Self-directed online learning: A theoretical model for understanding elementary teachers' online learning experiences

Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Self-directed online learning: A theoretical model for understanding elementary teachers' online learning experiences Pamela Beach Faculty of Education, Queen's University, 511 Union Street, Kingston, Ontario, K7M 5R7, Canada

h i g h l i g h t s
A theoretical model for teachers' online self-directed learning is proposed.
Online professional development resources foster teacher learning.
Self-directed online learning is a motivating approach to professional development.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 25 January 2016 Received in revised form 5 October 2016 Accepted 7 October 2016

This study involves an in-depth investigation into elementary teachers' self-directed learning in an online environment. A methodology combining a retrospective think aloud with screen recording technology was used to capture cognitive processes from 15 teachers as they used a professional development website. Resulting think aloud protocols and two additional data sources were analyzed using qualitative methods. Three phases of coding led to a theoretical model describing how teachers use and learn from a professional development website. This research offers a comprehensive model of selfdirected online learning. Furthermore, the findings provide insights into how and why teachers use professional development websites. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Self-directed learning Online learning Teacher cognition Teacher professional development

1. Introduction Web-based learning environments are primary sources of information for teachers from general fields to the elementary level, providing accessible opportunities for learning and contributing to teachers' repertoire of professional knowledge and instructional material (Demir, 2010; L. Stosic & Stosic, 2014; Wu & Chen, 2008). As teachers across disciplines and grade levels increasingly turn to the Internet for their professional learning (Charalambousa & Ioannou, 2011; Delgado, Wardlow, McKnight, & O'Malley, 2015; Kao, Wu, & Tsai, 2011), it is essential to examine how teachers self-direct their learning within professional development websites. Research in the area of self-directed learning is vast, and includes general models (Caffarella, 1993; Candy, 1988; Garrison, 1997; Song & Hill, 2007), as well as numerous investigations of self-directed learners' perceptions, motivational factors, and

E-mail address: [email protected]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.10.007 0742-051X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

readiness to learn, to name a few (Ayyildiz & Tarhna, 2015; Lee, Tsai, Chai, & Koh, 2014; McCartney et al., 2016; Mello, 2016). While research is beginning to study teacher candidates' self-directed online learning processes (Bullock, 2013; Hursen, 2016), there is little to no research, to the awareness of the primary investigator, providing a comprehensive theoretical model of elementary teachers' self-directed learning within a professional development literacy website. Moreover, most studies that have examined teachers' online learning have gathered data through observations, questionnaires, and interviews (Duncan-Howell, 2010; Hur & Brush, 2009; Kao et al., 2011; Ponti, 2014). These methods can offer information about teachers' attitudes towards online professional learning; however, data generated from these methods is limited to participants' recollection of past events. A method that tracks teachers' cognitive processes as they make online choices is necessary to provide further insight into how teachers use and learn from online environments. The current study addresses the gaps in the literature by using a think aloud method that combines screen-capture technology with a retrospective think aloud (called the virtual revisit think aloud) to

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

track teachers' cognitive processes as they self-direct their learning within a professional development website. The aim of this study is twofold: 1) to offer a model of self- directed learning in the context of online professional development, and 2) to gain insights into how and why elementary teachers use a professional development literacy website. 2. Literature review Learning is an activity that occurs in a range of contexts. In any learning contextd formal, informal, or along a continuumdthere is the potential for knowledge growth, changes in beliefs, and transformations in practice (Bakkenes, Vermunt, & Wubbels, 2010). Formal professional development can introduce teachers to educational innovations and evidence-based methods of teaching in content areas (Jurasaite-Harbison & Rex, 2010), and includes, but is not limited to, face-to-face workshops and distance education courses. These types of professional development activities are often structured, and usually guided by an instructor or set of expectations. In contrast, informal professional development is usually open-ended, flexible, and self-directed. Informal professional development activities are likely to coincide with a teacher's interests and often consider individual processes, real-life activities, and contextual factors (Callanan, Cervantes, & Loomis, 2011). Teachers choose informal approaches, including conversations between colleagues and accessible online learning platforms, to informally construct knowledge and improve their instructional practice. Online learning platforms, including professional development websites, deliver information in a means that removes time, place, and situational barriers (Kanuka & Nocente, 2003). Users of professional development websites are at the center of their own learning and can access digital information, including photographs, videos, and interactive tools, to name a few (Mayer, 2002), to support their individual professional goals and initiatives. Informal professional development opportunities, including the use of professional development websites, lend themselves to a “self-directed learning experience” (Song & Hill, 2007, p. 35); learning occurs with a sense of autonomy, motivation, and learner control. Self-directed learning is a well-established notion and stems from an individual's desire to understand a phenomenon, an incident, or a concept (Brockett & Hiemstra, 1985; Knowles, 1975; Ponti, 2014; Rogers, 1969; Tough, 1971). Garrison (1997) describes self-directed learning as “an approach where learners are motivated to assume personal responsibility and collaborative control of the cognitive (self-monitoring) and contextual (self-management) processes in constructing and confirming meaningful and worthwhile learning outcomes” (p. 18). In addition, Cafarella (1993) uses three principles to illustrate the process of self-directed learning: a self- initiated process of learning, a sense of personal autonomy, and greater learner control. The expectation of self-directed learning is that the individual learner assumes “primary responsibility for their own learning” depending on their unique needs and individual goals (Caffarella, 1993, p. 26). In addition, personal autonomy implies “independence, freedom of choice, and rational reflection” (Loyens, Magda, & Rikers, 2008, p. 414), and greater learner control means that the learner is the one who considers the content, approach, and value of the learning experience (Candy, 1988). When given the opportunity, teachers might self-direct their learning by first identifying their needs. Then, teachers may decide which professional development approach will best meet their needs. For example, teachers might use Internet technologies and web-based resources to construct knowledge and identify instructional materials relevant to their teaching context and professional goals. Teachers who conceive professional goals and

