light
798
δ18O values (-2 to -6‰) in glaciogenic and immediately sub-glaciogenic rocks, which
800
contrast sharply with heavier values for rocks deposited under non-glacial conditions (-10 to -
801
14‰). Such distinctive oxygen isotope signatures have been noted in other Paleoproterozoic
802
and younger glacial successions (e.g., Schrag et al., 1996; Halverson et al., 2002) and show
803
the potential of this method to reveal additional paleoclimatic information in well preserved
804
Precambrian rocks.
an
us
cr
ip t
799
Units formerly described as banded iron-formation overlying glacial diamictites at
805
Deepdale and Boundary Ridge are discounted: whereas at the latter they are part of an
807
unconfomrably overlying succession, at the former they either consist of Mn-rich ferruginous
808
mudstones or jaspilitic cherts, but are, in either case, sufficiently distinct from the underlying
809
Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group to allay any concerns that the diamictites
810
in these localities are either part of that older formation, or a different age to that from the
811
type Meteorite Bore locality in the Hardey Syncline (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in
812
press).
813
7.2 Basin Architecture and tectonic setting
814
Following a model first proposed by Horwitz (1982, 1987) and Powell and Horwitz (1994),
815
and re-iterated by Krapez (1996), Martin (1999) and Martin et al. (2000), the Turee Creek
816
Group was interpreted to have been deposited in a developing foreland basin – the McGrath
817
Trough – during the Capricorn orogeny. Martin et al. (2000) suggested that paleocurrent
818
indicators of easterly-directed flow in the lower Kungarra Formation were along the axis of a
819
basin deepening to the north.
Ac ce p
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806
Page 34 of 91
However, there are three problems with this model. First is that paleocurrent data and
821
evidence from lithostratigraphic variations across the outcrop area of the Turee Creek Group
822
indicate that the paleo-shoreline was oriented NE-SW and that the basin deepened to the
823
northwest. Deposition of the diamictites at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities under
824
deep water conditions is indicated by: the predominance of fine-grained lithologies
825
(mudstone matrix to the diamictites and calcilutites); the fact that coarser-grained lithologies
826
(sandstone matrix to diamictites) are turbidites and thus far-travelled rocks; and the return to
827
starved, deepwater basinal conditions (i.e., re-appearance of ferruginous banded cherts)
828
following the deposition of glaciogenic rocks. This contrasts with abundant evidence for
829
shallow water deposition immediately above and below the Meteorite Bore Member in the
830
Hardey Syncline, above the storm wave base. The deepening of the basin to the northwest is
831
further supported by the presence of the 1600m thick succession of fine-grained clastic
832
sedimentary rocks between the top of the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation and the
833
Metorite Bore Member in the Hardey Syncline area, versus the fact that glaciogenic rocks lie
834
directly on the top of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at both the Boundary Ridge and
835
Deepdale localities. This indicates that the latter areas represent extremely compressed
836
sections missing a thick basal sequence relative to the Hardey Syncline area to the east. Given
837
that the glacial diamictites in the Kungarra Formation represent a temporal marker horizon,
838
these observations clearly indicate deeper water deposition in the west and moderate to
839
shallow water deposition in the east. Given these observations, we therefore interpret the
840
deposition of the Kungarra Formation as consisting of a northwesterly-prograding
841
sedimentary wedge, sourcing material from the (south)east and progressively filling up the
842
Turee Creek Basin from (south)east to (north)west (Fig. 27).
843 844
Ac ce p
te
d
M
an
us
cr
ip t
820
The second major problem with the foreland basin model for the Turee Creek Group proposed by previous authors is that there is no evidence of typical foredeep features; there
Page 35 of 91
are no seismites, no internal unconformities, and no evidence of thrusting. The numerous
846
beds with convolute laminations in the Kungarra Formation are interpreted to have formed
847
due to storm action, an interpretation supported by the presence of hummocky cross-
848
stratification within the section. Furthermore, there is no evidence of a mountain belt in the
849
southeast at this time and the detrital zircon record from the Meteorite Bore Member (see
850
Takehara et al., 2010) is inconsistent with the patterns documented from actual foredeeps,
851
specifically a predominance of juvenile zircons from accreted and uplifted arc rocks (e.g.,
852
Martin et al., 2008): rather the detrital zircon record from the Meteorite Bore Member – as
853
indeed from unconformably overlying rocks of the lower Wyloo Group – records primarily
854
the recycling of basement rocks (see also Nelson, 2004).
cr
us
an
Thirdly, the existing foreland basin (McGrath Trough) model, which was originally
M
855
ip t
845
developed in the absence of any geochronological constraints, is weakened by the fact that
857
the proposed trough (foreland basin) is now known to consist of three unconformably-bound
858
rock packages (Turee Creek Group, lower Wyloo Group, upper Wyloo Group) deposited over
859
an immensely long time span (e.g., 2450-1800 Ma = 650 Ma), deformed by at least two
860
distinct orogenies, and including a volcanic-dominated rift assemblage (Beasley River
861
Quartzite and Cheela Springs Basalt of the lower Wyloo Group: Van Kranendonk, 2010;
862
Mazumder and Van Kranendonk, 2013).
te
Ac ce p
863
d
856
An alternative model for the Turee Creek Group, preferred here, is a failed rift/passive
864
margin succession, and/or an intracontinental basin, with sediment derived from erosion of an
865
uplifted (non-orogenic) hinterland. Whereas a northwesterly deepening basin architecture for
866
the Turee Creek Group is problematic for a shelf-to-slope passive continental margin
867
depositional model, on account of the fact that the basin should be deepening to the
868
southwest, we consider that the Kungarra Formation was most likely deposited within an
869
intracratonic basin during uplift of a hinterland to the southeast that may have been
Page 36 of 91
accompanied by a component of extension during an episode of failed rifting. Filling in of the
871
Turee Creek Basin may have been triggered by the exhumation that accompanied the
872
cratonization of all continental lithosphere at the end of the Archean (e.g. Taylor and
873
McLennan, 1985; Flament et al., 2008), and/or by uplift of basement domains within the
874
cores of developing domes. Further work is required to constrain the depositional model, in
875
particular a thorough study of the remainder of the Turre Creek Group and its transition to the
876
lower Wyloo Group.
877
8. Conclusions
878
879
Detailed stratigraphic facies analysis of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee
880
Creek Group, Western Australia, shows that it consists of a generally shallowing-upward
881
marine and glacio-marine succession, deposited conformably on underlying rocks of the
882
Hamersley Basin as a prograding sediment wedge from (south)east to (north) west.
cr us an
M
d
The basal Kungarra Formation preserves a gradual transition from banded iron-
te
883
ip t
870
formation to grey chert, interpreted to reflect a gradual loss of iron from the world’s oceans
885
accompanying the rise of atmospheric oxygen. The re-appearance of thin units of banded
886
iron-formations above glacial deposits in the deeper water parts of the basin potentially
887
reflect a temporary return to deep ocean anoxia oxygen at this time. The appearance of finely
888
laminated Mn-rich, ferruginous mudstones overlying glaciogenic mudstones implies a
889
significant rise in atmospheric oxygen by this time.
890
Ac ce p
884
Regressive-transgressive cycles associated with each of two units of glacial diamictite
891
are interpreted to reflect glacio-eustatic cycles controlled by the uptake of water into glacial
892
ice, and release of glacier-bound water during melting periods, respectively.
Page 37 of 91
893
A lack of internal unconformities and seismites within the succession precludes an interpretation as a foredeep basin, as does evidence from detrital zircon age data. Deposition
895
as a passive margin succession is also ruled out on the basis of the northwest-ward deepening
896
nature of the basin that contrasts with the demands of regional geology that rifting was to the
897
south. Rather, the succession is interpreted to represent an intracontinental basin deposited
898
during uplift of basement domains and/or failed rifting.
899
Acknowledgements
900
MVK would like to acknowledge funding support from UNSW and the Agouron Institute.
901
RM is grateful to the UNSW for a post-doctoral fellowship (2012-2013) and subsequently a
902
Research Fellowship (2014) that enabled him to carry out this research. This study was partly
903
supported by funding from the Japanese Society for Promotion of Sciences (JSPS
904
KAKENHI, no. 20340146 and 24654164) and from Ito Science Foundation to KEY. This
905
study was performed under the cooperative research program of the Centre for Advanced
906
Marine Core Research (CMCR), Kochi University (no. 10A006, 10B006, 11A014, and
907
11B012). Two anonymous reviews provided many helpful comments that clarified the
908
manuscript. This is publication number XXYY of the Australian Centre for Excellence for
909
Core to Crust Fluid Systems.
910
References
911
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912 913 914
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an
us
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ip t
894
deposits. Sedimentology 14, 5–26. Allen, J.R.L., 1984. Sedimentary Structures: Their Character and Physical Basis. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 663p.
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Altermann, W., 2007. Accretion, trapping and binding of sediment in Archean stromatolites
916
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ip t
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Ashley, G.M., Southard, J.B., Boothroyd, J.C., 1982. Deposition of climbing-ripple beds:
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919
Anderton, R., 1976. Tidal shelf sedimentation: an example from the Scottish Dalradian.
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us
918
Barley, M.E., Pickard, A.L., Sylvester, P.J., 1997. Emplacement of a Large Igneous Province as a possible cause of banded iron formation 2.45 billion years ago. Nature
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385, 55–58.
Barrett, T.J., Fralick, P.W., 1989. Turbidites and iron formations, Beardmore-Geraldton,
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923
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927
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929
Basilici, G., de Luca, P.H.V., Poiré, D.G., 2012. Hummocky cross-stratification-like structures and combined-flow ripples in the Punta Negra Formation (Lower-Middle
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926
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Bekker, A., Holland, H.D., Wang, P.L., Rumble III, D., Stein, H.J., Hannah, J.L., Coetzee, L.L., Beukes, N.J., 2004. Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Nature 427, 117–120.
934
Bekker, A., Kaufman, A.J., Karhu, J.A., Beukes, N.J., Swart, Q.D., Coetzee, L.L., Eriksson,
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K.A., 2001. Chemostratigraphy of the Paleoproterozoic Duitschland Formation, South
936
Africa: implications for coupled climate change and carbon cycling. American Journal
937
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Bekker, A., Kaufman, A.J., Karhu, J.A., Eriksson, K.A., 2005. Evidence for Paleoproterozoic cap carbonates in North America. Precambrian Research 137, 167–206.
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Bhattacharya, H.N., Bandyopadhaya, S., 1998. Seismites in a Proterozoic tidal succession, Singbhum, Bihar, India. Sedimentary Geology 119, 239–252. Blake, T.S., Barley, M.E., 1992. Tectonic evolution of the Late Archaean to Early Proterozoic Mount Bruce Megasequence Set, Western Australia: Tectonics 11, 1415–
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ip t
943
Boggs, S., Jr., 2009. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Cambridge University Press, 600p.
946
Bose, P.K., 1983. A reappraisal of the conditions of deposition of the Maentwrog Beds
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Young, G.M., Long, D.G.F., Fedo, C., Nesbitt, H.W., 2001. Paleoproterozoic Huronian
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Basin: product of a Wilson cycle punctuated by glaciations and a meteorite impact.
1247
Sedimentary Geology 141–142, 233–254.
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Figures
1249 1250 1251
Figure 1: Regional geological map of the Pilbara, northwestern Australia, showing the distribution of the Turee Creek Group and study localities with measured sections: B = Boundary Ridge; D = Deepdale; H = Horseshoe Creek.
1252 1253 1254
Figure 2: Stratigraphic section of the Turee Creek Group: BIF = Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group; MBM = Meteorite Bore Member of the Kungarra Formation; KF = Koolbye Formation.
1255 1256 1257 1258
Figure 3: Geological map of the Hardey Syncline, showing outcrop areas of the Turee Creek Group and locations of detailed sections show in subsequent figures. Note the greater thickness of the Meteorite Bore Member on the southern limb of the syncline and the presence of two glacial diamictites on the northern limb of the syncline.
1259 1260 1261 1262
Figure 4: Stratigraphic section through the transition from the uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group to the lowermost Kungarra Formation of the Turee Creek Group, here interpreted to occur at the base of the first non‐magnetic unit. C1‐C8 refers to chert layers from base to top across the section.
1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271
Figure 5: Photographs of rocks from across the transition from the Hamersley Group to Turee Creek Group at the locality of the section shown in Figure 4. A) strongly magnetic, greenish‐black laminated iron formation of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation, Hamersley Group; B) strongly magnetic jaspilitic cherty iron formation of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (C1 in Fig. 4); C) magnetic jaspilitic chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (C3 in Fig. 4); D) Photomicrograph in plane polarised light, of black magnetic Boolgeeda Iron Formation, showing coarse, euhedral magnetite crystals (black), tiny hematite crystals (red) and riebeckite needles (blue) (width of view is 1 mm); E) Layered, grey, white and red chert from the Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group (C6 in Fig. 4); F) layered grey‐white chert of the Kungarra Formation (C7 in Fig. 4).
1272 1273
Figure 6: Measured section through part of the lower Kungarra Formation (MGA Zone 50K, E 0478927, N 7477702), showing the main facies constituents of facies association 1.
1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280
Figure 7: Facies characteristics of the facies association 1: A) Thinly bedded mudstone; B) Mudstone with thin bands of massive fine‐grained sandstone (at pen); C) Dewatering structures on top of massive sandstone indicating rapid deposition and consequent fluidization; D) Fine‐grained massive sandstone grading into parallel laminated sandstone and mudstone (arrowed); E) Parallel laminated sandstone with double mudstone layering (arrowed) indicating tidal influence (see text for details). F) Cross stratified calcarenite. (A) and F) from the Boundary Ridge locality; C‐E) from Horseshoe Creek).
1281 1282
Figure 8: North (bottom)–south (top) stratigraphic section through the mid‐upper Kungarra Formation on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline, showing two distinct glacio‐eustatic cycles.
1283 1284 1285
Figure 9: Facies characteristics of the facies association 2: A) Near‐symmetric combined flow rippled sandstone; B) Ripple crests showing bifurcation; C) Wave rippled sandstone with locally erosive base. D) Fine‐grained massive or plane laminated sandstone.
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Figure 10: Detailed stratigraphic column showing vertical distribution of sedimentary facies constituents of facies association 2, from below the first diamictite (Meteorite Bore Member) on the northern limb of the Hardy Syncline.
1289 1290
Figure 11: Detailed stratigraphic section through Facies Association 2, from immediately beneath the second glaciogenic diamictite at the Horseshoe Creek locality shown in Figure 8.
1291 1292 1293
Figure 12: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 2: A) Medium‐grained sandstone with convolute lamination; B) Medium‐grained sandstone with hummocky cross‐stratification; C) Ripple cross lamination within very fine‐grained sandstone with double mud drape.
1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302
Figure 13: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 2 from the Horseshoe Creek locality: A) Coarse‐grained, large‐scale cross‐stratified sandstone (compass for scale); B) Bedded carbonate, with weakly defined cross stratification; C) Erosional basal contact of carbonate bed on thinly bedded, rippled sandstones and siltstones; D) Bedding plane view of desiccation cracks in thinly bedded carbonate; E) Low amplitude, domical stromatolites in carbonate from a bed located just above that shown in D); F) Domical stromatolite, outlined by carbonate on the flank, containing numerous small domical features within the larger structure, and lapped on by bedded siltstone; G) Small‐scale columnar stromatolites in bedded siltstone; H) View looking at top surface of a bedding plane, showing the highly linear nature of stromatolite crests (from top right to bottom left).
1303 1304 1305
Figure 14: Detailed stratigraphic section through the type section of the Meteorite Bore Member, at Meteorite Bore (centred at MGA Zone 50K, E 502842, N7465148 and oriented south (bottom) to north (top)). Note the appearance of sandstone and carbonate dropstones partway up the section.
1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315
Figure 15: Outcrop and thin section photographs of glaciogenic diamictite from the Meteorite Bore Member: A) View looking down onto a cross‐section perpendicular to bedding (not visible, but trending left to right across the photo), of typical glaciogenic diamictite with abundant small, and polymict, dropstones in a fine sand matrix. Note the presence of several highly elongate carbonate clasts with long axes oriented perpendicular to bedding (vertical in photo), indicative of an origin as dropstones; B) Large outsize clast of rhyolite in fissile siltstone matrix (vertical view, perpendicular to bedding); C) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of diamictite matrix, showing angular to subrounded quartz sand grains, and irregular silt pellet (scale 1 mm); D) Glacial striae on boulder‐size dropstone; E) Well rounded sandstone cobble showing penetrative lower contact; F) Subangular carbonate dropstone in fissile siltstone matrix (bedding top direction is to left of photo).