61

instructional plans that are personally valuable may be more likely to integrate these ideas into their practice. Moreover, greater learning control may be linked to higher levels of motivation for learning. A number of self-directed learning models in adult education incorporate dimensions of the learning process, such as cognitive and motivational constructs (Garrison, 1997; 2003), as well as personal attributes, “the characteristics learners bring to a specific learning context (e.g., intrinsic motivation and resourcefulness)” (Song & Hill, 2007, p. 32). For instance, Garrison's model of selfdirected learning includes three overlapping dimensions: selfmanagement, self- monitoring, and motivation (1997). The selfmanagement requires the learner to construct meaning through critical reflection. Within online environments, it is essential for teachers to self-monitor their learning by continuously assessing and evaluating web-based information, including source features (e.g., website author) as discussed by Andreassen and Braten (2013). As teachers self-monitor their use of websites and evaluate a website's source features, they can ensure that the information is professionally relevant and personally meaningful. Garrison's model also emphasizes motivation as a key factor “in the initiation and maintenance of effort toward learning” (1997, p. 26). In particular, those who initiate, direct, and sustain a learning task are active learners; teachers are active learners as they seek out meaningful information directly related to their individual learning goals and interests. Song and Hill (2007) highlight an additional dimension of selfdirected learning: the learning context and its impact on selfdirected learning experiences. The learning context can have a significant impact on the process of learning (e.g., monitoring, planning, evaluating) and is “important in the current climate where there is not one dominating mode of learning” (Song & Hill, 2007, p. 3). This is particularly relevant when viewing teacher professional learning as multifaceted and occurring in multiple contexts; each context provides a unique way of accessing relevant information. Taken together, teacher professional development activities that foster self-directed learning may contribute to higher levels of motivation for learning and the application of pedagogical and content knowledge to the classroom. Self-directed learning is a complex process that involves a range of cognitive activities, decision-making strategies, and learning experiences. In addition, self-directed learning involves a “degree of responsibility for accomplishing […] learning goals” (Tillema, 2000, p. 579). While the models described above can provide researchers, teacher educators, and website developers with an understanding of the various factors involved during self-directed learning, the current study makes a unique contribution to the literature by using the virtual revisit think aloud method as the main data source to generate comprehensive information about teachers' cognitive processes as they make online choices. The virtual revisit think aloud produces thorough verbalizations related to teacher planning, reasoning, decision-making, and reflection (Beach, 2015). As a result of a rich data set an inclusive model was developed providing insights into elementary teachers' learning experiences as they used a professional development literacy website. The current study's context is specific to one professional development website; however, more general information about patterns of web-based behaviors and cognitive processes (e.g., working memory, evaluation, and reasoning) that occur during selfdirected online professional learning can be gleaned from the model presented in this paper. Therefore, the results of this study offer both broad and context-specific contributions to the literature: the more general contributions of the research relate to the web-based behaviors and cognitive processes of users of

62

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

professional online learning environments which can provide educational website developers with guidance in the design and framework of professional development tools and technologies. In addition, studying online professional learning can lead to a holistic and multifaceted view of professional development. This can offer educators in various fields with details about how their students learn within online environments (e.g., motivational factors, navigational strategies, and potential learning outcomes). The more context-specific contributions relate to how and why elementary teachers use a professional development literacy website. Findings from this study can inform literacy teacher educators and researchers about elementary teachers' motivations to use literacy professional development websites, their beliefs and attitudes towards literacy learning platforms, and potential learning outcomes. 3. Study purpose and research questions The purpose of this study is to conceptualize a theoretical model for teachers' self- directed learning experiences in the context of a professional development website and to understand how elementary teachers use and learn from a professional development literacy website. The following research questions guided the development of this study's theoretical model: 1. What conditions affect elementary teachers as they use a professional development website? 2. What navigational strategies do teachers employ as they use a professional development website? 3. What are some of the potential outcomes of using a professional development website?

4. Methods 4.1. Research design This study employed qualitative methods to develop a theoretical model for understanding elementary teachers' self-directed learning experiences as they utilized a multimedia professional development website. Qualitative methods follow the postpositivist paradigm, which uses a naturalistic approach to understand phenomena in a context-specific setting (Golafshani, 2003). In contrast with the positivist paradigm, which seeks to explain, predict, and generalize to other contexts, the primary aim of qualitative research methods is to describe, understand, and interpret phenomena using an inductive approach to data analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). An inductive approach to analysis provides insights into how individuals experience a particular phenomenon and the processes involved in a particular situation (Rowan & Huston, 1997). The current study consisted of four distinct stages: establishing a context of the study; recruiting participants; collecting data; and analyzing data qualitatively to answer the study's research questions and develop a theoretical model. The following sections outline each of these stages. 4.2. Context of the study The context of the current study occurred within a literacy website for elementary teachers and educators called The Balanced Literacy Diet: Putting research into practice in the classroom (www. LitDiet.org). This professional development website is a multimedia evidence- informed literacy website that provides free professional learning resources such as virtual tours of exemplary

classrooms (PreK-6), video clips of expert teachers explaining and demonstrating effective educational practices, detailed lesson plans, photos of teaching materials, and exemplars of student work. In addition, The Balanced Literacy Diet website uses a healthy diet framework as a metaphor to explain the various components of literacy at different stages of development. These literacy components are consistent with the National Reading Panel’s (2000) report on evidence-based literacy instruction. The report concluded that high quality effective components of literacy instruction include phonological awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies. Reading researchers generally agree on these components of literacy practices (Cunningham, Zibulsky, Stanovich, & Stanovich, 2009) and several studies have shown a positive relationship between these components and student growth in reading and writing (Downer et al., 2012; Porche, Pallante, & Snow, 2012; Pressley, Mohan, Raphael, & Fingeret, 2007). Taken together, The Balanced Literacy Diet website is a professional development website for elementary teachers and educators; it is content rich, highly interactive, and researchinformed. It offers an ideal context in which to examine elementary teachers' use of professional development websites while, at the same time, generating data which can serve to further develop the effectiveness of the site as an online professional resource. Fig. 1 shows the homepage of The Balanced Literacy Diet website. The homepage provides visitors of the site with five tabs from which to choose at the top of the page: Homepage, Food Groups, Recipe Finder, Virtual Tours, and How To Videos. The homepage also provides visitors with an overview of the site, sample virtual tours and lesson plans, and relevant external links. 4.3. Participant recruitment Practicing elementary teachers (N ¼ 15) from a large metropolitan area volunteered to participate in this study. Practicing teachers (K-6) were asked to participate by the primary researcher during visits to 10 professional development courses. The course visits involved a verbal explanation of the research purpose and participant involvement, and a request for teachers to take part in the study. Interested teachers were given an envelope with an information letter and consent form explaining the research in greater detail. Interested teachers were asked to include their email address on the consent form so that the questionnaire link could be emailed to them. Recruitment also occurred through study posters and by word of mouth. Study posters were displayed at the faculty of education where the research took place and sent via email by colleagues interested in the research. Teachers were provided with a university research ethics approved information letter outlining the study purpose, procedures, and participant involvement. Teachers who decided to take part in the current study completed the informed consent form agreeing to participate. Once the primary researcher received the signed consent form, participants were sent an online demographic questionnaire. The main purpose of the online questionnaire was to obtain data on a range of relevant factors based on the literature related to teacher development and online learning (e.g., age, gender, years of teaching experience, education, extent of involvement with various web-based technologies). Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire online prior to a one-onone meeting. The questionnaire was administered through Survey Planet (https://www.surveyplanet.com/), an online survey program. The results of the demographic questionnaire revealed that male participants (n ¼ 3, 20%) represented a smaller proportion than female participants (n ¼ 12, 80%). The majority of participants were between the age of 30 and 39 (n ¼ 8, 54%) and most

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

63

Fig. 1. The Balanced Literacy Diet homepage.

participants had between five and nine years of teaching experience (n ¼ 5, 33%). Furthermore, most of the participants taught at the primary level (n ¼ 7, 47%). In addition, 13 participants (87%) reported feeling very comfortable using the Internet for professional purposes and two participants (13%) reported feeling somewhat comfortable using the Internet for professional purposes. The majority of participants reported using the Internet for professional purposes at least once a day (n ¼ 13, 87%). Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics. 4.4. Data collection procedure Upon completion of the online demographic questionnaire, participants met with the primary researcher. The one-on-one meetings followed a protocol and lasted approximately 45 min. First, the primary researcher restated the purpose of the research study. Participants were then asked to complete a second consent form giving permission to record the think aloud and interview. Next, participants completed the website task and think aloud. Finally, a semi- structured interview was conducted. 4.4.1. Website task and think aloud The following website task instructions were presented to all participants: Over the next 20 minutes, your task is to use The Balanced Literacy Diet website as you normally would when seeking information online for your teaching practice. While you navigate the website, the screen will be recorded.

As participants used the website, their actions and online behaviors were captured using Camtasia Studio, a screen recording computer software program developed by TechSmith (Uppal, 2011). Immediately following their navigation, participants completed a virtual revisit think aloud in which they viewed their online choices virtually and verbalized their thoughts while viewing the screen recording of their explorations (Beach, 2015). The think aloud methodology employed in the current study is based on the techniques of protocol analysis by Ericsson and Simon (1984; 1993). Think aloud methods have been shown to provide direct data about the reasoning process (van Someren, Barnard & Sandberg, 1994). Verbal reports provide information about experiences and knowledge that cannot easily be accessed by more traditional observations and interviews (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). While the concurrent think aloud and the retrospective report are variations of the think aloud most often employed in educational research, several studies show that both the concurrent think aloud and retrospective report have weaknessesdthe concurrent think aloud is limited by the fact that completing two tasks simultaneously may result in a greater demand on cognitive load; the retrospective report is limited by the fact that thinking aloud after the task has been completed may result in errors of omission and substitution (Branch, 2006; Kuusela & Paul, 2000; McDonald, Edwards, & Zhao, 2012; van Gog, Kester, Nievelstein, Giesbers, & Paas, 2009). The virtual revisit think aloud is an alternative think aloud method that has been shown to avoid the limitations of the concurrent and retrospective procedures (Beach, 2015). When

64

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

4.5. Data sources

Table 1 Participant demographic characteristics. Characteristic

Frequency and Proportion n (%)

Gender Male 3 (20%) Female 12 (80%) Age 25e29 3 (20%) 30e34 4 (27%) 35e39 4 (27%) 40e44 2 (13%) 45e49 1 (6%) 50e54 0 55þ 1 (6%) Years teaching 2e4 years 4 (27%) 5e9 years 5 (33%) 10e14 years 4 (27%) 15e19 years 1 (6%) 20e24 years 1 (6%) 25 þ years 0 Current grade Kindergarten 0 Grade 1e3 7 (47%) Grade 4e6 6 (40%) Grade 1e6 2 (13%) Comfort using internet for professional purposes Very 13 (87%) Somewhat 2 (13%) Not very 0 Frequency of internet use for professional purposes >once/day 6 (40%) Once/day 7 (47%) Once/week 1 (6%) Once/month 1 (6%)

Multiple sources of data were obtained for triangulation, contributing credibility to the findings by converging more than one source of information (Golafshani, 2003). 4.5.1. Demographic questionnaire The demographic questionnaire was administered to participants to obtain data on a range of relevant factors (e.g., age, gender, teaching experience, Internet use). 4.5.2. Screen capture recordings Camtasia Studio was used to record the computer screen during the participants' online navigation. Resulting video recordings were used for the participants to view as they verbalized their thoughts. 4.5.3. Think aloud protocols Audio recordings captured participants' comments (“thinking aloud”) as they viewed their navigational recordings and these think aloud protocols were examined. 4.5.4. Interview responses The semi-structured interview followed the participants' explorations and included questions concerning participants' general feelings of their navigational learning experience. Think aloud protocols and interview responses were transcribed and examined. The primary researcher transcribed all recordings to ensure greater transcription qualityderrors, such as omissions and substitutions, are less likely to occur when the transcriber is familiar with the research (Poland, 1995; Tilley, 2003). 4.6. Data analysis

compared with the concurrent and retrospective think aloud methods, the virtual revisit think aloud has shown to provide comprehensive information about teachers' cognitive processes during online professional learning (Beach, 2015). The goal of the virtual revisit is to aid recall of original events and thought processes by using a screen-capture recording of participants' navigational experiences. Similar to cued retrospective reporting where participants are given instructions to report retrospectively on the basis of a record of observations (van Gog, Paas, van Marrienboer, & Witte, 2005), the virtual revisit think aloud combines a retrospective think aloud with screen capture technology to aid recall of original events and thought processes. Therefore, the virtual revisit think aloud was employed in the current study. While think aloud studies most often employ a specific task, an open-ended task was used in this study to reflect as naturally as possible how teachers use and learn from professional development websites. To reduce disruption to the participants' cognitive processes, prompts, redirections, and interventions were kept to a minimum during the process of verbalizing (Jaspers, 2009). A digital recorder was used to audio record participants' verbalizations.

4.4.2. Semi-structured interview Following participants' virtual revisit think aloud, a semistructured interview was conducted. Questions concerned participants' general feelings about their navigational experiences as well as their use of online resources for their professional learning. For example: What were your general feelings while you explored the Balanced Literacy Diet website? What did you find challenging while you explored the Balanced Literacy Diet website? Can you describe your experience using online resources for your professional learning?