1316 1317 1318 1319 1320
Figure 16: Outcrop and thin section photographs of the second, stratigraphically higher, glaciogenic diamictite from the Horseshoe Creek locality: A) Boulder‐size dropstone with striated faces in fissile fine sandstone matrix; B) Photomicrograph (cross‐polarised light) of large calc‐silicate dropstone; C) Glacigenic dropstone with two directions of striae; D) Facetted cobble with striated faces in fissile fine sandstone matrix.
1321 1322 1323
Figure 17: Simplified geological map of the Deepdale locality, showing an unconformable relationship between Turee Creek Group glacial diamictites and overlying banded iron‐formation and mudstones of the Ashburton Formation.
1324 1325
Figure 18: Stratigraphic column through the Boundary Ridge locality, showing the conformable contact between layered jaspilitic and grey chert of the uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation,
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Page 55 of 91
Hamersley Group, and glaciogenic rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member, Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group. Note the units of banded Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone and ferruginous chert above the glaciogenic rocks, indicative of a return to deeper water and/or sediment starved conditions, but under different oceanic chemical conditions compared with the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation. Isotopic data from Williford et al. (2011)
1331 1332 1333 1334 1335
Figure 19: Outcrop photographs from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Finger on the contact between the Hamersley and Turee Creek Groups, marked by a change from jaspilitic chert to dark green shale with glaciogenic dropstones; B) The transitional chert at the very top of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation, showing an upwards gradation from iron‐formation at the very base (dark grey) through jaspilitic layered chert, to grey layered chert.
1336 1337 1338
Figure 20: Stratigraphic section of the glacigenic rocks at the Deepdale locality. Note the interpreted unconformity at the base of the banded iron‐formation overlying the glacigenic rocks, deduced from the map relationships presented in Figure 17.
1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346
Figure 21: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Rhyolite dropstone with penetrating lower contact in very finely laminated mudstone, from 10 cm above the top contact of the underlying transitional chert unit; B) View looking down on top bedding surface, showing rhyolite boulder in fine sandstone; C) Rounded rhyolite cobble in the lowermost of three sandstone beds at this section; D) Subangular rhyolite boulder in the highest of three sandstone beds at this section; E) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of sandstone, showing subangular to subrounded nature of sand grains, fine silt matrix and kerogen clast; E) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of an oolitic limestone dropstone. Scale bar in E) and F) is 0.2 mm.
1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353
Figure 22: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Soft‐ sediment slump fold in sandstone bed 3, indicative of deposition via sediment gravity flow; B) Thin bed of monomict conglomerate with carbonate clasts in a fine sandstone matrix, overlain by thinly bedded calcilutite and medium‐grained sandstone of bed 3; C) Closeup view of the monomict conglomerate, showing the penetrative nature of some carbonate clasts into underlying, finely laminated mudstone; D) Carbonate conglomerate; F) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of bedded calcilutite.
1354 1355 1356
Figure 23: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from Deepdale: A) Polymict cobble conglomerate, with well‐rounded cobbles; B) Rhythmic bedding (varves) in sandstone and pebbly sandstone.
1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362
Figure 24: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 5: A) View looking down onto top bedding surface, showing large mud concretion, from the Boundary Ridge locality; B) Top view of coalesced mudstone concretions from Deepdale; C) Cross‐section through concretions from Deepdale, showing syneresis cracks; D) Banded Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone unit from the top of the Boundary Ridge section; E) Crossbedded calcarenite from above the glacigenic diamictites at the Boundary Ridge locality.
1363 1364
Figure 25: Rose diagram showing paleocurrent data from the Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality, northern limb of the Hardey Syncline.
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1326 1327 1328 1329 1330
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Figure 26: δ13C and δ18O values of bedded carbonate rocks plotted against stratigraphic height, showing distinct changes in composition across the change from glacial (below dashed line) to non‐ glacial conditions (above dashed line). Data from sources cited in Tables 4 and 5.
1368 1369 1370
Figure 27: Schematic cross‐section of the Turee Creek Basin, showing a southeast‐to‐northwest prograding sediment wedge infilling the basin, including during glacial conditions when a floating ice sheet provided dropstones to diamictites of the Meteorite Bore Member.
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1365 1366 1367
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Facies Association 1 Facies
Description
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Table 1: Facies summaries and interpretations, Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group
cr
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Table 1
Interpretation
Chert-ferruginous chert interbedded with greenish-brown shale
Facies B
Massive mudstone with occasional siltstone interbeds
Facies C
Massive fine-grained sandstone interbedded with mudstone with lower sharp, and upper gradational, contacts
Off-shore deposit; rapid deposition from turbulent suspension (Lowe, 1975; Bose et al., 1997) below wave base.
Facies D
Massive to parallel laminated fine-grained sandstone; sandy laminae are bounded by very thin double mud layers
Tidally influenced offshore turbidite (cf. Shanmugam, 2003; Mazumder and Arima, 2013) formed below wave base.
Facies E
Fine-grained sandstone with current ripples
Ac c
Facies Association 2
ep te
d
M
an
Facies A
Deepwater chemical precipitate Off-shore deposit (below wave base)
Off-shore deposit formed below wave base.
Facies A
Fine-grained, well-sorted, symmetric to near-symmetric rippled sandstone
Wave agitated shallow marine deposit (cf. De Raff et al., 1977; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996)
Facies B
Fine-grained, massive to parallel-laminated sandstone; bed tops bear wave ripples
Wave reworked shallow-marine deposit
Facies C
Medium-grained sandstone with convolute lamination
Storm influenced shallow- marine deposit (Johnson, 1977; Bose, 1983; Leeder, 1999)
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ip t cr
Medium-grained hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) sandstone; no wave reworking on top of HCS beds.
Facies E
Very fine-grained muddy sandstone with climbing ripple-lamination, double mud drapes and combined flow ripples
Tide-wave interactive sub-tidal deposit
Facies F
Coarse-grained large-scale cross-bedded sandstone with shore-parallel paleocurrent.
Longshore bar deposit
Facies G
Massive and/or parallel to ripple cross-laminated carbonate with occasional desiccation cracks.
Intertidal deposit to beachrock
Facies H
Stromatolitic carbonate; characterized by domical stromatolites consisting of crinkly microbial laminations
an
M
Shallow marine deposit
d ep te
Facies Association 3 Facies A
Storm deposit formed between storm and fair-weather wave bases (cf. Bose et al., 1997)
us
Facies D
Thickly bedded, massive, matrix supported sandstone with randomly
Glacial diamictite (cf. Martin, 1999)
oriented subangular to subrounded clasts with facetted and striated faces; outsize clasts are common; conglomeratic at places
Facies Association 4
Ac c
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________
Facies A
Thinly bedded, dark green mudstone with outsize clasts (up to 30cm)
Glacial diamictite formed by melting of floating ice sheet (cf. Martin, 1999)
Facies B
Quartz-rich sandstone with angular to well-rounded outsize clasts; large-scale slump structures
Glacigenic deposit reworked by turbidity current
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ip t cr
Conglomerate with subrounded to moderately well rounded predominantly carbonate clasts; some clasts display a clear penetrative fabric into underlying mudstone
Glacigenic deposit reworked locally by mass transport process
Facies D
Pale cream, fine-grained carbonate (calcilutite) with very fine-scale bedding; fine dolomite rhombs embedded in a silty matrix; overlies conglomerate facies C
Carbonate platform deposit exposed during glacial retreat
Facies E
Polymictic conglomerate/pebbly sandstone; characterized by well-rounded to subangular clasts; sandstone locally displays rhythmic bedding
Conglomerates are sediment gravity flow deposits and the sandstones are turbidites
Facies F
Medium-grained, massive, quartz-rich sandstone overlying the conglomerate
Shallow-marine deposit formed during sea level fall at higher flow regime
d
M
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us
Facies C
ep te
Facies Association 5
Mudstone interbedded with thin units of ferruginous chert, an Mn-rich
Relatively deep water deposits, below the storm wave base
ferruginous unit, and beds of calcarenite conformably overlie glaciogenic
Ac c
sedimentary rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member.
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M
an
us
cr
Table 2: Long axes of measured convolutes and a ripple crest, Kungarra Formation Convolute long axis Outcrop orientation Restored orientation* Plunge Trend Plunge Trend 60 212 2 21 35 165 30 354 35 180 31 8 50 160 14 353 10 150 46 324 20 205 40 49 45 160 18 352 50 152 13 339 16 118 18 304 50 167 16 339 45 170 21 360 60 203 2 18 68 153 0 355 47 175 19 4 50 155 13 351 Ripple crest Outcrop orientation Plunge Trend Flow direction 62 153 ENE Restored orientation* 0 353 E
ip t
Table 2
Ac
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d
*Orientations were restored using a two-tilt solution, untilting first the bedding of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (110°/30°SSW) and then the remainder of bedding from the Turee Creek Group, originally at 090°/64°
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Table 3
Table 3: Paleocurrent data from the Kungarra Formation 1. Ladderback ripples at top of Kungarra Fm. on bedding 090°/50°S (E0490683, N7472142) Measured orientation
Rotated orientation* Trend
Paleocurrent direction
Plunge
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
50
100
190
20
144
SW (234°)
51
98
188
20
142
SW (232°)
52
94
104
24
143
SW (233°)
50
98
108
20
142
SW (232°)
50
100
190
20
144
SW (234°)
ip t
Plunge
2. Crossbeds in coarse sandstone above 2nd diamictite on bedding 120°/60°SSW (E0486894, N7472687) Rotated orientation*
Dip Direction
Dip amt
Dip Direction
62
180
7
180
58
182
3
208
58
195
12
264
54
193
9
50
192
2
54
183
10
43
196
12
48
193
Paleocurrent direction
W (264°)
282
WNW (282°)
310
NW (310°)
310
NW (310°)
314
NW (314°)
328
NW (328°)
an 17
S(180°)
SSW (208°)
us
Dip amt
cr
Measured orientation
3. Crossbeds in coarse sandstone on bedding 090°/42°S (E0487022, N7473783)
Rotated orientation*
Dip amt
Dip amt
M
Measured orientation 160
50
160
49
150
52
158
60
160
te
55
d
Dip direction
Dip direction
Paleocurrent direction
18
103
E (103°)
16
89
E (089°)
18
79
E (079°)
17
68
E (068°)
24
70
E (070°)
4. Crossbeds in sandstones between two diamictites on bedding 090°/55°S (E0486962, N7473891) Rotated orientation*
ce p
Measured orientation Dip amt
Dip Direction
Dip amt
Dip Direction
Paleocurrent direction
40
235
45
300
NW (300°)
240
45
310
NW (310°)
238
42
313
NW (313°)
245
40
314
NW (314°)
240
45
310
NW (310°)
42 40 42
Ac
50
5. Rippled sandstones below Meteorite Bore Member on bedding 108°/83° (E0483195, N7474629) Measured orientation Plunge
Rotated orientation*
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
Plunge
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
46
185
275
14
15
W (285°)
40
193
283
11
13
W (283°)
44
197
287
10
9
W (279°)
36
120
30
22
185
E (095°)
35
125
35
28
182
E (092°)
39
118
28
25
180
E (090°)
34
116
26
0
144
NE (054°)
80
160
70
4
142
NE (052°)
83
162
72
1
138
NE (048°)
78
178
88
2
324
NE (054°)
Page 62 of 91
cr
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Table 4
Table 2: Carbon and oxygen isotope compositions of carbonate samples, Kungarra Formation NBS-corrected standard NBS-corrected standard error error d13C (VPDB) d18O (VPDB) TCk carb, above glacials 190564 -1.926 0.003 -9.786 0.004 TCk carb, above glacials 190565 -1.718 0.003 -10.174 0.004 TCk carb, above glacials 190566 -1.147 0.002 -12.169 0.006 TCk carb, above glacials 190567 -1.460 0.005 -10.808 0.003 TCk carb, in glacials 190582-1 -2.706 0.003 -5.910 0.007 TCk carb, in glacials 190582-2 -1.653 0.003 -2.251 0.006 Standards NBS-19 01 1.925 0.003 -2.266 0.003 NBS-19 02 1.941 0.003 -2.248 0.010 NBS-19 03 1.951 0.003 -2.169 0.009 NBS-19 06 1.965 0.003 -2.180 0.009 Avg 1.950 -2.200 1SD 0.018 0.055 ** Analyzed by Koji Yamada, Michiyo Kobayashi, Minoru Ikehara, and Kosei Yamaguchi at the Centre for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University, Japan.
Ac
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Sample Name
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Table 5
Table 5: Compilation of carbon and oxygen isotopic data for the Turee Creek Group. 13
18
δ C(VPDB)‰
δ O(VPDB)‰
Reference
Stromatolitic dolomite Bedded calcarenite Bedded calcilutite
-0.2 to 1.4
-9.7 to -14.8
Van Kranendonk (2010)
-1.1 to -1.9
-9.7 to -12.2
This paper
-1.6 to -2.7
-2.2 to -5.9
This paper
-0.5
-4.5
Lindsay and Brasier (2002)
0 to -6
-3 to -5
Lindsay and Brasier (2002)
Ac
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Kungarra Fm., above glacials Kungarra Fm, MBM glacials Kungarra Fm, MBM Carbonate glacials diamictite Kungarra Fm., Bedded below glacials calcarenite MBM = Meteorite Bore Member
ip t
Lithology
cr
Stratigraphic Position Kazput Fm.
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Figure 1
INDIAN OCEAN
117°
118° Port Hedland
119°
Phanerozoic cover
120°
Younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks
Karratha
Wyloo Group, upper and lower
21°
Turee Creek Group scue
Hamersley Group
Basi
n
D
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Fort e
Fortescue Group
22° Ham
B
Pilbara Craton greenstones
ersle
y B asin
cr
Pilbara Craton granites
H urto
n B asin
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23°
Ash b
Newman
100 km
17.10.13
Ac ce
pt
ed
M
an
MVK001c
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i
Figure 2
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Figure 3
116o 50 l S
Fig.4
116o 55 l S
rse
sh
45
oe
Fig.8
MVK002e
Boolgeeda Iron Fm Hammersley Group undivided
r
Syncli
ne
unconformity
27
30
67
syncline
22o 55 l E
70
fault
116o 50 l S
30
1
anticline
measured section
30
Para 116o 55 l S
65
Fig.I4
burd
oo
117o 00 l S
ley
Meteorite Bore Mbr Kungarra Fm
y
as
Koolbye Fm
Harde
ve
ep te
Kazput Fm
34
50 bedding
Ac c
HGp
Turee Creek Gp
Three Corners Congl Mbr
Beasley River Quartzite
lower Wyloo Gp
Dolerite
Sandstone, shale, tuff
5 km
Ri
50
Upper Wyloo Group
Quartz-rich sandstone
4
50
d
ra
Nummana Mbr
3
Be
utar
Cheela Springs Basalt
2
Creek
65
Nan
1
M
Ho
22o 50 l E
0
117o 05 l S
an
36
117o 00 l S
117o 05 l S 27.8.14
Page 67 of 91
Figure 4
SHALE / SILTSTONE
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C8 layered grey chert
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an
Kungarra Formation
(Turee Creek Group)
GREEN SHALE
M
C7 1 - 2 mm layered grey-white chert GREENISH SHALE
C6 layered grey, white and red chert
ed
NON-MAGNETIC, BROWNISH-GREEN, MASSIVE ‘SHALE’
pt
C5 layered grey and white chert
(Hamersley Group)
Boolgeeda Iron Formation
Ac ce
WEAKLY MAGNETIC, GREEN MM-LAYERED IRON FORMATION
C4 = ferruginous chert
MAGNETIC GREENISH-BLACK LAMINATED IRON-FORMATION
C3 hematite-magnetite layered chert / BIF MASSIVE MAGNETIC IRON - FORMATION C2 magnetic mm-layered cherty iron - formation MASSIVE MAGNETIC IRON - FORMATION C1 magnetic cherty iron - formation BLACK MAGETIC IRON FORMATION
MVK011c
27-11-2013
Page 68 of 91
B
C
D
E
F
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M
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A
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Figure 5
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Figure 6
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50m
M
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40m
ed
30m
pt
Fine-grained ripple laminated sandstone Fine-grained parallel laminated sandstone
Ac ce
Fine-grained massive sandstone Mudstone
20m
10m
0m mud
f.Sand
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Figure 7
A)
B)
D)
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C)
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E) C)
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Figure 8
1400m
BRQ
Glacial cycle 2
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1200m
cr
Convolute lamination
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1000m
Stromatolitic carbonate
Ripple
an
Uncoformity Dolerite sill Glacial diamictite Coarse quartz-rich sandstone
Fine to medium-grained sandstone Mudstone-siltstone
400m
Ac ce
pt
Glacial cycle 1
600m
ed
M
800m
200m
0m mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
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Figure 9
C
D
Ac
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M
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B
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A
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Figure 10
150m
Stromatolitic carbonate
30m
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Glacial diamictite Coarse-grained large scale cross-stratified sandstone
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cr
Very fine-grained rippled sandstone
Medium-grained sandstone with Convolute lamination Massive to plane laminated fine-grained sandstone Fine-grained sandstone wave and combined flow ripples
Ac ce
pt
ed
M
an
60m
Hummocky cross-stratified medium-grained sandstone
120m ~ ~ 0m v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
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Figure 11
Glacial diamictite
180m
Massive to plane laminated coarse-grained sandstone (with cross-lamination) Fine-grained rippled sandstone Hummocky cross-stratified medium-grained sandstone Medium-grained sandstone with Convolute lamination
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Fine-grained massive sandstone
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Fine-grained sandstone with wave and combined flow ripples Mudstone
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120m
Ac ce
60m
300m
pt
ed
M
an
300m
240m
0m 291m mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
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Ac
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pt
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S0301-9268(14)00331-3 http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.015 PRECAM 4090
To appear in:
Precambrian Research
Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:
11-12-2013 1-9-2014 15-9-2014
Please cite this article as: Van Kranendonk, M.J., Mazumder, R., Yamaguchi, K.E., Yamada, K., Ikehara, M.,Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth, Precambrian Research (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.09.015 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
4 5
Martin J. Van Kranendonk1, 2,*, Rajat Mazumder1, Kosei E. Yamaguchi3, Koji Yamada3, Minoru Ikehara4
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Sedimentology of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia: A conformable record of the transition from early to modern Earth
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*corresponding author: email [email protected]; tel +612 9385 2439; fax +612 9385 3327
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Highlights
ARC Centre of Excellence for Core to Crust Fluid Studies
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School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, and Australian Centre for Astrobiology, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2052 Australia
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Department of Chemistry, Toho University, 2-2-1 Miyama, Funabashi, Chiba 274-8510, Japan, and NASA Astrobiology Institute
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The Kungarra Fm, records a conformable succession across the Great Oxidation Event
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Center for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan
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Sedimentological analysis reveals glacio‐eustatic regressive‐transgressive cycles
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Deposited was within an intracratonic basin deepening to the northwest
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A foreland basin model deepening o the northeast is not supported
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Abstract
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This paper presents the first, detailed sedimentological analysis of the Paleoproterozoic
26
Kungarra Formation, the lowermost of three formations comprising the Turee Creek Group in
Page 1 of 91
27
Western Australia, which was deposited across the rise in atmospheric oxygen (the Great
28
Oxidation Event, or GOE) and the transition from early to modern Earth.