Data analysis in qualitative research involves reducing the data into themes as a result of repeated coding, comparisons, and categorizations. The phases of coding for the current study involved unitizing, categorizations, comparisons, and refinement (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell & Piano Clark, 2007). All phases involved subjective interpretation and contextualization (Lomard, SnyderDuch, & Campanella Bracken, 2004). Therefore, the transcripts were coded and analyzed by the primary researcher, who had a thorough understanding of the research topic. In addition, a coresearcher provided insights during the analysis by discussing the initial themes. Discussions between the researchers involved a review of the initial themes and a review of approximately 10% of the unitized transcripts. The reviews were done to ensure that all thought units were categorized appropriately and to identify any thought units that were unrelated to any of the categories or deemed as outliers. Disagreements related to category names, definitions, and relationships between categories were discussed in-depth and resolved until the final categories were established. The co-researcher also contributed to the relationships between the categories during the formation of the theoretical model. Three stages of coding were performed on the think aloud transcripts and interview data: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Creswell & Piano Clark, 2007). Open coding began the analysis and involved a reflective reading of the think aloud and interview transcripts to gain a general sense of the participants' thought processes. Phrases within the think aloud transcripts were then unitized based on meaningful pieces of information that were “interpretable in the absence of any additional information” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 345). The units consisted of simple sentences and longer phrases as opposed to a specified number of words or lines within the transcripts. As the transcripts were unitized, initial codes were generated based on participants'

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

actions and processes (Charmaz, 2014). The second phase of analysis, axial coding, involved a review of the units and categories. This review helped to establish connections between the categories and subcategories and resulted in a refined list of categories. This phase of analysis identified seven preliminary themes: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Focusing on student needs and goals; Evaluating information; Saving information for future retrieval; Intentions for practice and professional learning goals; Reflecting on their learning and use of website; Valuing best practices in literacy and teaching; Feeling motivated for learning and applying new knowledge.

To test the validity of these seven preliminary themes, member checking occurred next. Member checking is a valid approach to establish the meaningfulness of the initial findings and involves taking the ideas back to the research participants for their confirmation, elaboration, or disagreement (Charmaz, 2014; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Therefore, the participants (N ¼ 15) were contacted through email and asked if they were interested in providing feedback on the seven preliminary themes. Ten participants replied and were willing to provide feedback. These participants were asked to review the preliminary themes in a follow-up email. In general, participants confirmed and elaborated on the seven themes: all of the participants involved in the member check agreed with the themes. Member checking contributed to the analysis in two ways: (1) by verifying the major themes, and (2) by refining the major themes. As a result of axial coding and member checking, nine themes emerged. These themes were used to code the interview and questionnaire data. The purpose of analyzing the interview and questionnaire data was to determine the consistency of the nine themes across data sources. Axial coding techniques were used in analyzing the interview and questionnaire data. This involved reviewing the units and categories and making new connections between the categories. As a result, a refined list of the major categories was established. Selective coding is also known as theoretical coding. This final process involved selecting the core category and specifying relationships between the core category and other categories to develop a theoretical model (Charmaz, 2014). In the current study, the process involved organizing the nine major themes into a model based on four components: (1) (2) (3) (4)

Conditions that affect the core category; The core category also known as the central phenomenon; Strategies as a result of the core category; and Potential outcomes related from the core category.

The central phenomenon, navigating a professional development literacy website, was deemed the core category because of the following three reasons, as outlined by Corbin and Strauss (2008): (1) the central phenomenon represents the main theme of the research; (2) all other categories can be related to it; and (3) it appears frequently and consistently in the data. The analysis led to a theoretical model for understanding elementary teachers' self-directed online learning experiences as they used a professional development website. In addition to member checking, a number of techniques were employed to enhance the trustworthiness of the qualitative

65

findings. Following Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) framework, the current study achieved trustworthiness through the following six techniques: (1) member checking, (2) triangulation, (3) frequency tallies, (4) thick descriptions, (5) compiling an audit trail, and (6) screen shots of the analysis process. Employing these techniques contributed to the credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the findings. 5. Results and discussion The results are organized according to nine major themes that resulted from the qualitative analysis. Table 2 presents a description of each theme and a direct participant quote to demonstrate each theme. The nine themes listed in Table 2 were organized into a theoretical model based on the study's research questions. Fig. 2 presents the theoretical model for understanding elementary teachers' self-directed online learning experiences as they navigated a professional development website. The following section summarizes each theme and includes direct quotes. 5.1. Conditions affecting elementary teachers' website navigation 5.1.1. Theme 1: perception of professional learning The quality of professional resources appeared to affect elementary teachers' website navigation. Participants were willing to trust the information on the given website because it included authentic contexts and realistic examplesdthe information appeared believable. One participant commented on the authenticity of the website: “[The website is] authentic in the fact that you can see into people's classrooms.” Similarly, another participant described in an interview how “it was a real classroom, it wasn't a theoretical place.” Along with authentic examples, participants noted how the background informationdfor example, the supporting organizationdaffects a website's credibility and overall quality. For example, one participant described her thoughts about the credibility of the given website and included her interests in understanding the background information: I was still reading about the Institute's mission and what its goals were. And I guess I'm doing this to make sure that the website's credible and that maybe if nothing jumps out that contradicts my own pedagogical practice or my own ideas around teaching literacy…And then I was interested in who was behind the Institution so I clicked on the ‘about us’ button and read a little bit about the history about why the Institution was set up. And then I scrolled down to read about the members of the board. As a result of gaining information about the website's background, this participant determined whether the website corresponded to her own practice and beliefs about teaching literacy. Another participant acknowledged the website's university association during an interview: “I like that [the website is] from the [university] site, because I think that does give it credibility.” It is well-known that online resources vary in terms of the quality of information they provide. Research that has investigated the trustworthiness of online resources is based on university student and high school student responses (Iding, Crosby, Auernheimer, & Klemm, 2009; Wiley et al., 2009). Findings of such studies indicate that many Internet users interpret “superficial or inadequate source features (e.g., popularity)” when judging a website's trustworthiness (Andreassen & Braten, 2013, p. 823). The findings pertaining to Theme 1of the current study reveal the use of

66

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

Table 2 Description of themes in the theoretical model. Theme

Description

Example from the Transcripts

1 Perception of Professional Learning

Ideas and attitudes related to professional learning and literacy instruction, including credibility and trustworthiness, and research- based practices. A connection in reference to a teaching context, students, and current and future instructional practices. Factors relating to motivation for learning and using online resources

“If the information is accurate and well-presented, teachers will go back to the website. There are so many websites, there's so much information … I need to know the information here is valid.” “I'm gathering ideas and information that are relevant to my students' needs and interests.” “I find it really helpful because I can see what the classrooms are, and sometimes there are lessons and links that I can look into which helps me as a learner and as a teacher.” “First I was trying to get a general sense of the website and what was on it.”

2 Focusing on Student Needs and Instructional Goals 3 Motivating Factors

4 Navigating a Professional Development Website 5 Evaluating Information 6 Saving Information for Future Retrieval 7 Reflecting on Learning

8 Increases in Self- Efficacy

9 Intentions for Practice

Descriptions and explanations of website actions and behaviours based on participants' exploration and understanding of the website. Evaluative statements (assessments, opinions) in relation to participants' navigation. Strategies for remembering and recalling information including note taking, bookmarking, and emailing. Reflective statements about learning from the website and seeing one's self as a learner, including future use of the website Statements relating to the teachers' sense of confidence and self-efficacy.

“It was nice also that you could sort by grade and then re-filter by the food groups.” “I definitely at this point wanted to record the title of this book, so I'm going to open up a document so I can start typing out my ideas.” “As a new teacher it's really important to go over things and see examples of what people expect.

“Here I'm just having a look at this classroom … and it can remind you of things, it can show you things that you haven't thought of and give you inspiration and new ideas.” Statements about planning, adapting information to meet “I can tell with this activity that it’s multi-layered, it can be turned student needs, and professional goals. into a whole unit and it can allow me to develop many different skills with the students.”

Fig. 2. Theoretical model for teachers' self-directed online learning.

effective source features by elementary teachers when judging a website's trustworthiness. Elementary teachers want to ensure that their professional knowledge and instructional materials stem from credible sources, and examining these source features during professional learning enhances their confidence in the resource. In addition, the findings related to Theme 1 are supported by Garrison's model of self- directed learning, specifically with regards to Garrison’s (1997) emphasis on the learner's motivation to “cognitively monitor the learning process” (p. 21). Garrison notes

that self-directed learning should go beyond the task to include critical thinking; “an adult learner who is fully self-directed has moved beyond the simple task control and has learned to think critically” (p. 21).

5.1.2. Theme 2: focusing on student needs and instructional goals As teachers approach online resources they carefully reflect on the relevance and applicability of the given resource. All of the participants in the current study sought information specific to

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

their practice; they were mindful of the current and future needs of their students and their instructional goals. For example, one participant stated: “when I was reading the different elements I was specifically looking for key words that target some of the things I do in my special education classroom.” Participants also based their navigational decisions on their classroom context. For instance, one participant stated: I teach grade one/two, so clicking on the first to second grade virtual tour and just having a look at the classroom and then looking down below to see some of the particular lessons I guess that are in that tour … And looking at just the little snapshots and the description underneath for anything I might be interested in. This participant chose topics directly relating to her individual classroom context. In this sense, she was self-directing her learning. This finding suggests that teachers who are given the opportunity to choose pertinent topics are likely to gain relevant information with immediate applications. Theme 2 findings relate to Garrison's model of self-directed learning, in particular to the self-management dimension (1997). A characteristic of a self-directed learner is the “awareness of the need to make learning more meaningful [and] to take greater responsibility in the monitoring of the learning process itself” (Garrison, 1997, p. 24). In addition, participant's “entering motivational state” a term introduced in Garrison's model, may have been a result of their intentions and learning goals (1997, p. 27). Participants in the current study sought information that directly applied to their goals, students' needs, and classroom context. Given that the participants were directing their navigation themselves, they were aware of their need to make learning meaningful by choosing topics that best fit their needs and current context. Ponti (2014) acknowledges the importance of this awareness during selfdirected learning suggesting that the potential of online resources to support learners depends much on the learner's interests and goals. There was also a sense of immediate applicationdparticipants had a vision for their practice and recognized that the information could be immediately applied to their current and future units of study. This is consistent with Wu and Chen's findings (2008) who found that teachers used informal online environments most often to obtain up-to-date information directly related to their subject area and current instructional needs.

5.1.3. Theme 3: motivating factors Teachers are generally motivated to use online resources for their professional learning (Charalambousa & Ioannou, 2011). Participants agreed that the ease and accessibility of the Internet is a motivating factor to use professional development websites. For example, one participant preferred the convenience of online resources as opposed to professional texts: I find [professional development websites] really convenient … instead of going to the library and taking out books, things are already narrowed down for you and the important things are already there, in a sense that you don't have to search and waste so much time … it's a lot easier. Similarly, another participant stated that “the Internet is very portable these days … you can use it on your phone, outside the house … it's very convenient to use online resources.” These examples suggest that access to professional development websites offers information that teachers may not as easily

67

access through more traditional face-to-face professional development activities. This is consistent with other research that has examined teachers' motivations towards online learning (Jones & Dexter, 2014). Specifically, teacher reports have indicated that informal online environments are flexible in terms of time and location, and can provide on-going and “just-in-time” support (Jones & Dexter, 2014). These just-in-time supports can include accessible and easy-to-use professional development websitesdteachers can expand their professional knowledge and repertoire of instructional strategies at their own time and convenience. Participants also referred to their motivation to expand their repertoire of professional knowledge by seeking out researchbased practices. For example, one participant, who identified herself as a new teacher, stated in a questionnaire response “that it is important for [her] to continue learning new strategies (especially in the area of literacy).” She reported that “conferences and workshops are inspiring to go to … they provide new and creative ways to teach.” Similarly, another participant reported that “it's important to keep up with best practices in education.” This participant stated that she “enjoys interacting with experts and other teachers,” and that she is “always looking for new ideas to bring back to [her] classroom.” This finding is consistent with the characteristics of self-directed learners. Teachers' willingness to engage in professional development increases when the material is relevant and personally meaningful to them (Chametzky, 2014). Professional development websites lend themselves to greater learner control and autonomy, and ultimately intrinsic motivation to learn. As a result of selfdirecting their own learning, teachers may be more willing to implement best practices in the classroom. 5.2. The central phenomenon resulting from the conditions Navigating a Professional Development Website was deemed the central phenomenon of the model because all other themes could be related to it and it appeared frequently and consistently in the data. Participants' navigation, including their general navigational pattern, is described in detail below. 5.2.1. Theme 4: Navigating a Professional Development Website While there were differences in how the participants approached and used the website (i.e., motivational factors, foci), there was a general pattern of navigation for all participants. This navigational pattern followed three stages: (1) gaining a general sense of the website, (2) exploring in-depth, and (3) understanding the website. As participants began their website navigation they were interested in gaining a general sense of the website's framework, the web pages, and the various web-based tools. The participants considered these elements to “get a general sense of the website and what was on it,” and to “explore the lessons, and understand the thinking behind the website.” During their initial navigation, participants were interested in “how the lessons were created or the lessons were laid out.” For example, one participant described his web-based behaviour when approaching any new website: I think initially when you come to a new website you want to be able to play around, move around through your anxiety, put it aside and then soon after get a sense of what's there and how to navigate, and how many layers there are. Then I think you can get into it more and relax more … I was able to do that. Participants were generally interested in gaining “more of a feel for what these lessons were before using the lesson finder and starting to actually lose [themselves] in reading.” As one participant