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The data shows that the Kungarra Formation has a gradational, conformable lower contact with underlying banded iron-formation of the Hamersley Group and predominantly
31
comprises an upward-shallowing succession from deepwater shales and siltstones, through
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rippled fine-grained sandstones and stromatolitic carbonates, to tidal flat deposits that
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immediately underlie coastal- fluvial deposits of the overlying Koolbye Formation.
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At the base of the Kungarra Formation is a gradual transition from alternating units of magnetic green shale and thin units of banded iron-formation that pass upsection to units of
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non-magnetic shale and ferruginous chert and grey chert, reflecting a gradual loss of iron
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from the world’s oceans accompanying the rise of atmospheric oxygen. A falling-stage
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system is recognised above this transition in the Hardey Syncline area, capped by
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stromatolitic carbonates and a period of exposure marked by an erosional unconformity and
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carbonate beachrock. Two glacio-eustatic cycles are recognised within the middle to upper
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parts of the Kungarra Formation, each of which is marked by the rapid onset of falling
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systems tracts and characterised by falling systems tracts during and following diamictite
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deposition.
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Stratigraphic data are used to infer a depobasin filled by a sediment wedge prograding
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from southeast to northwest, in contrast to previous models of a north-northeastward
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deepening foreland basin. The lack of seismites or internal unconformities within the
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formation precludes a foredeep setting. Rather, deposition is interpreted as having occurred
48
within an intracratonic basin, with detritus sourced from erosion of uplifted bedrock to the
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southeast.
Page 2 of 91
Key words: Paleoproterozoic, sedimentology, glacio-marine succession, Turee Creek Group, Western Australia
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1. Introduction
53
Earth experienced a fundamental revolution across the Archean-Proterozoic transition, when
54
the rate and style of continental crust formation changed rapidly, the biosphere was thrown
55
out of equilibrium, and the composition of the atmosphere changed dramatically from one
56
with little, or no, free atmospheric oxygen to one with >10-5 present atmospheric level (PAL)
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O2 during the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) at 2.45–2.22 billion years (Ga) ago (Kirschvink
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et al., 2000; Farquhar et al., 2000; Holland, 2002; Bekker et al., 2004; Hannah et al., 2004;
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Johnson et al., 2009; Van Kranendonk et al., 2012). This transition was marked by the onset
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of global glaciations and the development of unconformities and terrestrial successions, and
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led, ultimately, to the development and flourishing of eukaryotic life (Horodyski and Knauth,
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1994; Eriksson et al., 1999; Kirschvink et al., 2000; Prave, 2002; Condie et al., 2009;
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Konhauser et al., 2011; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Eriksson and Condie, 2013; Mazumder and
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Van Kranendonk, 2013).
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A question remains, however, as to the extent and significance of the Paleoproterozoic
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glaciations. Suggested to be global in nature (including low-latitude glaciations: Evans et al.,
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1997; Williams and Schmidt, 1997: Kirschvink et al., 2000; Kopp et al., 2005) and similar to
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the better-documented ‘Snowball Earth’ events of the Neoproterozoic (Hoffman et al., 1998;
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Bekker et al., 2005), the true extent and significance of Paleoproterozoic glaciations remains
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unsubstantiated due to different numbers of glacial units on different continents (one in
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Western Australia, two in South Africa, three in North America), the predominantly
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terrestrial, rift-related, nature of many glacial units, and uncertainty regarding the veracity of
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paleomagnetic data (Martin, 1999; Bekker et al., 2001; Young et al., 2001; Hilburn et al.,
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2005; Eyles, 2008; Melezhik et al., 2012). Significantly, the transition from early Earth
Page 3 of 91
(warm, anoxic atmosphere) to more modern Earth (cool, oxygenated atmosphere) across the
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GOE is plagued by successions with internal unconformities, particularly at the base of
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glaciogenic successions, thereby precluding a thorough understanding of the nature of the rise
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in atmospheric oxygen and the response of the biosphere to this revolution.
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Western Australia is one of the few places in the world that document a near-
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continuous record of deposition across the rise of atmospheric oxygen within a conformable
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succession of marine sedimentary rocks known as the Turee Creek Group (Trendall and
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Blockley, 1970; Trendall, 1979; Thorne and Tyler, 1996). A single glacial diamictite unit has
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been described previously in Western Australia by Trendall (1981) and Martin (1999) from
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the Meteorite Bore Member (MBM) of the Kungarra Formation, the lowermost formation of
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the 2.45–2.22 Ga Turee Creek Group. The Meteorite Bore Member has been described as a
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glacio-marine deposit, however no detailed sedimentary facies analysis has been undertaken
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and inferences regarding the depositional environment are solely based on the petrography of
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the clastic rocks and lithofacies characteristics (Martin, 1999; Martin et al., 2000). Recently,
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however, a second unit of glaciogenic diamictite has been described from the type area of the
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Turee Creek Group (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press), so in order to better
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understand the full succession of events recorded across the rise of atmospheric oxygen in the
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Western Australian succession, we here describe the sedimentology of the Kungarra
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Formation and its transition from the underlying Hamersley Group.
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Detailed sedimentological analysis of the Kungarra Formation documents a lateral
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and vertical shift in sedimentary facies across the Turee Creek basin. Sedimentary facies
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analysis shows that the Kungarrra Formation consists of an overall shallowing-upward
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succession, with a sediment source to the southeast. Prior to glaciation, the basin experienced
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relative base-level rise, leading to periodic exposure. The two glacial episodes were each
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initiated by a falling stage systems tract prior to diamictite deposition, and accompanied by a
Page 4 of 91
transgressive systems tract during, and immediately following, diamictite deposition: these
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changes are attributed to drawdown by developing glaciers and recharge by glacial melting,
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respectively. Basin fill was via the development of a northwesterly prograding sediment
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wedge, but sedimentological and geochronological evidence does not support deposition in
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an active foreland basin, as previously proposed. Rather, the depositonal environment is
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interpreted to have been an intracratonic basin, with an uplifted source terrain to the
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southwest that may have accompanied an episode of failed rifting and/or re-activation of
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basement domes.
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2. Regional geology and previous work
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The Turee Creek Group crops out in the hinges of large-scale folds along the southern part of
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the Hamersley Range in Western Australia (Fig. 1). Trendall (1981) and Thorne and Tyler
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(1996) defined the clastic sedimentary rock succession of the c. 3.9 km thick Turee Creek
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Group as comprising the lower Kungarra, middle Koolbye, and upper Kazput formations
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(Fig. 2).
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Geochronological constraints for the Kungarra Formation are provided by the 2449±3
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Ma Woongarra Rhyolite that lies conformably below the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at the top
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of the conformably underlying Hamersley Group (Barley et al., 1997), and by the 2209±15
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Ma Cheela Springs Basalt of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (Fig. 2:
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Martin et al., 1998). A dolerite sill intruding the MBM, interpreted as coeval with eruption of
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the Cheela Springs Basalt, has a 207Pb/206Pb baddelyite age of 2208±15 Ma (Müller et al.,
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2005), although the precise age relationships of these units is controversial (Martin and
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Morris, 2010). Detrital zircons from a diamictite sample of the MBM indicate a maximum
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age of deposition of ca. 2420 Ma (Takehara et al., 2010). Metamorphism of the group does
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not exceed prehnite-pumpellyite-epidote facies (Smith et al., 1982). The Kungarra Formation
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conformably overlies the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at the top of the Hamersley Group and
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consists of ~1600 m of predominantly fine-grained sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone, in
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addition to which are coarse glaciogenic diamictites and a variety of other, volumetrically
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less significant, lithology (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press). Horwitz (1982, 1987) interpreted the Turee Creek Group to have been deposited in an
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asymmetric basin with a steeper-dipping southern margin into which clastics derived from the
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southwest were deposited. Blake and Barley (1992) interpreted the group to have been
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deposited in a back-arc compressive tectonic retro-arc basin, formed in response to
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subduction-related orogenesis along the southern Pilbara Craton and development of a
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northeast-migrating backarc thrust belt.
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Krapez (1996) provided a sequence stratigraphic model for the Turee Creek Group in which five depositional sequences were identified. Fourteen lithofacies assemblages were
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identified, including offshore, prodelta, delta-front, delta platform, and delta plain facies of a
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northeast-prograding braid-delta depositional system (Hardey Syncline area), and a laterally
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equivalent (Duck Creek Syncline) assemblage of offshore, slope, shelf, and supratidal-
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intertidal facies tracts of a silciclastic-carbonate depositional system. Overall, the basin was
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interpreted as an active foredeep, deepening to the north-northeast in advance of a thrust-fold
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belt system actively approaching from the south-southwest.
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Martin (1999) and Martin et al. (2000) re-iterated the foreland basin model for the
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Turee Creek Group, suggesting it formed in front of a developing orogenic front advancing
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from the south-southwest. Martin et al. (2000) re-interpreted the upper two sequences of the
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Krapez (1996) sequence stratigraphic model as belonging to the unconformably overlying
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Beasley River Quartzite of the lower Wyloo Group. Similar to Krapez (1996), however,
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Martin et al. (2000) also recognised an upward-shallowing succession for the Kungarra
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Formation beneath the Meteorite Bore Member, and interpreted the lowermost sediments of
Page 6 of 91
the formation to be distal turbidites, followed by a number of upward-shallowing prodelta to
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offshore marine cycles. Paleocurrent directions from the lower Kungarra Formation indicated
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southeast-directed flow, which they interpreted as being axial to the McGrath Trough,
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without giving reasons why.
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In this study, detailed stratigraphic data was collected from measured sections taken at three main areas: 1) the Hardey Syncline area (H on Fig. 1, Fig. 3), including a detailed
155
section through glacial diamictites of the Meteorite Bore Member at its type locality just
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northwest of Meteorite Bore on the southern limb of the syncline, and a section through the
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uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation and its transition into the lower and middle parts of the
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Kungarra Formation on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline; 2) the Boundary Ridge
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locality, located ~50 km to the northwest of the Hardey Syncline, which includes a section
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through the upper part of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation and lower part of the Kungarra
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Formation (B on Fig. 1); 3) a section through the lower part of the Kungarra Formation at
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Deepdale, in the far northwestern part of the basin, approximately 150 km to the northwest of
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the Hardey Syncline (D on Fig. 1).
164
3. Sedimentary facies analysis in the Hardey Syncline
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The Kungarra Formation is well exposed in the Hardey Syncline, where it conformably
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overlies very finely bedded banded iron-formation and magnetic, ferruginous and jaspilitic
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chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group (Figs. 3, 4: Trendall, 1981;
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Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Williford et al., 2011). The shallow-water (beach,
169
fluvial, and aeolian) sandstones of the Koolbye Formation disconformably overlie the
170
Kungarra Formation in this area.
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The highly magnetic rocks of the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation consist of strongly magnetic, massive black iron formation, strongly magnetic cherty banded iron-
Page 7 of 91
formation, and magnetic, greenish-black laminated iron formation, and weakly magnetic,
174
green, millimetre-layered iron-formation (Figs. 5a-c). In thin section, the magnetic black
175
banded iron-formation was found to consist predominantly of medium-grained, euhedral
176
crystals of magnetite, subordinate, very small anhedral hematite crystals, and blades of
177
riebeckite (Fig. 5d).
Three facies associations constitute the Kungarra Formation in the Hardey Syncline
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area, with a fourth facies association restricted to the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities
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(Table 1). Facies association 1 predominantly occupies the lowest part of the formation and
181
consists of relatively deepwater facies formed in an offshore setting below the storm wave
182
base, and includes predominantly green-weathering grey shale, thin units of millimetre-
183
bedded grey and jaspilitic chert, and a monotonous facies of interbedded fine-grained
184
sandstone-siltstone-mudstone. Facies association 2, best preserved in the middle part of the
185
Kungarra Formation, consists of thinly bedded and current (asymmetric) and near symmetric
186
combined flow rippled fine-grained sandstones and siltstones, with occasional thin beds of
187
stromatolitic carbonate formed in a tide-storm activated shallow marine setting. Glacial
188
diamictites belonging to the Meteorite Bore Member and a second, overlying (but unnamed),
189
unit of the Kungarra Formation are found in the Hardey Syncline, and inferred to be
190
relatively shallow water deposits. The rocks of facies association 4 are also glaciogenic, but
191
are interpreted to represent a much deeper water setting and are restricted to the Boundary
192
Ridge and Deepdale localities.
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Individual facies associations are composed of several sedimentary facies, classified
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on the basis of grain-size, texture, composition, primary sedimentary structures and
195
depositional mechanisms. The characteristics of each individual facies are described and
196
interpreted below.
Page 8 of 91
199
Five interbedded sedimentary facies constitute the facies association in the lower part of the
200
Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality underlying glaciogenic rocks, and in a
201
package overlying glaciogenic rocks at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities.
202
3.1.1 Facies A: chert‐ferruginous chert
203
Description: The rocks of Facies A comprise thin units (1-10 cm thick) of millimetre-bedded
204
grey and white chert and grey-white and ferruginous bedded chert. Best developed at the
205
Horseshoe Creek locality, this facies is interbedded with greenish-brown shale over a few
206
metres thickness at the very base of the Kungarra Formation where it lies conformably on
207
black, strongly magnetic banded iron-formation (oxide facies) and magnetic green, more
208
massive iron-formation (silicate facies) of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (Fig. 4). The basal
209
contact of the Kungarra Formation is here defined as the base of a 2 cm thick unit of non-
210
magnetic, millimetre-bedded grey and white chert (C5 on Fig. 4). This thin chert unit is
211
overlain by non-magnetic, featureless mudstone that is interbedded with a series of 2-10 cm
212
thick units of millimetre-bedded jaspilitic to grey chert (C6-C8 on Fig. 4, Figs 5e, 5f).
213
Interpretation: This facies is interpreted to represent a deepwater chemical precipitate in a
214
starved basin. The transition from shale to bedded grey and white and weakly ferruginous
215
chert is interpreted to reflect alternating environmental conditions between periods of distal
216
clastic sedimentation and a starved basin with chemical sedimentation under conditions of
217
very low oxygen (Morris and Horwitz, 1983; Barrett and Fralick, 1989; Eriksson et al.,
218
1998).