68

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

viewed a classroom virtual tour, she explained that she was “just trying to take everything in, to see how all the different subjects are integrated in the classroom, how things are being displayed, and just the use of wall space and shelf space.” As participants maneuvered through the website, they began to “explore the website in a little bit more depth” and connect and plan according to their current practice, classroom context, and student needs. For example, during one participant's think aloud she stated: “At this point I was trying to read through the transcript. I was trying to figure out, make sure I had all the details for that because it was an activity I thought I could possibly use.” Similarly, another participant decided “to go in and read in a little bit more detail and read about oral language, how it's described by the website.” In addition, a participant reflected, “in the beginning I was more focused on how to use it or what was available and now I'm actually almost, like thinking about how to put it into practice.” As participants continued to explore the website in depth they began to understand the features and underlying architecture of the website. For example, as a participant viewed the screen recording of her navigation she thought back to navigational choices and “realized that you can actually scroll by teacher … I said, ‘oh you can actually see things by teacher,’ so you actually might find favourite teachers that you like to follow.” Participants also developed an understanding of the organization of the website. For example, one participant reflected on how he was “discovering the way the website's organized, at the bottom of each page describing each food group. I can also use that as a filter to find activities.” Similarly, another participant grasped the workings of particular web-based tools: “I figured out that if you rested on the red dot you could find out what the [learning] center was. So I started reading more of them … there's so much in there.” In addition, a participant described her process of understanding how the virtual tour worked as a professional tool: I'm not too familiar with virtual websites so I wasn't too sure what was going to happen. I thought I was just going to visit the classroom but then I realized that as I clicked on things I got information, like what is displayed right now about the chart. And then I think I went back and clicked on one of the red dots and realized that this little video popped up which was kind of neat. Theme 4 findings are consistent with Garrison's model of selfdirected learning (1997). Throughout their navigation, participants were self-monitoring their learning. As participants explored in-depth and according to their personal goals, they were ensuring that their needs were being met by exploring the website in greater depth, and integrating new information with “existing knowledge structures” (Garrison, 1997, p. 22). Participants were committed to seek out information related to their practice. In addition to selfmonitoring by exploring in-depth, participants also took responsibility to understand of the organization of the website, and how the underlying features and web architect supported their goals. Theme 4 also relates to Garrison's (1997) discussion of the role motivation plays during self- directed learning (1997). As Garrison states, “Motivation plays a very significant role in the initiation and maintenance of effort toward learning and the achievement of cognitive goals” (p. 26). Participants demonstrated effort to persist with the task of using the given website as they normally do when seeking information online related to their teaching practice by understanding the features and functionalities of the resource. As a result of an increased understanding of the website as a whole, participants were motivated to continue to peruse the site. The learning context can have a significant influence on the

process of learning as well as on how motivated the learner is to use resources and strategies provided to achieve personal goals (Song & Hill, 2007). Consistent with Song and Hill's conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online environments, the current study's model recognizes the learning context as an important factor to participant's learning. 5.3. Strategies for Navigating a Professional Development Website 5.3.1. Theme 5: evaluating information Participants evaluated a range of components during their 20min web navigation. For example, participants evaluated the novelty of the technology and described how the virtual classroom tours utilized “emerging technology” and that this contributed to their motivation to use online resources (Song & Lee, 2014, p. 517). One participant stated: “The most appealing features were the virtual tours and the videos … actually hearing the teachers describe whatever they do and being able to see them describe it in their classroom.” Participants also evaluated the functionality of the technologyd“the ease of access and navigation” (Song & Lee, 2014, p. 516). For instance, a participant described his “general feelings … that [the website] was relatively clean and well-organized … there were lots of headings and boxes and colours and fonts but it wasn't overwhelming … there was a consistent colour scheme which I think is very helpful.” The website was also described as userfriendly. For example, one participant reflected on the visuals and accessibility of information: “I liked how visual it was, it was really user-friendly in the sense that all the videos played when you clicked them. You could expand the size, you could change the volume … I thought that was really accessible.” In addition, participants evaluated the content richness of the given websited“the adequacy of content for learning purposes, credibility and currency of the information” (Song & Lee, 2014). For instance, one participant stated: It felt like it was a very comprehensive website, so it had a lot of information and also that it had a lot of practical teaching strategies, so really useful things like seeing a real classroom and hearing that teacher speak to her classroom, I found that really useful. The quality of the content contributed to the participants' learning experience by ensuring the trustworthiness of the information presented on the website. Zaharias (2008) emphasizes that the basis of an online learning environment “should be the quality of content” (47). Content should not only be relevant, but it should also come from reliable and cited sources (Zaharias, 2008). In sum, participants evaluated many aspects of the given websitedparticipants formed opinions about the web-based features, the organization of the website, the ease of accessing information, and they assessed the quality and authenticity of information. Evaluating web- based features such as these may contribute to a website user's ability to plan during their learning. That is, collecting, organizing, and analyzing information can facilitate the decision-making process as teachers use a professional development website. In addition, gaining feedback from the real user can provide meaningful information about what works and necessary improvements. 5.3.2. Theme 6: saving information for future retrieval Participants synthesized new information by utilizing external aids: they took notes during their navigation and also referred to bookmarking and emailing as strategies for retaining newly learned information. Participants who took notes believed “that note taking

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

is always a good active way to interact with and remember information.” Participants referred to note-taking as a general strategy for saving information while navigating any online professional resource. For example, the following quote describes one participant's thought process about note taking: The teacher [referring to a teacher in a video] seemed to have a nice comprehensive program and she gave some nice tips offhand that I actually wanted to write down … I do end up opening a window to start typing down some ideas because I would want to go back to these quickly, refer back to these quickly the next time I wanted to go through this video … or the next time I wanted to think about some of the ideas from this so I'd have a summary for myself. Participants in the current study saved information during their 20-min website navigation by utilizing external aids, including note-taking. Many participants made references to the contribution of these external aids: for instance, the retention and future retrieval of newly acquired information. These types of external aids can be thought of as learning strategies and were employed by the participants (the learners) to accomplish a specific task (to seek out information related to their teaching practice). Furthermore, participants used these external aids in a deliberate way: participants intentionally chose to take notes and made explicit references to the benefits of this strategy. This is consistent with studies that report adults using deliberate strategies to enhance memory (Intons-Peterson & Fournier, 1986; Schryer & Ross, 2013). Note taking, in particular has been found to facilitate memory even when the notes are not available as retrieval cues (Intons-Peterson & Fournier, 1986). That is, the process of taking notes in itself has a positive effect on the way in which newly learned material is encoded. In the current study, it is possible that participants who took notes during their website navigation may have been more likely to encode, recall, and ultimately implement the newly learned material into their teaching practice. In addition, the findings pertaining to theme 6 suggest that as teachers use informal online learning environments they do so with the intention to integrate their newly formed knowledge into their classroom practice.