219
3.1.2 Facies B: mudstone
220
Description: The basal facies of the Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality is
221
interbedded with, and passes up to, ~250 m of generally featureless mudstone (Fig. 6) and is
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3.1 Facies Association 1: mudstone‐siltstone‐sandstone‐chert‐ ferruginous chert
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Page 9 of 91
interbedded with rocks belonging to Facies C and D. Mudstone of this facies are massive,
223
brown-weathering green to pale grey rocks with very fine grain size and occasional, very
224
faint primary bedding (Fig. 7a). Siltstones have a faintly recognisable clastic texture and
225
comprise less than 5% of this facies.
226
Interpretation: Thickness, nature of contact with associated facies, and lithological attributes
227
indicate that this facies formed in an offshore depositional setting (Johnson and Baldwin,
228
1996; Bose et al., 1997). Such thick mudstone-dominated successions are interpreted to imply
229
mud accumulation in areas of high sediment supply in a distal region to the sediment source
230
(Swift and Thorne, 1991).
231
3.1.3 Facies C: Fine‐grained massive sandstone facies
232
233
Description: This facies is characterized by fine-grained massive sandstone that is
234
interbedded with mudstone (Fig. 6). Individual beds are up to 10cm thick and have sharp and
235
erosive lower contacts, but gradational upper contacts (Fig. 7b). Occasionally, broad
236
concave-upward dish structures with vertical pillars (Fig. 7c) are present. Pillars are few mm
237
to 1cm-thick.
238
Interpretation: The lower sharp and erosive and upper gradational contacts of this facies and
239
its association with laterally persistent mudstone clearly indicate that these were deposited
240
from turbulent suspension and hence are turbidites (Bouma, 1962; Lowe, 1982; Kneller and
241
Branney, 1995; Stow and Johansson, 2000). The presence of mudstones between sandstones
242
indicates quiescent time intervals between the emplacements of successive flows. Local dish
243
and pillar structures indicate very rapid deposition from a turbulent suspension (Lowe, 1975;
244
Lowe and Lopiccolo, 1976; Bose et al., 1997; Leeder, 1999).
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3.1.4 Facies D: Fine‐grained massive to parallel laminated sandstone facies
246
247
Description: This facies is up to 20cm-thick and is generally inter-bedded with mudstone
248
(Fig. 6). It is characterized by a lower massive unit which grades into parallel laminated unit
249
(Fig. 7d). Sandy laminae of this facies are bounded by very thin double mud layers (Fig. 7e).
250
Interpretation: This facies is a product of deposition from decelerating flow at upper stage
251
plane bed-ripple transition (Simon et al., 1965; Southard and Boguchawal, 1990; Kneller and
252
Branney, 1995; Shanmugam, 2002). Such hydrodynamic condition may arise in a variety of
253
depositional environment ranging from deep to shallow marine (Shepard et al., 1969; Allen,
254
1984; Stow et al., 1996; Leeder, 1999; Pattison, 2005). Absence of combined flow bed forms
255
and wave ripples in this and associated facies precludes its formation in a wave agitated
256
shallow marine environment. Confinement of this facies in a mudstone-dominated succession
257
indicates formation in a deeper offshore setting below the storm wave base (Bose et al., 1997;
258
Mazumder, 2005). Shepard et al. (1969, their fig. 19a; see also Shanmugam, 2003, his fig. 6a)
259
described such facies from La Jolla Canyon (offshore California) at a depth of 1039m and
260
interpreted them as turbidites. Shanmugam (2003) reinterpreted the parallel laminated unit
261
originally described by Shepard et al. (1969) as tidally influenced deposit because of
262
distinctive double mud drapes (Shanmugam, 2003, his fig. 6a: see also Visser, 1980; Eriksson
263
and Simpson, 2000; Mazumder, 2004). Similar planar to cross-laminated sandstone with
264
spectacular mud drapes have been reported by Shanmugam et al. (1994), Lien et al (2006,
265
their fig. 7b) and Mazumder and Arima (2013, their fig. 3c) from deep marine sandstones.
266
3.1.5 Facies E: Fine‐grained rippled sandstone
267
Description: This facies is locally up to 12 cm thick and is characterized by fine-grained,
268
thinly bedded sandstone with ripples. The ripple forms are asymmetric in profile and have
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amplitude and wavelength 1–1.5 cm and 5–9 cm, respectively. Individual ripple sets are
270
separated by thin mudstone partings.
271
Interpretation: This facies is interpreted to result from dense suspension currents charged
272
with fine sand with flow slackening, based on the ripple morphologies, which indicate very
273
rapid suspension fall out (Lowe, 1982; Allen, 1984; Stow et al., 1996). The association of this
274
facies with thick mudstones and an absence of wave generated structures and emergence
275
features indicate it was generated in an offshore setting below the storm wave base (Bose et
276
al., 1997; Mazumder, 2005).
277 278
3.2 Facies Association 2: very fine‐ to coarse‐grained sandstone‐ stromatolitic carbonate
279
This facies association is comprised of eight facies and dominated by siliciclastic sedimentary
280
rocks, but contains thin clastic carbonate beds and stromatolitic carbonate beds in the
281
Horseshoe Creek section (Fig. 8). Rocks of this facies association occur immediately beneath
282
the Meteorite Bore Member around the Hardey Syncline, between the two glaciogenic
283
diamictites at the Horseshoe Creek section, and also above the second diamictite at the
284
Horseshoe Creek section.
285
3.2.1 Facies A: Fine‐grained well sorted rippled sandstone
286
Description: This facies is characterized by sheet-like, fine-grained, well sorted sandstone
287
with abundant symmetric to near-symmetric ripples (Fig. 9a) separated by thin streaks of
288
mudstone. The ripple amplitude and wavelength varies between 0.5–0.8cm and 5–8cm,
289
respectively. The ripple crest lines show bifurcation (Fig. 9b). Two alternating types of
290
sandstone bed include: (i) a thinner bedded variety, consisting of sandstone layers, 1-2cm
291
thick, which display flat and wavy ripple lamination and alternate with; (ii) relatively thicker
292
(~5cm thick), single, beds of sandstone, which have sharp, planar, and locally erosive bases,
293
and wave rippled tops (Fig. 9c).
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Interpretation: Two different energy regimes can be inferred from the two alternating types
295
of sandstone beds: the thicker sandstone beds with sharp planar and locally erosive lower
296
contacts and wave rippled tops indicate deposition during a relatively higher energy period,
297
whereas the relatively thinner sandstone beds with wavy laminations indicate deposition
298
during moderate energy conditions (cf. Johnson, 1977; De Raaf et al., 1977; Cotter, 1990).
299
The geometry and internal stratification style of the thicker sandstone beds are similar to
300
offshore sand sheet beds (cf. Anderton, 1976; Johnson, 1977; Cotter, 1990; Johnson and
301
Baldwin, 1996). Each sandstone bed represents deposition during a single storm event with
302
its wave rippled top indicates wave oscillations during the waning phase of the storm
303
(Johnson, 1977; De Raaf et al., 1977; Cotter, 1990; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996).
304
3.2.2. Facies B: Fine‐grained massive to plane laminated sandstone
305
Description: This fine-grained sandstone facies is either massive or plane laminated (Fig. 9d)
306
and overlies facies A with planar and sharp contacts. Individual beds are up to 10cm thick
307
and are laterally continuous, giving rise to a sheet-like geometry. The lower part of this
308
sandstone facies is massive and is followed upward by plane lamination. The sandstone bed
309
tops bear small, low-amplitude wave ripples, in places.
310
Interpretation: The gradual upward transition from massive to plane lamination within this
311
facies indicates deposition from turbulent suspension (Brenchley and Newall, 1982; Kneller
312
and Branney, 1995; Bose et al., 1997). However, the presence of wave ripples at the tops of
313
these beds indicates wave reworking after sand deposition from suspension, possibly from the
314
near surface generated by storms (Brenchley and Newall, 1982; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996).
315
Such sediments were probably stirred into suspension in the near shore zone and carried
316
offshore by surface currents (Kulm et al., 1975; Brenchley and Newall, 1982). Alternatively,
317
deep wave stirring of fine sandy sediments already on the shelf might have been moved
318
laterally by wind driven currents (Creager and Sternberg, 1972).u
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3.2.3. Facies C: Medium‐grained sandstone with convolute lamination
320
Description: This facies is characterized by medium grained sandstone with convolute
321
lamination and is mostly associated with Facies A (Figs. 8, 10, 11). The sandstone beds are
322
lobate and have sharp upper contacts with the bounding facies (Fig. 12a). Typically, these
323
beds consist of convolutes of thinly bedded medium-grained sandstone and mudstone with
324
truncated (eroded) tops. Each convolute is similar in size to adjacent ones within a single
325
horizon, and can be traced for 10s of metres along strike. Individual convolutes are typically
326
on the order of 10-30 cm. Measured long axes of convolute closures below the upper
327
diamictite at the Horseshoe Creek locality are given in Table 2, measured from bedding that
328
dips 090°/64°S. Untilting of the bedding via a two-step process (first step = untilting of the
329
lower Wyloo Group bedding (strike/dip 110°/30°SSW); second step = untilting of the
330
remaining component of the Turee Creek Group bedding: cf. Ramsay, 1961), indicates long
331
axes of the convolutes oriented almost due north and thus a paleo-shoreline oriented in that
332
direction. This is consistent with the orientation of measured ripple crests (n = 10; untilted
333
orientation towards 353°), which have an asymmetry indicative of flow to the east and thus a
334
shoreline orientation also north-south.
335
Interpretation: Convolute lamination is a complex form of load structure and its formation in
336
sediments indicate penecontemporaneous loading and subsequent dewatering (Dzulynisk,
337
1996; Lowe, 1975; Leeder, 1999 and references therein). Such penecontemporaneous loading
338
and consequent dewatering can be induced by storm generated microseisms (Brenchley and
339
Newall, 1977; Bose, 1983; Allen, 1984; Myrow et al., 2002) or by earthquake shocks
340
(Johnson, 1977; Seilacher, 1984; Pratt, 1994, 1997; Bose et al., 1997; Bhattacharya and
341
Bandyopadhya, 1998; Mazumder et al., 2006, 2009; Van Loon, 2009 and references therein).
342
However the lack of lateral persistency of these convolute laminated sandstones over long
343
distances, their close association with the storm generated facies (Facies A and D), and an
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absence of other earthquake generated deformation structures (seismites, syneresis cracks:
345
Seilecher, 1984; Mazumder et al., 2009; Van Loon, 2009) strongly suggest that the Kungarra
346
Formation convolutes are storm induced loading structures. As with other convolute
347
laminations of this type, the Kungarra convolutes were thus most likely formed during
348
oceanic storms when standing waves were generated as a consequence of collision of waves,
349
of equal or sub-equal period, from different directions. This gave rise to a pressure fluctuation
350
approximately double the frequency of the individual waves that propagated with a high
351
velocity as micro-seisms through the sea-bed, causing liquefaction (Johnson, 1977; Johnson
352
and Baldwin, 1996; Leeder, 1999).
353
3.2.4. Facies D: Medium‐grained hummocky cross‐stratified sandstone
354
Description: This facies is characterized by medium grained sandstone with hummocky
355
cross-stratification (Fig. 12b) and is associated with Facies A. The amplitude and wavelength
356
of the hummocks are on an average 8cm and 30cm, respectively, and the dips of the foresets
357
are 8–12o. Laminae thickness increases towards the hummock crest giving rise to the
358
characteristic hummock and swale pattern (Fig. 12b). In most cases, the hummocks are
359
completely preserved but the swales are truncated. .The top of hummock cross-stratified beds
360
do not bear any evidence of wave reworking.
361 362
Interpretation: Hummocky cross-stratification is widely reported from shallow-marine
363
successions and interpreted as product of storms (Harms et al., 1975; Dott and Bourgeois,
364
1982; Duke, 1985; Dumas et al., 2005; Dumas and Arnott, 2006; Basilici et al., 2012). This
365
hummocky cross-stratified facies indicates a setting above (but near) the storm wave base
366
where aggradation rates during storms was high enough to preserve hummocks and generated
367
low unidirectional currents to produce low-angle, cross-stratification (see Dumas and Arnott,
368
2006). High rates of sedimentation from incipient suspension and limited lateral migration of
369
individual bed forms promote preservation of convex-upward depositional surfaces
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(hummocks) (NØttvedt and Kreisa, 1987). The lack of wave reworking on top of the
371
hummocky cross-stratified beds further constrains their generation in between the storm and
372
fair-weather wave bases (cf. Bose et al., 1997; Mazumder, 2005).
373
3.2.5. Facies E: Very fine‐grained cross‐laminated muddy sandstone
374
Description: This facies is characterized by very fine-grained sandstone with spectacular,
375
rhythmic, climbing ripple cross-lamination with alternate thick and thin foreset planes, which
376
occurs near the very top of the Kungarra Formation, a few metres beneath the coastal-fluvial
377
quartz-rich sandstones of the Koolbye Formation. The ripple crests are sharp and the foreset -
378
toeset contacts are angular (Fig. 12c). The ripples are generally asymmetric, although at
379
places, they are near-symmetric in profile. The sandy foreset planes are laterally bounded by
380
thin mud drapes, giving rise to double mud drapes, and foreset laminae are sometimes
381
liquefied. Ripple crest orientations were oriented mostly N-S, indicating a SW-oriented
382
paleocurrent direction (see Section 5). Near the very top of the Kungarra Formation, ripples
383
within this facies become more irregular in orientation, with changes of up to 60° across
384
superposed bedding planes, and also change character from straight crested to bifurcating
385
(Figs 12d, e).
386
Interpretation: Climbing ripple cross lamination implies high suspension fall out on laterally
387
migrating ripples (Jopling and Walker, 1968; Allen, 1970; Ashley et al., 1982). Ashley et al
388
(1982) have experimentally generated a similar kind of climbing ripple cross-lamination with
389
planar fore set planes in presence of suspended sediments (Ashley et al., 1982, their fig. 7a).
390
The thick-thin alternation in foreset lamina thickness and presence of double mud drapes are
391
consistent with deposition in a sub tidal setting (see Visser, 1980; De Boer et al., 1989;
392
Mazumder, 2004). The near-symmetric ripples are combined flow ripples and indicate wave
393
influence. The facies is thus interpreted to represent formation in a tide-wave interactive
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subtidal (lower) to intertidal setting (cf. Johnson and Baldwin, 1996; Williams, 2000;
395
Mazumder and Arima, 2005, 2013).
396
3.2.6. Facies F: Coarse‐grained, large‐scale, cross‐stratified sandstone
397
Description: This facies is characterized by large-scale cross-stratified, well-sorted coarse-
398
grained sandstone (Fig. 13a) and occurs at two intervals in the Horseshoe Creek section, both
399
of which are near the base of successive glaciogenic diamictites (Figs 8, 10, 11). The set
400
thickness of the cross-stratified units is up to 50cm. This facies overlies very fine-grained
401
sandstone with climbing ripple lamination (Facies E) and represents the upper part of a
402
coarsening up sequence (Fig. 8). Reconstruction of measurements foresets indicates a
403
direction of flow (ENE) at almost 90° to that defined by ripples in the finer-grained
404
sandstones of this facies association (paleoflow direction NW: see Section 5).
405
Interpretation: Coarser grain-size, large-scale cross stratification (dune) suggests that this
406
facies represents longshore bar (De Raaf et al., 1977; Reineck and Singh, 1980; Bose et al.,
407
1988; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996). The coarsening upward nature of the succession (Fig. 9)
408
indicates a fall in sea level during which the bars formed. The association of facies E and F is
409
indicative of a near coastal regressive marginal marine setting (Eriksson, 1979; Johnson and
410
Baldwin, 1996; Eriksson et al., 1998; Pant and Shukla, 1999).
411
3.2.7. Facies G: Massive to laminated/cross‐laminated carbonate
412
Description: Thin (1-10 cm) beds of carbonate with locally preserved ripples and laminar
413
bedding occur interbedded with rippled very fine-grained sandstone and siltstone of Facies E
414
below the Meteorite Bore Member on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline (Fig. 13b).
415
Ripples are often preserved in local domains, rather than in discrete beds, and locally well
416
develop lamination passes along strike into massive, featureless carbonate. At one locality, a
417
30 cm thick layer of poorly stratified carbonate was observed to have an erosional lower
418
contact with rippled fine-grained siliciclastic sandstones and mudstones (Fig. 13c), and
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contains crude desiccation cracks (Fig. 13d), suggestive of deposition under very shallow
420
water, to possibly even periodically exposed conditions. A separate horizon contains low-
421
amplitude (5 cm height, 20 cm half-wavelength) domical stromatolites (Fig. 13e).
422
Interpretation: These unusual carbonate horizons are interpreted as calcarenites, and at least
423
two beds were deposited in shallow, and perhaps even exposed, conditions (one with
424
desiccation cracks and downcutting lower contact, and one with stromatolites). This is
425
certainly diagnostic of very shallow deposition and probable diagenetic recrystallization of
426
carbonate sands that has obliterated sedimentary textures, possibly as beach-rock deposition.
427
3.2.8 Facies H: Stromatolitic carbonate
428
Description: Three thin units of stromatolitic carbonate (calcite) have been identified in the
429
middle part of the Kungarra Formation, below the Meteorite Bore Member, in both the
430
Horseshoe Creek section on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline and on the southern
431
limb of the Hardey Syncline at Meteorite Bore (Figs. 8, 10). These horizons contain broad
432
(10-40 cm wide by 20 cm high) domical stromatolites that consist of crinkly microbial
433
laminations interbedded with bedded siliciclastics, and carbonate-bearing flanks (Fig. 13f).
434
Larger domes are constructed from aggregates of smaller domical structures that display
435
well-defined growth walls and upwardly increasing diameter (Fig. 13g). Stromatolite crests
436
may be highly elongate, indicative of growth in flowing water (Fig. 13h).
437
The lower stromatolite member consists of elongated, single columns with long column
438
crests, stretching parallel to each other in a rather straight pattern for several decimeters to
439
more than two meters. These columns make up lenticular – domal bioherms of several metres
440
to tens of metres of lateral extend and thickness. The lower parts of the bioherms are,
441
however, laterally linked and build elongated domes which start to isolate from each other
442
from a height of c. 20 cm, constructing intercolumnar traps for carbonate mud rocks and
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stromatolitic debris. In the uppemost parts of the columns, they build rare branches that are
444
wide and flat.
445
Interpretation: Stromatolites generally thrive in the photic zone, in areas of low to moderate
446
current energy (Walter, 1976). These stromatolites clearly grew in a system with relatively
447
high siliciclastic sediment supply, but were able to thrive and precipitate carbonate along
448
flank areas during (?seasonal?) periods of low sediment supply and/or increased carbonate
449
ion concentration in seawater. The presence of stromatolites in cross-laminated siliciclastic
450
sediment indicates a shallow water depositional environment (Walter, 1976; Hofmann et al.,
451
1980; see Sakurai et al., 2005, their fig. 10c).
452
The base of this succession can be interpreted as a shallow intertidal to subtidal setting,
453
passing upward to a subtidal setting influenced by high energy uni- or bidirectional currents
454
in the middle of the stromatolitic section. Subsequently, lower energy conditions in a shallow
455
subtidal setting witnessed development of stromatolites with branching columns. The
456
elongated columns in the middle of this stromatolite section are arranged parallel to tidal
457
currents and reflect changing sediment supply and current velocity from high energy to
458
successively lower energy but with a higher burial rate by fine sediment influx (e.g.,
459
Altermann, 2007). Thus, an overall deepening up scenario is inferred, which is supported by
460
the occurrence of overlying lithic arenite sheets, which can be interpreted as long-shore bars,
461
and then by lithic arenites with convoluted bedding in which convolutes have long axes
462
pointing in varying directions, which can be interpreted as storm deposits of below fair
463
weather wave base.
464
3.3 Facies association 3: Glaciogenic diamictite‐sandstone
465
Diamictite of demonstrably glaciogenic origin is preserved around the Hardey Syncline (Fig.
466
3: Trendall, 1979; Martin, 1999; Martin et al., 2000). The lower of two glaciogenic
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diamictites, the Meteorite Bore Member, varies in thickness from southeast (thicker) to
468
northwest (thinner); at the type section at Meteorite Bore on the southern limb of the Hardey
469
Syncline, massive, coarse diamictite and interbedded sandstone-siltstone of the Meteorite
470
Bore Member is ~420 m thick (Fig. 14), whereas on the north limb of the syncline, only 15
471
km away, coarse diamictite and sandstone of the Meteorite Bore Member is only 300 m thick
472
(Fig. 8).
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At Horseshoe Creek, a second unit of glaciogenic diamictite occurs near the top of the
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473
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Kungarra Formation, stratigraphically above the Meteorite Bore Member (Fig. 8: Van
475
Kranendonk and Mazumder, in review).
476
Description: This facies consists predominantly of thick beds (to 30 m) of massive matrix-
477
supported diamictite with no, or very poor internal structure, and sparsely interbedded thin
478
(<1 m) units of fine to medium sandstone to fine, pebbly siltstone with subangular to
479
subrounded clasts (gritstone: Fig. 15a). Diamictite of the meteorite Bore Member on the
480
northern limb of the Hardey Syncline locally contains a single bed, 3 m thick, of medium to
481
coarse, well sorted, quartz-rich sandstone. This unit pinches out completely along strike over
482
a distance of <100m and is broadly trough shaped. Small, highly irregular lenses of medium-
483
grained, quartz-rich sandstone are scattered irregularly and sparsely throughout the
484
diamictite, but reach a maximum size of only 1 m long by 30-40 cm thick.
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The coarse diamictite contains randomly scattered, outsize clasts (dropstones) that are
486
well rounded to subangular and range in size from 1–80 cm (Fig. 15b). The outsize clasts lie
487
within a matrix of silt to medium sandstone, comprising lithic wacke that consists of quartz-
488
sericite-chlorite with scattered, generally angular to sub-rounded quartz and feldspar grains
489
(Fig. 15c). The outsize clasts are demonstrably of glacial origin due to the presence of
490
facetted and striated faces (Fig. 15d), presence of tabular clasts oriented vertically with
Page 20 of 91
respect to bedding and that penetrate down into underlying siltstone-sandstone (Fig. 15e), and
492
by a lack of graded bedding or clast imbrication in any of the diamictite (see also Martin,
493
1999). Dropstones predominantly consist of feldspar and/or quartz porphyritic rhyolite, with
494
lesser amounts of bedded to massive carbonate, sandstone, finely layered chert and
495
ferruginous chert, granite, and leucogabbro. Notable in the Meteorite Bore section is the fact
496
that the dominant clast population varies upsection, from rhyolite across the lower half, to
497
carbonate in the third quarter (Fig. 15f), and sandstone in the top quarter of the section.
498
Whereas rhyolite clasts occur throughout the entire section, carbonate and sandstone clasts
499
are restricted to the upper parts of the section. The largest clast, an 80 cm angular block of
500
rhyolite, occurs near the top of the diamictite. This type of diamictite is not present at either
501
the Boundary Ridge or Deepdale sections.
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A ~43 m thick, second unit of coarse diamictite near the top of the Kungarra Formation in the Horseshoe Creek section (Fig. 8), contains many of the same features as the
504
underlying Meteorite Bore Member, including randomly scattered, outsize clasts that are
505
subrounded to well rounded and range in size from 1–40 cm (Figs 16a). The outsize clasts lie
506
within a matrix of silt to medium sandstone with well-rounded to subangular grains. The
507
outsize clasts are not distributed in graded bedding nor are they imbricated. Dropstones
508
predominantly consist of bedded to massive carbonate and calc-silicate (Fig. 16b), sandstone,
509
finely layered chert and ferruginous chert, and feldspar and/or quartz porphyritic rhyolite.
510
Boulder-size clasts are commonly facetted, with well-developed glacial striae, including
511
multiple directions of striae on some boulders (Figs 16c, 16d).
512
Interpretation: Diamictites can originate through a number of different processes, including
513
mass waste flow, deposition from melting icesheets, and tectonic disruption (Eyles, 2008).
514
However, the presence of striated faces on facetted boulders, the scattered nature of outsize
515
clasts throughout up to 600 m of diamictite, and the clearly penetrating nature of some
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boulders into lower strata clearly supports previous interpretations of the units as glaciogenic
517
in origin (Trendall, 1979; Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Van Kranendonk and
518
Mazumder, in press). Martin (1999) interpreted the coarse diamictite facies of the Meteorite
519
Bore Member as having been deposited in a glaciomarine setting, through melting of an
520
icesheet over a marine basin. We concur with this interpretation, but suggest that the unit was
521
deposited under relatively shallow water conditions, based on observations from underlying
522
and overlying lithology (facies association 2) and presence of the lens of well sorted quartz-
523
rich sandstone, which suggests a channelized input from a nearshore source.
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The change upsection in clast composition at the Meteorite Bore section is similar to
an
524
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516
that observe in more recent glacial deposits, where shallow water units deposited during a
526
falling stage systems tract associated with onset of glaciations (ice-related drawdown of
527
sealevel) are eroded and cannibalised by glaciation and incorporated into diamictite during
528
glacial melting (Plint and Nummendal, 2000). The occurrence of the largest dropstones near
529
the top of the MBM suggests that this represents the peak in glacial melting and furthest
530
outflow of the icesheets.
532 533
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4. Sedimentary Facies Analysis at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities A new discovery at the Deepdale locality is significant in terms of interpreted
534
lithostratigraphy. Previously, Martin (1999) interpreted the glaciogenic diamictites there to be
535
overlain by a unit, several metres thick, of banded iron-formation. This observation was used
536
by him to suggest that the glacial diamictites were deposited as part of the Boolgeeda Iron
537
Formation of the Hamersley Group, in a deepwater part of the basin, even though he
538
considered they were the temporal equivalents of the Meteorite Bore Member further to the
539
east. Swanner et al. (2013) agreed, but used this, in combination with sulphur isotope data, to
Page 22 of 91
540
suggest that the Deepdale glaciogenic diamictites were a temporally distinct, older, unit
541
relative to the Meteorite Bore Member.
542
Our mapping of this area has cast a different light on this relationship (Fig. 17). Rather than forming part of a conformable sequence, careful mapping has revealed that the
544
banded iron-formation above the glacial diamictites belong to an unconformably overlying,
545
younger succession dominated by mudstones that, although unconstrained in terms of either
546
age or stratigraphic affinity (the area is mapped at only 1:250,000 regional scale, based on
547
geology undertaken in 1963-64: Williams et al., 1972), most likely represents the basal part
548
of the c. 1800 Ma Ashburton Formation in the upper Wyloo Group, based on descriptions in
549
Seymour et al. (1998) and Johnson (2013).
550
4.1 Facies Association 4: Glaciogenic diamictite (deepwater facies)
551
Glaciogenic diamictites are only three metres thick and occur at the very base of the
552
Kungarra Formation at the Boundary Ridge section (Fig. 1), where they lie conformably on
553
banded iron-formation and jaspilitic to grey layered chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation of
554
the Hamersley Group (Figs 18, 19a: Martin, 1999; Van Kranendonk, 2010; Williford et al.,
555
2011). At this locality, the base of the Turee Creek Group (base of Kungarra Formation) is
556
defined as the first appearance of mudstones with scattered outsize clasts. Underlying rocks
557
of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (Hamersley Group) consist dominantly of millimetre-
558
bedded, magnetic banded iron-formation, which transitions into the Turee Creek Group
559
across a conformably overlying, 10 cm thick, unit of millimetre-bedded chert that shows clear
560
compositional grading upsection from jaspilitic chert interbedded with thin seams of
561
magnetic iron-formation, to jaspilitic chert, then to jaspilitic chert with thin beds of grey chert
562
and, finally, grey chert (Fig. 19b).
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Page 23 of 91
563
Glaciogenic sedimentary rocks at the Boundary Ridge locality include four distinct lithofacies, including, mudstone with scattered outsize clasts, lithic sandstone with scattered
565
outsize clasts, conglomerate with predominantly carbonate clasts, and thinly bedded
566
calcisiltite.
ip t
564
At Deepdale, glaciogenic diamictites and associated rocks are ~3 m thick and, as at
568
the Boundary Ridge locality, lie conformably on banded iron-formations of the Hamersley
569
Group (Fig. 20). The base of the Turee Creek Group (Kungarra Formation) is defined at this
570
locality as the first mudstone with scattered outsize clasts lying directly on banded iron-
571
formation of the Hamersley Group.
572
4.1.1 Facies A: Mudstone with outsize clasts
573
Description: Mudstone with scattered outsize clasts to 30 cm occurs at several intervals
574
throughout the Boundary Ridge section, including the basal unit of the section, as a unit
575
interbedded with medium-grained lithic sandstone containing scattered outsize clasts, and at
576
the top of the glaciogenic succession (Fig. 18). The mudstone of this unit is very thinly
577
bedded and dark green in colour (Fig. 21a), and was observed in the field to contain locally
578
abundant fine-grained pyrite that detailed analysis has shown is dominantly detrital in origin
579
and derived from Neoarchean source rocks, although some pyrite grains are demonstrably the
580
result of biogenic sulfate reduction on the basis of highly fractionated δ34S values (Williford
581
et al., 2011). Scattered throughout the mudstone of this facies are well-rounded outsize clasts,
582
generally 5-10 cm in diameter, but reaching a maximum of 30 cm in the uppermost unit (Fig.
583
21b). At least some of the outsize clasts have a clearly penetrating relationship down into
584
underlying mudstone, indicative of an origin from floating ice sheets (Fig. 21a).
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Page 24 of 91
Diamictite with very coarse, well rounded to subangular boulder-size clasts of
586
porphyritic rhyolite (to 40 cm) in a mudstone-siltstone matrix forms the uppermost part of the
587
glaciogenic section at Deepdale (Martin, 1999).
588
Interpretation: The overall similarity of this diamictite to the Boundary Ridge section
589
strongly supports a glaciogenic origin, but whether deposited directly from a floating ice
590
sheet, or by turbidity currents of reworked glaciogenic rocks from shallower water
591
environments has not been investigated in detail. However, the penetrative nature of clasts
592
within diamictites with a mudstone matrix at Boundary Ridge unequivocally indicate at least
593
local deposition directly from melting of a floating ice sheet (cf. Martin, 1999).
594
4.1.2 Facies B: Quartz‐rich sandstone with outsize clasts
595
Description: The Boundary Ridge glaciogenic section contains three beds of medium-grained
596
quartz-rich sandstone with scattered, subangular to well-rounded outsize clasts to 15 cm
597
(Figs. 18, 21c, d). Whereas the sandstones have the appearance of being generally massive in
598
outcrop, they are in fact thinly bedded at a 1-3 millimetre scale. Angular to subrounded clasts
599
consist primarily of quartz, but kerogenous clasts, oolitic limestone, and detrital pyrite grains
600
were also observed (Figs 21e, f). These clasts lie within in a siltstone matrix, and contain
601
irregular patches of fine silt that may derive from melted ice pellets (Fig. 15c).
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585
Outsize clasts are most commonly quartz and feldspar porphyritic rhyolite, but
603
carbonate clasts were also observed. The uppermost sandstone bed at the Boundary Ridge
604
section contains a large-scale slump structure, indicative of deposition from turbidity currents
605
(Fig. 22a).
606
Interpretation: The relatively coarse-grained nature of the sandstone units compared with
607
surrounding mudstone units, the thin bedding within the sandstones, and the presence of
608
slump folds suggest that these sandstone units represent deepwater turbidites derived from a
Page 25 of 91
glaciogenic source (diamictite with dropstones) during periods of relative sealevel lowstand
610
compared to the surrounding mudstone units.
611
4.1.3 Facies C: Conglomerate with carbonate clasts
612
Description: A thin unit of conglomerate with dominantly carbonate clasts lies at the base of
613
sandstone bed 3 at the Boundary Ridge section (Figs. 18, 22b). Clasts are up to 15
614
centimetres in diameter and vary from moderately well rounded to subrounded. Some clasts
615
display a clear penetrative fabric into underlying mudstone, indicative of deposition as
616
dropstones (Fig. 22c).
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617
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609
Carbonate conglomerate is also present at Deepdale, where it is 15 cm thick, pale brown weathering, and consists of predominantly carbonate pebbles to granules in a matrix of
619
mixed fine-grained carbonate and siliciclastic material (Fig. 22d). Crude bedding at a
620
centimetre scale was observed in outcrop.
621
Interpretation: As with the interbedded mudstones (Facies A at Boundary Ridge), the
622
penetrative fabrics of some carbonate clasts into the mudstone matrix of this facies clearly
623
indicate deposition under the influence of a floating icesheet, in deepwater conditions. That
624
the clasts are predominantly of carbonate rocks, rather than the more common rhyolite clasts
625
of the other facies here and in the Hardey Syncline area, indicates preferential glacial erosion
626
of a carbonate unit, perhaps due to the erosion and cannibalisation of shallow water units
627
deposited during a falling stage systems tract associated with onset of glaciations (ice-related
628
drawdown of sealevel) (Plint and Nummedal, 2000).
629
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618
At Deepdale, no evidence of direct deposition by glaciers was observed in this unit
630
and thus there is the possibility that the carbonate conglomerate here represents a distal mass
631
flow deposit rather than a direct glaciogenic deposit. Nevertheless, the composition of this
632
unit indicates that it was derived from a distinct source to that in overlying units.