5.4. Potential outcomes resulting from elementary teachers' website navigation 5.4.1. Theme 7: reflecting on learning During participants' think aloud and interview they reflected on their learning and their use of the given website. For example, one participant acknowledged herself as a visual learner and that “[she] could explore [the website] for hours.” In addition to their learning, participants also reflected on their future use of the given website. For example, one participant reflected on features of the website she thought she would explore during her next visit. She “probably would look at some of the other teachers' videos because every teacher is unique and they're probably highlighting different parts of their program which is pretty cool.” Similarly, another participant stated: If I had to go back to the website I think I would have watched more of the videos, like there was a tab that I didn't explore, and I think that was next to the virtual tours, something about the recipes in action … I think I would have had a look at that. Participants in the current study reflected on their general

69

feelings about the website. Participants also noted certain features and web pages that they would use in the future. When teachers are more conscious of their own understandings, performances, and dispositions, their capacity to learn may be enhanced (Gikandi, 2013; Loughran, 2002; Shulman & Shulman, 2004). In addition, teachers who critically examine how they use resources such as the given website are more likely to make meaningful connections to their practice. Participants' reflections about their performance may contribute to their future use of the websitedhow they will narrow down their focus to gain personally relevant pedagogical information about literacy instruction. As Loughran (2002) states, “reflection is effective when it leads the teacher to make meaning from the situation in ways that enhances understanding” (p. 36). 5.4.2. Theme 8: increases in self-efficacy Teacher efficacy can be described as “teachers' beliefs about their own capacities as teachers” (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Factors that impact a teacher's efficacy include performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, and social persuasion (Protheroe, 2008). In the current study, vicarious experiences appeared to contribute to participants' increased selfefficacy. Vicarious experiences occurred as participants observed a model teacher using an effective method of instruction. As a result, participants referred to gains in their confidencedparticipants believed that they too could successfully implement a lesson or literacy-related strategy (Protheroe, 2008). Specifically, 12 participants shared positive reflections about their own ability to successfully employ similar instructional strategies after they viewed videos of model teachers implementing an effective strategy. For example, one participant stated: “I really did like exploring that teacher's classroom … I found what she was saying from the get-go seemed to resonate with my understanding of a literacy program.” Similarly, another participant referred to the virtual tours as an approach to overcome feeling isolated: Sometimes when you are teaching … you don't get to spend that much time in other classrooms. This is something that most teachers will saydthat it can be kind of isolating … I know that when I see other classrooms it's kind of neat to go, ‘oh this teacher has an anchor chart about parts of speech on the wall’, and especially as a new teacher it can affirm, oh yeah, it does make sense that I'm doing that. In addition, another participant described the positive impact of seeing strategies reinforced by model teachers: “I think it's nice to see things that you're doing reinforced in what other people are doing. It just keeps your confidence going … okay, I'm on the right track I'm doing the right thing … you're always questioning yourself.” Furthermore, a participant, who identified herself as “a relatively new teacher,” recognized the impact of discovering new ideas and “refreshing my knowledge of current practices that I can implement in my own classroom to enhance my program and help me to become a better teacher.” Research that has investigated teacher efficacy has found a positive relationship between higher levels of teacher efficacy and classroom quality and literacy instruction (Guo, Piasta, Justice, & Kaderavek, 2010; Tschannen-Moran & Johnson, 2011). Thus, by viewing videos of effective classroom instruction during elementary teachers' informal online learning experiences, teacher efficacy may increase and contribute to the quality of classroom practice. In addition, and consistent with Mushayikwa and Lubben’s (2009) findings which found a relationship between self-directed learning in online environments and increases in teacher professional efficacy, video viewing reinforced participants' beliefs about teaching and particular teaching strategies they employed.

70

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

5.4.3. Theme 9: intentions for practice All of the participants shared their intentions to incorporate newly acquired information into their teaching practice. Participants shared their intentions to adapt information to their student needs. They discussed how they would “tweak” lesson examples from the website. For instance, one participant described how she would adapt a writing idea to her drama class: “That was interesting, ‘All about Me Autobiographies,’ because I was starting to think that about how it could translate into a drama activity fairly quickly.” Similarly, as participants navigated the given website they realized “that you could combine a number of these ideas and make them your own, see what works for you.” More than half of the participants looked beyond the given information on the websited they extended ideas to meet their individual needs. One participant stated, “I very rarely use anything verbatim that I find on the Internet. I usually adapt it to something I've already done or I fold it into something that I'm doing.” The potential outcomes as a result of navigating the website are the “changes in cognition or behaviour resulting from engagement in activity” (Hoekstra, Brekelmans, Beijaard, & Korthagen, 2009, p. 665). The primary goal of any professional resource is to contribute meaningful information to professional practice. The findings pertaining to theme 9 are consistent with Bakkenes and her colleagues' findings (2010)dteachers try new practices in the context of educational innovation and change. 6. Implications for research and practice The model presented in this paper attempts to provide scholars, teacher educators, and website developers with a comprehensive representation of teachers' self-directed online learning experiences. This study's model describes how elementary teachers use and learn from a professional development website. Online learning is an experience in which elementary teachers regularly engage (Charalambousa & Ioannou, 2011; Delgado, Wardlow, McKnight, & O'Malley, 2015; Kao, Wu, & Tsai, 2011); therefore, it is imperative to study teacher thinking and learning in the context of informal online learning environments. The study of teachers' thinking in online environments can contribute to research in teacher cognitiondwhat teachers know, think, believe, and value. In addition, this research identifies key conditions, navigational strategies, and potential outcomes related to elementary teachers' use of a professional development website. These key elements can offer educators and website developers with insights into how and why elementary teachers use and learn from a professional development literacy website. Specifically, this study's model can guide teacher educators and educational website developers in the development of course material and website content. For instance, teacher educators might consider integrating self-directed online learning into assignments for additional qualification courses or workshop material. They could introduce navigational strategies to teachers that could be employed when accessing an online learning environment and provide guidance to teachers in identifying and developing professional goals prior to accessing an online resource. While these types of opportunities might be facilitated by an instructor, teachers would independently make choices according to their needs and interests, their current practice and professional goals. This type of learning experience fosters personal autonomy, a characteristic of adult learning that implies “independence, freedom of choice, and rational reflection” (Loyens et al., 2008, p. 414). Teachers who conceive professional goals as personally valuable may be more likely to integrate these ideas into their practice. Teachers tend to be motivated to learn; particularly when material is relevant and personally meaningful (Chametzky, 2014). Integrating self-directed online learning experiences into