Page 26 of 91
4.1.4 Facies D: Calcilutite
634
A 1 cm thick unit of calcilutite was observed between the underlying carbonate conglomerate
635
and the overlying sandstone bed 3. Composed exclusively of pale cream, fine-grained
636
carbonate, very fine-scale bedding (<1 mm) was observed in outcrop (Fig. 22e). In thin
637
section, this unit was observed to consist of fine dolomite rhombs in a silty matrix (Fig. 22f).
638
A few scattered, very well rounded clasts occur within the calcilutite at the Boundary Ridge
639
locality, these do not show unequivocal evidence of a glaciogenic origin.
us
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633
At Deepdale, a 1 cm thick unit of calcilutite lies directly on the carbonate
641
conglomerate of Facies C (Fig. 22d). It is a featureless unit in outcrop, but that may only
642
reflect its very fine grain size.
643
Interpretation: The very fine-scale bedding preserved within the calcilutite suggests that this
644
unit is a deepwater turbidite deposit derived from erosion of an exposed carbonate platform.
645
The fact that this unit directly overlies diamictite with exclusively carbonate clasts provides
646
supporting evidence of a distal carbonate platform being actively eroded during periods of
647
glacial advance (diamictite) and retreat (calcilutite).
648
4.1.5 Facies E: Polymict cobble conglomerate and sandstone
649
Description: Polymict cobble to pebble conglomerate with well-rounded to subangular clasts
650
and a sandstone matrix occurs in the middle part of the glaciogenic section at Deepdale (Fig.
651
20). Clasts predominantly consist of white, feldspar- and quartz-porphyritic rhyolite, but also
652
include aphanitic grey rocks and carbonate (Fig. 23a). A 15 cm thick unit of medium-grained
653
lithic sandstone with rhythmic bedding occurs within the conglomerate (Fig. 23b). Well
654
defined planar beds are 2-10 millimetres thick, defined by slight changes in grain size, from
655
medium sand to fine silt.
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Page 27 of 91
Interpretation: The well bedded nature of the sandstone unit within this facies, combined
657
with the polymict composition of the conglomerate clasts and their generally well rounded
658
nature, suggests this facies was deposited through sediment gravity flow, with the
659
conglomerate representing a mass flow deposit and the sandstone component representing
660
lower energy deposition of turbidites.
661
4.1.6 Facies F: Quartz‐rich sandstone
662
Description: A 10 cm thick unit of white, medium-grained quartz-rich sandstone overlies the
663
polymict pebble conglomerate at Deepdale. No distinctive sedimentary features were
664
observed in this unit.
665
Interpretation: The compositional maturity of these rocks indicates reworking by currents
666
and/or wave in shallow marine condition during sea level fall (Boggs, 2009).
667 668
4.2 Facies Association 5: Mudstone, Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone, jaspilitic chert, calcarenite
669
Description: At the Boundary Ridge locality, mudstone that is interbedded with thin units of
670
ferruginous chert, an Mn-rich ferruginous unit, and beds of calcarenite conformably overlie
671
glaciogenic sedimentary rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member.
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672
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656
Mudstone of this facies is very thinly bedded and contains large elliptical concretions,
673
up to 40 cm long by 20 cm wide in silicified mudstone units 10-20 cm thick located close
674
above the glacial diamictites (Fig. 24a-c).
675
A black-weathering, millimetre-bedded unit, 40-40 cm thick, and consisting of
676
alternating black and pale yellow layers (Fig. 24d), contains up to 8.4 wt % Mn, 38.68 wt %
677
Fe2O3(total) and 8.1 wt %2-4 wt % Al2O3.
Page 28 of 91
678
Thin units (5 cm thick) of millimetre-bedded ferruginous (hematitic) chert overlie the
679
laminated Mn-rich unit at the Boundary Ridge locality, but are markedly less Fe-rich than
680
corresponding units of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation and non-magnetic. Three units of well bedded and locally cross-laminated calcarenite are preserved in
682
the Boundary Ridge section, ~100 m stratigraphically above the glacial diamictites. These
683
units are only up to 30 cm thick and occur together over an interval of only 5-10 m at this
684
locality. Bedding is at a millimetre-scale, but cross-lamination sets can be up to 4 cm thick
685
(Fig. 24e).
686
Interpretation: This facies association clearly represents the deep water deposition of fine-
687
grained siliciclastic material and chemical sdiments, below storm wave base. The black and
688
yellow layered unit represents a Mn-rich, ferruginous mudstone and would appear to mark
689
the next (post-Fe) stage associated with the rise of atmospheric oxygen.
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681
The local occurrence of cross-bedded calcarenites higher up in this facies suggests
691
periods of far-distant transport of reworked carbonate material originally precipitated in a
692
shallower depositional environment into the deeper water part of the basin.
693
5. Paleocurrent data
694
Paleocurrent data was collected from outcrops at several levels in the stratigraphy, from
695
cross-bed sets and from asymmetric ripple crests. The data is presented in Table 3 and was
696
rotated to the paleohorizontal using a two-step untilting process involving first, untilting of
697
the bedding dip of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (110°/30° SW) and then
698
the remaining dip component of the Kungarra Formation. The reconstructed data show that
699
paleocurrents switched between two dominant directions; to the northwest in deeper water
700
facies, and to the northeast-southwest in shallower water facies (Fig. 25). The best controls
701
on these two different paleocurrent directions are from the coarse-grained, cross-stratified
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Page 29 of 91
702
sand sheet at the base of the first diamictite, interpreted as a longshore bar (Facies
703
Association 2F), and from the section between the two diamictites, interpreted as deeper
704
water facies. The data is interpreted to show that there was shoreline oriented ENE-WSW and that
ip t
705
sediment was transported into the deeper part of the basin to the NW, which is consistent
707
with the lithostratigraphic thinning of the Meteorite Bore Member between the south and
708
northern limbs of the Hardey Syncline area, and between these areas and the Boundary Ridge
709
and Deepdale areas.
710
6. Carbon and Oxygen isotope data
711
6.1 Samples
712
Six samples of carbonate rocks were sampled for C and O isotopic analyses (Table 4).
713
Samples include two separate analyses of the thinly bedded calcilutite from within the glacial
714
section, and four samples of bedded calcarenites from just above the glacial section at the
715
Boundary Ridge locality. These are compared with data previously obtained from thin units
716
of bedded carbonate rocks from below the glacial diamictites in the lower part of the
717
Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality, from carbonate diamictite at Deepdale,
718
and from stromatolitic dolomites in the overlying Kazput Formation of the uppermost Turee
719
Creek Group (Table 4: Lindsay and Brasier, 2002). It is important to note here that the
720
samples from the lower Kungarra Formation analysed by Lindsay and Brasier (2002) were
721
wrongly ascribed by these authors to the stratigraphically higher Kazput Formation, but
722
mapping of the area clearly shows they are from the lower part of the Kungarra Formation,
723
below the Meteorite Bore Member (Fig. 3).
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Page 30 of 91
6.2 Method
725
The powdered bulk samples were reacted with 100% anhydrous phosphoric acid (H3PO4) for
726
800 seconds at 90°C of equilibrium temperature in a vacuum. The released CO2 was purified
727
and analyzed for carbon and oxygen isotope compositions using an isotope ratio mass
728
spectrometer (IsoPrime, GV Instruments, UK) installed at CMCR, Kochi University.
The analytical precision was better than 0.05‰ for the carbon isotope ratio and
cr
729
ip t
724
0.06‰ for the oxygen isotope ratio of standard reference material NBS-19 (carbonate
731
standard distributed by IAEA) (Table 4). The results are expressed using standard delta
732
notation with reference to the Vienna PeeDee Belemnite (VPDB) standard.
733
6.3 Results
734
Carbon and oxygen isotope data from this study are presented in Table 4 and compared to the
735
whole of the Turee Creek Group in Table 5 and in Figure 26. A clear secular change with
736
stratigraphic height is apparent, varying from negative δ13C values below the glacial
737
diamictites, to mildly negative values in rocks from within and just above the glacial section,
738
to slightly positive values in rocks from well above the glacial section (Kazput Formation).
739
Similarly, δ18O values vary from slightly negative below and within the glacial section, to
740
more highly negative values in rocks from above the glacial diamictites (Fig. 26).
741
7. Discussion
742
7.1 Stratigraphic trends
743
Facies analysis shows that the Kungarra Formation represents a generally shallowing-
744
upward, predominantly siliciclastic, succession, within which are a number of reversals in
745
relative base level. Commencing with deep water facies, the Kungarra Formation culminates
746
in a subtidal - intertidal flat succession immediately beneath the well sorted quartz-rich
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Page 31 of 91
coastal-fluvial succession of the conformably overlying Koolbye Formation (Mazumder et
748
al., in press).
749
Facies association 1 of the Kungarra Formation formed in a relatively deep-water, offshore
750
setting below the storm wave base, partly in a starved basin, as indicated by the presence of
751
ferruginous cherts at the base of the formation (cf. Stow et al., 1996; Bose et al., 1997;
752
Shanmugam, 2003; Mazumder and Arima, 2013). The lower Kungarra Formation units lack
753
characteristic features of turbidites and thus we agree with previous interpretations that these
754
rocks were deposited at the distal end of a delta (e.g., Krapez, 1996; Martin et al., 2000).
755
The basal contact of the Kungarra Formation at Horseshoe Creek, and to a lesser extent at the
756
Boundary Ridge section, shows a transition from Hamersley Group banded iron-formation to
757
Turee Creek Group shales across a unit(s) of progressively more iron-lean ‘shale’ and chert
758
(Figs 4, 19). The progressively less iron-rich composition of siliceous chemical sedimentary
759
rocks upsection suggests a progressive decrease in the amount of dissolved iron in the
760
seawater, which is consistent with the observed sulphur-isotopic evidence for a rise of oxygen
761
across this interval and resultant scrubbing of the world’s oceans of dissolved iron (Williford
762
et al., 2011), following which Mn-rich units were deposited with, presumably, progressively
763
increasing levels of atmospheric oxygen.
764
The lower Kungarra succession contrasts with the abundant evidence - from combined flow
765
ripples and wave ripples, and from the presence of stromatolitic carbonates and even possible
766
beachrock - for the depositional environment of facies association 2 in the middle to upper
767
Kungarra Formation at the Hardey Syncline under a wave-agitated, shallow marine setting,
768
between the storm weather wave base and periodically exposed conditions (De Raaf et al.,
769
1977; Brenchley and Newall, 1977; Johnson, 1977; Bose, 1983; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996;
770
Myrow and Southard, 1996; Bose et al., 1997; Dumas and Arnott, 2006; Basilici et al., 2012).
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Page 32 of 91
This part of the succession is consistent with a shallowing-upwards trend, during the
772
progradation of a marine delta system.
773
The upper part of the Kungarra Formation at Horseshoe Creek shows evidence for shorter
774
periods of relative sea level rise and fall associated with two well-defined glacio-eustatic
775
cycles (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press). The first cycle commences with the onset
776
of a basin deepening event at the erosional base of the carbonate beach rock with desiccation
777
cracks. Periods of rapid sea level fall are represented by the sudden appearance (sharp lower
778
contacts) of the sand sheets that immediately underlie each of the two diamictites (S1 at 250
779
m and S2 at 800 m in Fig. 8). The presence of large scale cross-bedding with shore parallel
780
paleocurrent in these coarse, highly mature (quartz-rich) sand sheets indicate these are long
781
shore bars (Johnson and Baldwin, 1996; Pant and Shukla, 1999; Sarkar et al., 2005). The
782
sharp lower contacts of these two sand sheets suggest the rapid onset of falling stage systems
783
tracts (Plint and Nummedal, 2000), a feature supported by the appearance of carbonate clasts
784
within the upper part of the MBM (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in press).
785
Periods of relative sea level rise (transgressive systems tracts) during and following on from
786
diamictite deposition are indicated by: a) wave-rippled sandstones above the nearshore sand
787
sheets; b) intervals of mudstone above each of the diamictites (at 750–800 m and 1260 m in
788
Fig. 8); and c) the thicknesses of the glacial diamictites, which are thicker (50–400 m) than
789
the 15–30 m depth of seawater indicated by wave-generated ripples in units immediately
790
underlying each of the diamictites. Such transgressive systems tracts are common at the end
791
of major glaciations as water volume is transferred from continental ice sheets to the oceans
792
(Ghienne, 2003). Similar evidence for post-glacial transgression is preserved at both the
793
Deepdale and Boundary Ridge localities, where the re-appearance of ferruginous mudstones
794
and cherts above glacial diamictites indicates a temporary return to starved, deep basinal
795
conditions. Significantly, the appearance of Mn-rich ferruginous mudstones above the
Ac ce p
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771
Page 33 of 91
796
Boundary Ridge glaciogenic succession suggests that oxygen levels had risem at least
797
temporally, to significant levels by this time. Glacial conditions are additionally characterised in the Kungarra Formation by light
798
δ18O values (-2 to -6‰) in glaciogenic and immediately sub-glaciogenic rocks, which
800
contrast sharply with heavier values for rocks deposited under non-glacial conditions (-10 to -
801
14‰). Such distinctive oxygen isotope signatures have been noted in other Paleoproterozoic
802
and younger glacial successions (e.g., Schrag et al., 1996; Halverson et al., 2002) and show
803
the potential of this method to reveal additional paleoclimatic information in well preserved
804
Precambrian rocks.
an
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ip t
799
Units formerly described as banded iron-formation overlying glacial diamictites at
805
Deepdale and Boundary Ridge are discounted: whereas at the latter they are part of an
807
unconfomrably overlying succession, at the former they either consist of Mn-rich ferruginous
808
mudstones or jaspilitic cherts, but are, in either case, sufficiently distinct from the underlying
809
Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group to allay any concerns that the diamictites
810
in these localities are either part of that older formation, or a different age to that from the
811
type Meteorite Bore locality in the Hardey Syncline (Van Kranendonk and Mazumder, in
812
press).
813
7.2 Basin Architecture and tectonic setting
814
Following a model first proposed by Horwitz (1982, 1987) and Powell and Horwitz (1994),
815
and re-iterated by Krapez (1996), Martin (1999) and Martin et al. (2000), the Turee Creek
816
Group was interpreted to have been deposited in a developing foreland basin – the McGrath
817
Trough – during the Capricorn orogeny. Martin et al. (2000) suggested that paleocurrent
818
indicators of easterly-directed flow in the lower Kungarra Formation were along the axis of a
819
basin deepening to the north.
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Page 34 of 91
However, there are three problems with this model. First is that paleocurrent data and
821
evidence from lithostratigraphic variations across the outcrop area of the Turee Creek Group
822
indicate that the paleo-shoreline was oriented NE-SW and that the basin deepened to the
823
northwest. Deposition of the diamictites at the Boundary Ridge and Deepdale localities under
824
deep water conditions is indicated by: the predominance of fine-grained lithologies
825
(mudstone matrix to the diamictites and calcilutites); the fact that coarser-grained lithologies
826
(sandstone matrix to diamictites) are turbidites and thus far-travelled rocks; and the return to
827
starved, deepwater basinal conditions (i.e., re-appearance of ferruginous banded cherts)
828
following the deposition of glaciogenic rocks. This contrasts with abundant evidence for
829
shallow water deposition immediately above and below the Meteorite Bore Member in the
830
Hardey Syncline, above the storm wave base. The deepening of the basin to the northwest is
831
further supported by the presence of the 1600m thick succession of fine-grained clastic
832
sedimentary rocks between the top of the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation and the
833
Metorite Bore Member in the Hardey Syncline area, versus the fact that glaciogenic rocks lie
834
directly on the top of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation at both the Boundary Ridge and
835
Deepdale localities. This indicates that the latter areas represent extremely compressed
836
sections missing a thick basal sequence relative to the Hardey Syncline area to the east. Given
837
that the glacial diamictites in the Kungarra Formation represent a temporal marker horizon,
838
these observations clearly indicate deeper water deposition in the west and moderate to
839
shallow water deposition in the east. Given these observations, we therefore interpret the
840
deposition of the Kungarra Formation as consisting of a northwesterly-prograding
841
sedimentary wedge, sourcing material from the (south)east and progressively filling up the
842
Turee Creek Basin from (south)east to (north)west (Fig. 27).
843 844
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820
The second major problem with the foreland basin model for the Turee Creek Group proposed by previous authors is that there is no evidence of typical foredeep features; there
Page 35 of 91
are no seismites, no internal unconformities, and no evidence of thrusting. The numerous
846
beds with convolute laminations in the Kungarra Formation are interpreted to have formed
847
due to storm action, an interpretation supported by the presence of hummocky cross-
848
stratification within the section. Furthermore, there is no evidence of a mountain belt in the
849
southeast at this time and the detrital zircon record from the Meteorite Bore Member (see
850
Takehara et al., 2010) is inconsistent with the patterns documented from actual foredeeps,
851
specifically a predominance of juvenile zircons from accreted and uplifted arc rocks (e.g.,
852
Martin et al., 2008): rather the detrital zircon record from the Meteorite Bore Member – as
853
indeed from unconformably overlying rocks of the lower Wyloo Group – records primarily
854
the recycling of basement rocks (see also Nelson, 2004).
cr
us
an
Thirdly, the existing foreland basin (McGrath Trough) model, which was originally
M
855
ip t
845
developed in the absence of any geochronological constraints, is weakened by the fact that
857
the proposed trough (foreland basin) is now known to consist of three unconformably-bound
858
rock packages (Turee Creek Group, lower Wyloo Group, upper Wyloo Group) deposited over
859
an immensely long time span (e.g., 2450-1800 Ma = 650 Ma), deformed by at least two
860
distinct orogenies, and including a volcanic-dominated rift assemblage (Beasley River
861
Quartzite and Cheela Springs Basalt of the lower Wyloo Group: Van Kranendonk, 2010;
862
Mazumder and Van Kranendonk, 2013).
te
Ac ce p
863
d
856
An alternative model for the Turee Creek Group, preferred here, is a failed rift/passive
864
margin succession, and/or an intracontinental basin, with sediment derived from erosion of an
865
uplifted (non-orogenic) hinterland. Whereas a northwesterly deepening basin architecture for
866
the Turee Creek Group is problematic for a shelf-to-slope passive continental margin
867
depositional model, on account of the fact that the basin should be deepening to the
868
southwest, we consider that the Kungarra Formation was most likely deposited within an
869
intracratonic basin during uplift of a hinterland to the southeast that may have been
Page 36 of 91
accompanied by a component of extension during an episode of failed rifting. Filling in of the
871
Turee Creek Basin may have been triggered by the exhumation that accompanied the
872
cratonization of all continental lithosphere at the end of the Archean (e.g. Taylor and
873
McLennan, 1985; Flament et al., 2008), and/or by uplift of basement domains within the
874
cores of developing domes. Further work is required to constrain the depositional model, in
875
particular a thorough study of the remainder of the Turre Creek Group and its transition to the
876
lower Wyloo Group.
877
8. Conclusions
878
879
Detailed stratigraphic facies analysis of the Paleoproterozoic Kungarra Formation, Turee
880
Creek Group, Western Australia, shows that it consists of a generally shallowing-upward
881
marine and glacio-marine succession, deposited conformably on underlying rocks of the
882
Hamersley Basin as a prograding sediment wedge from (south)east to (north) west.
cr us an
M
d
The basal Kungarra Formation preserves a gradual transition from banded iron-
te
883
ip t
870
formation to grey chert, interpreted to reflect a gradual loss of iron from the world’s oceans
885
accompanying the rise of atmospheric oxygen. The re-appearance of thin units of banded
886
iron-formations above glacial deposits in the deeper water parts of the basin potentially
887
reflect a temporary return to deep ocean anoxia oxygen at this time. The appearance of finely
888
laminated Mn-rich, ferruginous mudstones overlying glaciogenic mudstones implies a
889
significant rise in atmospheric oxygen by this time.
890
Ac ce p
884
Regressive-transgressive cycles associated with each of two units of glacial diamictite
891
are interpreted to reflect glacio-eustatic cycles controlled by the uptake of water into glacial
892
ice, and release of glacier-bound water during melting periods, respectively.
Page 37 of 91
893
A lack of internal unconformities and seismites within the succession precludes an interpretation as a foredeep basin, as does evidence from detrital zircon age data. Deposition
895
as a passive margin succession is also ruled out on the basis of the northwest-ward deepening
896
nature of the basin that contrasts with the demands of regional geology that rifting was to the
897
south. Rather, the succession is interpreted to represent an intracontinental basin deposited
898
during uplift of basement domains and/or failed rifting.
899
Acknowledgements
900
MVK would like to acknowledge funding support from UNSW and the Agouron Institute.
901
RM is grateful to the UNSW for a post-doctoral fellowship (2012-2013) and subsequently a
902
Research Fellowship (2014) that enabled him to carry out this research. This study was partly
903
supported by funding from the Japanese Society for Promotion of Sciences (JSPS
904
KAKENHI, no. 20340146 and 24654164) and from Ito Science Foundation to KEY. This
905
study was performed under the cooperative research program of the Centre for Advanced
906
Marine Core Research (CMCR), Kochi University (no. 10A006, 10B006, 11A014, and
907
11B012). Two anonymous reviews provided many helpful comments that clarified the
908
manuscript. This is publication number XXYY of the Australian Centre for Excellence for
909
Core to Crust Fluid Systems.
910
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1247
Sedimentary Geology 141–142, 233–254.
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Figures
1249 1250 1251
Figure 1: Regional geological map of the Pilbara, northwestern Australia, showing the distribution of the Turee Creek Group and study localities with measured sections: B = Boundary Ridge; D = Deepdale; H = Horseshoe Creek.
1252 1253 1254
Figure 2: Stratigraphic section of the Turee Creek Group: BIF = Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group; MBM = Meteorite Bore Member of the Kungarra Formation; KF = Koolbye Formation.
1255 1256 1257 1258
Figure 3: Geological map of the Hardey Syncline, showing outcrop areas of the Turee Creek Group and locations of detailed sections show in subsequent figures. Note the greater thickness of the Meteorite Bore Member on the southern limb of the syncline and the presence of two glacial diamictites on the northern limb of the syncline.
1259 1260 1261 1262
Figure 4: Stratigraphic section through the transition from the uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation of the Hamersley Group to the lowermost Kungarra Formation of the Turee Creek Group, here interpreted to occur at the base of the first non‐magnetic unit. C1‐C8 refers to chert layers from base to top across the section.
1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271
Figure 5: Photographs of rocks from across the transition from the Hamersley Group to Turee Creek Group at the locality of the section shown in Figure 4. A) strongly magnetic, greenish‐black laminated iron formation of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation, Hamersley Group; B) strongly magnetic jaspilitic cherty iron formation of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (C1 in Fig. 4); C) magnetic jaspilitic chert of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation (C3 in Fig. 4); D) Photomicrograph in plane polarised light, of black magnetic Boolgeeda Iron Formation, showing coarse, euhedral magnetite crystals (black), tiny hematite crystals (red) and riebeckite needles (blue) (width of view is 1 mm); E) Layered, grey, white and red chert from the Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group (C6 in Fig. 4); F) layered grey‐white chert of the Kungarra Formation (C7 in Fig. 4).
1272 1273
Figure 6: Measured section through part of the lower Kungarra Formation (MGA Zone 50K, E 0478927, N 7477702), showing the main facies constituents of facies association 1.
1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280
Figure 7: Facies characteristics of the facies association 1: A) Thinly bedded mudstone; B) Mudstone with thin bands of massive fine‐grained sandstone (at pen); C) Dewatering structures on top of massive sandstone indicating rapid deposition and consequent fluidization; D) Fine‐grained massive sandstone grading into parallel laminated sandstone and mudstone (arrowed); E) Parallel laminated sandstone with double mudstone layering (arrowed) indicating tidal influence (see text for details). F) Cross stratified calcarenite. (A) and F) from the Boundary Ridge locality; C‐E) from Horseshoe Creek).
1281 1282
Figure 8: North (bottom)–south (top) stratigraphic section through the mid‐upper Kungarra Formation on the northern limb of the Hardey Syncline, showing two distinct glacio‐eustatic cycles.
1283 1284 1285
Figure 9: Facies characteristics of the facies association 2: A) Near‐symmetric combined flow rippled sandstone; B) Ripple crests showing bifurcation; C) Wave rippled sandstone with locally erosive base. D) Fine‐grained massive or plane laminated sandstone.
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Figure 10: Detailed stratigraphic column showing vertical distribution of sedimentary facies constituents of facies association 2, from below the first diamictite (Meteorite Bore Member) on the northern limb of the Hardy Syncline.
1289 1290
Figure 11: Detailed stratigraphic section through Facies Association 2, from immediately beneath the second glaciogenic diamictite at the Horseshoe Creek locality shown in Figure 8.
1291 1292 1293
Figure 12: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 2: A) Medium‐grained sandstone with convolute lamination; B) Medium‐grained sandstone with hummocky cross‐stratification; C) Ripple cross lamination within very fine‐grained sandstone with double mud drape.
1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302
Figure 13: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 2 from the Horseshoe Creek locality: A) Coarse‐grained, large‐scale cross‐stratified sandstone (compass for scale); B) Bedded carbonate, with weakly defined cross stratification; C) Erosional basal contact of carbonate bed on thinly bedded, rippled sandstones and siltstones; D) Bedding plane view of desiccation cracks in thinly bedded carbonate; E) Low amplitude, domical stromatolites in carbonate from a bed located just above that shown in D); F) Domical stromatolite, outlined by carbonate on the flank, containing numerous small domical features within the larger structure, and lapped on by bedded siltstone; G) Small‐scale columnar stromatolites in bedded siltstone; H) View looking at top surface of a bedding plane, showing the highly linear nature of stromatolite crests (from top right to bottom left).
1303 1304 1305
Figure 14: Detailed stratigraphic section through the type section of the Meteorite Bore Member, at Meteorite Bore (centred at MGA Zone 50K, E 502842, N7465148 and oriented south (bottom) to north (top)). Note the appearance of sandstone and carbonate dropstones partway up the section.
1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315
Figure 15: Outcrop and thin section photographs of glaciogenic diamictite from the Meteorite Bore Member: A) View looking down onto a cross‐section perpendicular to bedding (not visible, but trending left to right across the photo), of typical glaciogenic diamictite with abundant small, and polymict, dropstones in a fine sand matrix. Note the presence of several highly elongate carbonate clasts with long axes oriented perpendicular to bedding (vertical in photo), indicative of an origin as dropstones; B) Large outsize clast of rhyolite in fissile siltstone matrix (vertical view, perpendicular to bedding); C) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of diamictite matrix, showing angular to subrounded quartz sand grains, and irregular silt pellet (scale 1 mm); D) Glacial striae on boulder‐size dropstone; E) Well rounded sandstone cobble showing penetrative lower contact; F) Subangular carbonate dropstone in fissile siltstone matrix (bedding top direction is to left of photo).
1316 1317 1318 1319 1320
Figure 16: Outcrop and thin section photographs of the second, stratigraphically higher, glaciogenic diamictite from the Horseshoe Creek locality: A) Boulder‐size dropstone with striated faces in fissile fine sandstone matrix; B) Photomicrograph (cross‐polarised light) of large calc‐silicate dropstone; C) Glacigenic dropstone with two directions of striae; D) Facetted cobble with striated faces in fissile fine sandstone matrix.
1321 1322 1323
Figure 17: Simplified geological map of the Deepdale locality, showing an unconformable relationship between Turee Creek Group glacial diamictites and overlying banded iron‐formation and mudstones of the Ashburton Formation.
1324 1325
Figure 18: Stratigraphic column through the Boundary Ridge locality, showing the conformable contact between layered jaspilitic and grey chert of the uppermost Boolgeeda Iron Formation,
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1286 1287 1288
Page 55 of 91
Hamersley Group, and glaciogenic rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member, Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group. Note the units of banded Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone and ferruginous chert above the glaciogenic rocks, indicative of a return to deeper water and/or sediment starved conditions, but under different oceanic chemical conditions compared with the underlying Boolgeeda Iron Formation. Isotopic data from Williford et al. (2011)
1331 1332 1333 1334 1335
Figure 19: Outcrop photographs from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Finger on the contact between the Hamersley and Turee Creek Groups, marked by a change from jaspilitic chert to dark green shale with glaciogenic dropstones; B) The transitional chert at the very top of the Boolgeeda Iron Formation, showing an upwards gradation from iron‐formation at the very base (dark grey) through jaspilitic layered chert, to grey layered chert.
1336 1337 1338
Figure 20: Stratigraphic section of the glacigenic rocks at the Deepdale locality. Note the interpreted unconformity at the base of the banded iron‐formation overlying the glacigenic rocks, deduced from the map relationships presented in Figure 17.
1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346
Figure 21: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Rhyolite dropstone with penetrating lower contact in very finely laminated mudstone, from 10 cm above the top contact of the underlying transitional chert unit; B) View looking down on top bedding surface, showing rhyolite boulder in fine sandstone; C) Rounded rhyolite cobble in the lowermost of three sandstone beds at this section; D) Subangular rhyolite boulder in the highest of three sandstone beds at this section; E) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of sandstone, showing subangular to subrounded nature of sand grains, fine silt matrix and kerogen clast; E) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of an oolitic limestone dropstone. Scale bar in E) and F) is 0.2 mm.
1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353
Figure 22: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from the Boundary Ridge locality: A) Soft‐ sediment slump fold in sandstone bed 3, indicative of deposition via sediment gravity flow; B) Thin bed of monomict conglomerate with carbonate clasts in a fine sandstone matrix, overlain by thinly bedded calcilutite and medium‐grained sandstone of bed 3; C) Closeup view of the monomict conglomerate, showing the penetrative nature of some carbonate clasts into underlying, finely laminated mudstone; D) Carbonate conglomerate; F) Photomicrograph (plane polarised light) of bedded calcilutite.
1354 1355 1356
Figure 23: Outcrop photographs of Facies Association 4 from Deepdale: A) Polymict cobble conglomerate, with well‐rounded cobbles; B) Rhythmic bedding (varves) in sandstone and pebbly sandstone.
1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362
Figure 24: Facies characteristics of Facies Association 5: A) View looking down onto top bedding surface, showing large mud concretion, from the Boundary Ridge locality; B) Top view of coalesced mudstone concretions from Deepdale; C) Cross‐section through concretions from Deepdale, showing syneresis cracks; D) Banded Mn‐rich ferruginous mudstone unit from the top of the Boundary Ridge section; E) Crossbedded calcarenite from above the glacigenic diamictites at the Boundary Ridge locality.
1363 1364
Figure 25: Rose diagram showing paleocurrent data from the Kungarra Formation at the Horseshoe Creek locality, northern limb of the Hardey Syncline.
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1326 1327 1328 1329 1330
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Figure 26: δ13C and δ18O values of bedded carbonate rocks plotted against stratigraphic height, showing distinct changes in composition across the change from glacial (below dashed line) to non‐ glacial conditions (above dashed line). Data from sources cited in Tables 4 and 5.
1368 1369 1370
Figure 27: Schematic cross‐section of the Turee Creek Basin, showing a southeast‐to‐northwest prograding sediment wedge infilling the basin, including during glacial conditions when a floating ice sheet provided dropstones to diamictites of the Meteorite Bore Member.
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1365 1366 1367
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Facies Association 1 Facies
Description
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Table 1: Facies summaries and interpretations, Kungarra Formation, Turee Creek Group
cr
ip t
Table 1
Interpretation
Chert-ferruginous chert interbedded with greenish-brown shale
Facies B
Massive mudstone with occasional siltstone interbeds
Facies C
Massive fine-grained sandstone interbedded with mudstone with lower sharp, and upper gradational, contacts
Off-shore deposit; rapid deposition from turbulent suspension (Lowe, 1975; Bose et al., 1997) below wave base.
Facies D
Massive to parallel laminated fine-grained sandstone; sandy laminae are bounded by very thin double mud layers
Tidally influenced offshore turbidite (cf. Shanmugam, 2003; Mazumder and Arima, 2013) formed below wave base.
Facies E
Fine-grained sandstone with current ripples
Ac c
Facies Association 2
ep te
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M
an
Facies A
Deepwater chemical precipitate Off-shore deposit (below wave base)
Off-shore deposit formed below wave base.
Facies A
Fine-grained, well-sorted, symmetric to near-symmetric rippled sandstone
Wave agitated shallow marine deposit (cf. De Raff et al., 1977; Johnson and Baldwin, 1996)
Facies B
Fine-grained, massive to parallel-laminated sandstone; bed tops bear wave ripples
Wave reworked shallow-marine deposit
Facies C
Medium-grained sandstone with convolute lamination
Storm influenced shallow- marine deposit (Johnson, 1977; Bose, 1983; Leeder, 1999)
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ip t cr
Medium-grained hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) sandstone; no wave reworking on top of HCS beds.
Facies E
Very fine-grained muddy sandstone with climbing ripple-lamination, double mud drapes and combined flow ripples
Tide-wave interactive sub-tidal deposit
Facies F
Coarse-grained large-scale cross-bedded sandstone with shore-parallel paleocurrent.
Longshore bar deposit
Facies G
Massive and/or parallel to ripple cross-laminated carbonate with occasional desiccation cracks.
Intertidal deposit to beachrock
Facies H
Stromatolitic carbonate; characterized by domical stromatolites consisting of crinkly microbial laminations
an
M
Shallow marine deposit
d ep te
Facies Association 3 Facies A
Storm deposit formed between storm and fair-weather wave bases (cf. Bose et al., 1997)
us
Facies D
Thickly bedded, massive, matrix supported sandstone with randomly
Glacial diamictite (cf. Martin, 1999)
oriented subangular to subrounded clasts with facetted and striated faces; outsize clasts are common; conglomeratic at places
Facies Association 4
Ac c
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________
Facies A
Thinly bedded, dark green mudstone with outsize clasts (up to 30cm)
Glacial diamictite formed by melting of floating ice sheet (cf. Martin, 1999)
Facies B
Quartz-rich sandstone with angular to well-rounded outsize clasts; large-scale slump structures
Glacigenic deposit reworked by turbidity current
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ip t cr
Conglomerate with subrounded to moderately well rounded predominantly carbonate clasts; some clasts display a clear penetrative fabric into underlying mudstone
Glacigenic deposit reworked locally by mass transport process
Facies D
Pale cream, fine-grained carbonate (calcilutite) with very fine-scale bedding; fine dolomite rhombs embedded in a silty matrix; overlies conglomerate facies C
Carbonate platform deposit exposed during glacial retreat
Facies E
Polymictic conglomerate/pebbly sandstone; characterized by well-rounded to subangular clasts; sandstone locally displays rhythmic bedding
Conglomerates are sediment gravity flow deposits and the sandstones are turbidites
Facies F
Medium-grained, massive, quartz-rich sandstone overlying the conglomerate
Shallow-marine deposit formed during sea level fall at higher flow regime
d
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Facies C
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Facies Association 5
Mudstone interbedded with thin units of ferruginous chert, an Mn-rich
Relatively deep water deposits, below the storm wave base
ferruginous unit, and beds of calcarenite conformably overlie glaciogenic
Ac c
sedimentary rocks of the Meteorite Bore Member.
Page 60 of 91
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Table 2: Long axes of measured convolutes and a ripple crest, Kungarra Formation Convolute long axis Outcrop orientation Restored orientation* Plunge Trend Plunge Trend 60 212 2 21 35 165 30 354 35 180 31 8 50 160 14 353 10 150 46 324 20 205 40 49 45 160 18 352 50 152 13 339 16 118 18 304 50 167 16 339 45 170 21 360 60 203 2 18 68 153 0 355 47 175 19 4 50 155 13 351 Ripple crest Outcrop orientation Plunge Trend Flow direction 62 153 ENE Restored orientation* 0 353 E
ip t
Table 2
Ac
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d
*Orientations were restored using a two-tilt solution, untilting first the bedding of the unconformably overlying lower Wyloo Group (110°/30°SSW) and then the remainder of bedding from the Turee Creek Group, originally at 090°/64°
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Table 3
Table 3: Paleocurrent data from the Kungarra Formation 1. Ladderback ripples at top of Kungarra Fm. on bedding 090°/50°S (E0490683, N7472142) Measured orientation
Rotated orientation* Trend
Paleocurrent direction
Plunge
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
50
100
190
20
144
SW (234°)
51
98
188
20
142
SW (232°)
52
94
104
24
143
SW (233°)
50
98
108
20
142
SW (232°)
50
100
190
20
144
SW (234°)
ip t
Plunge
2. Crossbeds in coarse sandstone above 2nd diamictite on bedding 120°/60°SSW (E0486894, N7472687) Rotated orientation*
Dip Direction
Dip amt
Dip Direction
62
180
7
180
58
182
3
208
58
195
12
264
54
193
9
50
192
2
54
183
10
43
196
12
48
193
Paleocurrent direction
W (264°)
282
WNW (282°)
310
NW (310°)
310
NW (310°)
314
NW (314°)
328
NW (328°)
an 17
S(180°)
SSW (208°)
us
Dip amt
cr
Measured orientation
3. Crossbeds in coarse sandstone on bedding 090°/42°S (E0487022, N7473783)
Rotated orientation*
Dip amt
Dip amt
M
Measured orientation 160
50
160
49
150
52
158
60
160
te
55
d
Dip direction
Dip direction
Paleocurrent direction
18
103
E (103°)
16
89
E (089°)
18
79
E (079°)
17
68
E (068°)
24
70
E (070°)
4. Crossbeds in sandstones between two diamictites on bedding 090°/55°S (E0486962, N7473891) Rotated orientation*
ce p
Measured orientation Dip amt
Dip Direction
Dip amt
Dip Direction
Paleocurrent direction
40
235
45
300
NW (300°)
240
45
310
NW (310°)
238
42
313
NW (313°)
245
40
314
NW (314°)
240
45
310
NW (310°)
42 40 42
Ac
50
5. Rippled sandstones below Meteorite Bore Member on bedding 108°/83° (E0483195, N7474629) Measured orientation Plunge
Rotated orientation*
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
Plunge
Trend
Paleocurrent direction
46
185
275
14
15
W (285°)
40
193
283
11
13
W (283°)
44
197
287
10
9
W (279°)
36
120
30
22
185
E (095°)
35
125
35
28
182
E (092°)
39
118
28
25
180
E (090°)
34
116
26
0
144
NE (054°)
80
160
70
4
142
NE (052°)
83
162
72
1
138
NE (048°)
78
178
88
2
324
NE (054°)
Page 62 of 91
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Table 4
Table 2: Carbon and oxygen isotope compositions of carbonate samples, Kungarra Formation NBS-corrected standard NBS-corrected standard error error d13C (VPDB) d18O (VPDB) TCk carb, above glacials 190564 -1.926 0.003 -9.786 0.004 TCk carb, above glacials 190565 -1.718 0.003 -10.174 0.004 TCk carb, above glacials 190566 -1.147 0.002 -12.169 0.006 TCk carb, above glacials 190567 -1.460 0.005 -10.808 0.003 TCk carb, in glacials 190582-1 -2.706 0.003 -5.910 0.007 TCk carb, in glacials 190582-2 -1.653 0.003 -2.251 0.006 Standards NBS-19 01 1.925 0.003 -2.266 0.003 NBS-19 02 1.941 0.003 -2.248 0.010 NBS-19 03 1.951 0.003 -2.169 0.009 NBS-19 06 1.965 0.003 -2.180 0.009 Avg 1.950 -2.200 1SD 0.018 0.055 ** Analyzed by Koji Yamada, Michiyo Kobayashi, Minoru Ikehara, and Kosei Yamaguchi at the Centre for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University, Japan.
Ac
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pt e
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Sample Name
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Table 5
Table 5: Compilation of carbon and oxygen isotopic data for the Turee Creek Group. 13
18
δ C(VPDB)‰
δ O(VPDB)‰
Reference
Stromatolitic dolomite Bedded calcarenite Bedded calcilutite
-0.2 to 1.4
-9.7 to -14.8
Van Kranendonk (2010)
-1.1 to -1.9
-9.7 to -12.2
This paper
-1.6 to -2.7
-2.2 to -5.9
This paper
-0.5
-4.5
Lindsay and Brasier (2002)
0 to -6
-3 to -5
Lindsay and Brasier (2002)
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
Kungarra Fm., above glacials Kungarra Fm, MBM glacials Kungarra Fm, MBM Carbonate glacials diamictite Kungarra Fm., Bedded below glacials calcarenite MBM = Meteorite Bore Member
ip t
Lithology
cr
Stratigraphic Position Kazput Fm.
Page 64 of 91
Figure 1
INDIAN OCEAN
117°
118° Port Hedland
119°
Phanerozoic cover
120°
Younger Proterozoic sedimentary rocks
Karratha
Wyloo Group, upper and lower
21°
Turee Creek Group scue
Hamersley Group
Basi
n
D
ip t
Fort e
Fortescue Group
22° Ham
B
Pilbara Craton greenstones
ersle
y B asin
cr
Pilbara Craton granites
H urto
n B asin
us
23°
Ash b
Newman
100 km
17.10.13
Ac ce
pt
ed
M
an
MVK001c
Page 65 of 91
Ac
ce
pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
i
Figure 2
Page 66 of 91
us
cr
ip t
Figure 3
116o 50 l S
Fig.4
116o 55 l S
rse
sh
45
oe
Fig.8
MVK002e
Boolgeeda Iron Fm Hammersley Group undivided
r
Syncli
ne
unconformity
27
30
67
syncline
22o 55 l E
70
fault
116o 50 l S
30
1
anticline
measured section
30
Para 116o 55 l S
65
Fig.I4
burd
oo
117o 00 l S
ley
Meteorite Bore Mbr Kungarra Fm
y
as
Koolbye Fm
Harde
ve
ep te
Kazput Fm
34
50 bedding
Ac c
HGp
Turee Creek Gp
Three Corners Congl Mbr
Beasley River Quartzite
lower Wyloo Gp
Dolerite
Sandstone, shale, tuff
5 km
Ri
50
Upper Wyloo Group
Quartz-rich sandstone
4
50
d
ra
Nummana Mbr
3
Be
utar
Cheela Springs Basalt
2
Creek
65
Nan
1
M
Ho
22o 50 l E
0
117o 05 l S
an
36
117o 00 l S
117o 05 l S 27.8.14
Page 67 of 91
Figure 4
SHALE / SILTSTONE
cr
ip t
C8 layered grey chert
us 50 cm
an
Kungarra Formation
(Turee Creek Group)
GREEN SHALE
M
C7 1 - 2 mm layered grey-white chert GREENISH SHALE
C6 layered grey, white and red chert
ed
NON-MAGNETIC, BROWNISH-GREEN, MASSIVE ‘SHALE’
pt
C5 layered grey and white chert
(Hamersley Group)
Boolgeeda Iron Formation
Ac ce
WEAKLY MAGNETIC, GREEN MM-LAYERED IRON FORMATION
C4 = ferruginous chert
MAGNETIC GREENISH-BLACK LAMINATED IRON-FORMATION
C3 hematite-magnetite layered chert / BIF MASSIVE MAGNETIC IRON - FORMATION C2 magnetic mm-layered cherty iron - formation MASSIVE MAGNETIC IRON - FORMATION C1 magnetic cherty iron - formation BLACK MAGETIC IRON FORMATION
MVK011c
27-11-2013
Page 68 of 91
B
C
D
E
F
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
A
ip t
Figure 5
Page 69 of 91
Figure 6
us
cr
ip t
50m
M
an
40m
ed
30m
pt
Fine-grained ripple laminated sandstone Fine-grained parallel laminated sandstone
Ac ce
Fine-grained massive sandstone Mudstone
20m
10m
0m mud
f.Sand
Page 70 of 91
Figure 7
A)
B)
D)
cr
ip t
C)
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
E) C)
Page 71 of 91
Figure 8
1400m
BRQ
Glacial cycle 2
ip t
1200m
cr
Convolute lamination
us
1000m
Stromatolitic carbonate
Ripple
an
Uncoformity Dolerite sill Glacial diamictite Coarse quartz-rich sandstone
Fine to medium-grained sandstone Mudstone-siltstone
400m
Ac ce
pt
Glacial cycle 1
600m
ed
M
800m
200m
0m mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
Page 72 of 91
Figure 9
C
D
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
B
ip t
A
Page 73 of 91
Figure 10
150m
Stromatolitic carbonate
30m
ip t
Glacial diamictite Coarse-grained large scale cross-stratified sandstone
us
cr
Very fine-grained rippled sandstone
Medium-grained sandstone with Convolute lamination Massive to plane laminated fine-grained sandstone Fine-grained sandstone wave and combined flow ripples
Ac ce
pt
ed
M
an
60m
Hummocky cross-stratified medium-grained sandstone
120m ~ ~ 0m v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
Page 74 of 91
Figure 11
Glacial diamictite
180m
Massive to plane laminated coarse-grained sandstone (with cross-lamination) Fine-grained rippled sandstone Hummocky cross-stratified medium-grained sandstone Medium-grained sandstone with Convolute lamination
ip t
Fine-grained massive sandstone
cr
Fine-grained sandstone with wave and combined flow ripples Mudstone
us
120m
Ac ce
60m
300m
pt
ed
M
an
300m
240m
0m 291m mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
v.c.Siltv.f.Sandf.Sandm.Sandc.Sand
Page 75 of 91
Ac
ce
pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
Figure 12
Page 76 of 91
Figure 13
B)
C)
D)
M
an
us
cr
ip t
A)
F)
G)
Ac
ce pt
ed
E)
H)
Page 77 of 91
Figure 14
* * *
*
*
200 m
Sandstone clast Sandstone lenses Dolerite sill
ip t
Carbonate clast
cr
500 m
Largest Rhyolite dropstone
us
Glacial diamictite
Coarse-grained sandstone
an
Fine-grained sandstone with convolute lamination
Ac ce
100 m
Carbonate rocks
pt
400 m
Mudstone/Fine-grained siltstone
ed
M
Fine-grained sandstone
* 600 m
*
300 m
0m
Page 78 of 91 mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
mud c.Siltm.Sandv.f.pebv.c.peb
B
C
D
E
F
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
A
ip t
Figure 15
Page 79 of 91
B
C
D
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
A
ip t
Figure 16
Page 80 of 91
cr
ip t
Figure 17
. . . .
. . . .
.......... .......... ...... .
N
Cover
0
Kungarra Fm.
Boolgeeda Iron Fm.
Ac c
Woongarra Rhyolite Brockman Iron Fm.
km
Wittenoom Dolomite
unconformity
fault
limit of exposure
12 bedding
1 o
21 44 S MVK017c
contact; defined; inferred
v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v
er
v v v v v v
? Ashburton Fm: shale, iron formation
iv
.... ....
v v
R
T. Ck.
v v v v v v v v
v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v
e
........ ........ ........ ........
Hamersley Group
L. Wy.
ep te
d
42
M
.... .... .... .. .. ...
an
us
..... .......... o o o ..... .......... . . . . . 116 08 E . . . . . . . . . . . 21 42 E 116 10 E ................................... .................................... ... ..................................... ..... ......................................... ....... .......................................... ......... .......................................... ........... .......................................... ............ ......................................... .......... ..................................... ....... ... ............... ....... ............... ....... ....... ............... ... .............. ........ ............... ......... .................................................... ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ............................................. ........................................ .............................................. ............................................... ......................... ......................................... ...................... ................................. .................. ......................... ............... ............. ............ .......... .....
R
o
b
10.8.14
Page 81 of 91
Ac ce
pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
Figure 18
Page 82 of 91
Figure 19
B
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
A
Page 83 of 91
Figure 20
Polymictic Polymictic cobble cobble conglomerate conglomer ate
80
Mn-bearing iron-formation Mn-bear ing iron-formation
70
0
MVK1070b
Metr es
Meters
an
Ac ce
Siltst one with Siltstone with spar se dr opstones sparse dropstones
Turee Creek Group
pt
1
Hamersley Group
ed
Siltstone with Siltst one with pebbles pebbles
M
MetersMetr es
Siltstone Siltst one CCarbonate arbonate conglomer ate conglomerate
Ashburton Formation
2
MVK1 070
cr
Quar tz sandst one Quartz sandstone
us
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ip t
Shale and siltstone Shale and siltst one Giant boulder diamictite Giant boulder diamictite
3
60
Shale one Shaleand andsiltst siltstone
50 40 30
Cher ty banded ir on-formation Banded iron-formation
20 10 0
Shale Shale
Glacial diamictites es and shale Banded ir on-formation Banded iron-formation (Boolgeeda Ir on F ormation) (Boolgeeda Iron Formation)
Banded ir on-formation (Boolgeeda Ir on F ormation) Banded iron-formation (Boolgeeda Iron Formation) 27.8.14
21.10.1 0
Page 84 of 91
Figure 21
B
cr
ip t
A
D
ed
M
an
us
C
E
Ac
ce pt
F
Page 85 of 91
Figure 22
B)
C)
D)
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
A)
F)
Ac
ce pt
E)
Page 86 of 91
Figure 23
B)
Ac
ce pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
A)
Page 87 of 91
Figure 24
B)
C)
D)
ed
M
an
us
cr
ip t
A)
Ac
ce pt
E)
C )
Page 88 of 91
Ac ce p
te
d
M
an
us
cr
ip t
Figure 25
Page 89 of 91
Ac
ce
pt
ed
M
an
us
cr
i
Figure 26
Page 90 of 91
an
us
cr
ip t
Figure 27
NW
M
B
I
H I
ICE SHEET
ep te
d
D I
SE
idi
Ac c
b Tur
ts
ren
ur ty c
MVK015b
3.12.13
Page 91 of 91