coursework can have a positive effect on, and even change, teachers' beliefs, acquired knowledge, and pedagogical approaches (Cervetti, Kulikowich, Drummond, & Billman, 2012). Another pedagogical implication of this research relates to the potential benefits of providing face-to-face or online support to teachers new to self-directed online learning. Teacher educators could provide teachers with support during the initial stages of selfdirected learning (e.g., regulating and managing initial behaviors and intentions). As a result of this support, teachers could independently select navigational strategies necessary to complete tasks and also become aware of the connection between their motivations and how they might use online learning environments. Website developers of professional development sites might also consider the accessibility of content for teachers at various grade levels and include a tutorial about navigational routes users can take depending on their needs and goals. Ponti (2014) suggests that autonomy in learning can be supported during the initial stages of self-directed learning. Using this study's model as a guide for supporting teachers in their initial stages of self-directed online learning could lead to increases in teachers' confidence to use online environments, their motivation to revisit an online learning environment, and their engagement in learning (Lohman, 2006). Teachers who pursue meaningful topics are active participants during the learning processdthey independently make choices that relate to their distinct learning pursuits (Cercone, 2008; Knowles, 1980). Future studies may find it beneficial to examine the differences in self-directed online learning experiences between expert and novice literacy teachers as well as between practicing and preservice teachers. In addition, future research could further explore the themes presented in this paper by determining the strength of the relationships between the conditions, strategies, and outcomes. While a strength of this model is that it was developed from participant data, future research that examines the strength of the relationships between variables will contribute to the model's credibility. 6.1. Study limitations There are two main limitations to this study that need to be considered when interpreting the findings. Although strategies for establishing trustworthiness were taken, the ability to generalize qualitative findings is limited. While generalizing the findings is limited, the small sample size does generate data that is rich and thorough, with descriptions that are thick with details about the context, participants, and direct quotes. A further limitation relates to reactivity which may have occurred as a result of participants' awareness of completing the website task and think aloud. Reactivity was reduced as much as possible during the one-on-one meeting: staying neutral during the task and think aloud and keeping verbal and nonverbal cues to a minimum. However, reactivity may have occurred as a result of participants' awareness that they were completing a task in the presence of the primary investigator and should be considered when interpreting the findings. 7. Conclusion Teachers learn in many different aspects of practice, including their classrooms, their school communities, professional development courses, and online environments (Borko, 2004; Cervetti et al., 2012; Desimone, 2009; Kao et al., 2011). To understand teacher learning, it must be studied within these multiple contexts. Promoting self-directed learning as a facet of teacher professional development fosters higher levels of engagement with professional

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

learning, meaningful self-directed learning experiences, and greater connections between professional knowledge and teacher practice. As noted by Chametzky (2014), engagement in professional development increases when the material is relevant and personally meaningful. Self-directed learning theorists emphasize engagement and motivation for learning as outcomes of selfdirected learning experiences (Caffarella, 1993; Candy, 1988; Garrison, 1997; Song & Hill, 2007). Gaining greater insights into teachers' learning experiences as they navigate online environments can lead to the reconsideration of the design of such learning environments so that they “are more conducive to informal learning … so that they further develop the ability of professionals to solve problems and learn independently” (Lohman, 2006, p. 144). References Andreassen, R., & Braten, I. (2013). Teachers' source evaluation self-efficacy predicts their use of relevant source features when evaluating the trustworthiness of web sources on special education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(5), 821e836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01366.x. Ayyildiz, Y., & Tarhan, L. (2015). Development of the self-directed learning skills scale. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 24(6), 663e679. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2015.1091393. Bakkenes, I., Vermunt, J. D., & Wubbels, T. (2010). Teacher learning in the context of educational innovation: Learning activities and learning outcomes of experienced teachers. Learning and Instruction, 20, 533e548. Beach, P. (2015, April). Understanding teachers’ cognitive processes as they use an online professional development website: A methodological comparison. In Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Chicago, Illinois. Retrieved from http://www.aera. net/Publications/Online-Paper-Repository/AERA-Online-Paper-Repository/ Owner/931339. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3e15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/ 0013189X033008003. Branch, J. (2006). Using think alouds, think afters, and think togethers to research adolescents' inquiry experiences. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 52(3), 148e159. Brockett, R. G., & Hiemstra, R. H. (1985). Bridging the theory-practice gap in selfdirected learning. New Directions for Continuing Education, 25, 31e40. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1002/ace.36719852505. Bullock, S. M. (2013). Using digital technologies to support self-directed learning for preservice teacher education. The Curriculum Journal, 24(1), 103e120. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585176.2012.744695. Caffarella, R. (1993). Self-directed learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 57, 25e35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ace.36719935705. Callanan, M., Cervantes, C., & Loomis, M. (2011). Informal learning. Wiley Interdisciplinary Review: Cognitive Science, 2(6), 646e655. Candy, P. (1988). Key issues for research in self-directed learning. Studies in Continuing Education, 10(2), 104e124. Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education Journal, 16(2), 137e159. Cervetti, G. N., Kulikowich, J., Drummond, M., & Billman, A.. (2012). Influence of educative curriculum materials on teachers’ learning and teaching. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Vancouver, B.C. Retrieved August 8, 2014 from http://www.sandi.net/cms/ lib/CA01001235/Centricity/Domain/121/R_R/DistResearch/ResultReports/585_ Cervetti_G_et_al_UCBerkeley_2012B.pdf. Chametzky, B. (2014). Andragogy and engagement in online learning: Tenets and solutions. Creative Education, 5, 813e821. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ ce.2014.510095. Charalambousa, K., & Ioannou, I. (2011). The attitudes and opinions of Cypriot primary teachers about the use of the Internet for their professional development and as an educational tool. Learning, Media and Technology, 33(1), 45e57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439880701868879. Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. L. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Creswell, J. W., & Piano Clark, V. L. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication. Cunningham, A. E., Zibulsky, J., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2009). How teachers would spend their time teaching language arts. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(5), 418e430. Delgado, A. J., Wardlow, L., McKnight, K., & O'Malley, K. (2015). Educational technology: A review of the integration, resources, and effectiveness of technology in K-12 classrooms. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 14, 397e416. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://www.jite.org/documents/

71

Vol14/JITEv14ResearchP397-416Delgado1829.pdf. Demir, K. (2010). Predictors of Internet use for the professional development of teachers: An application of the theory of planned behaviour. Teacher Development, 14(1), 1e14. Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers' professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Research, 38(3), 181e199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08331140. Downer, J. T., Pianta, R. C., Fan, X., Hamre, B. K., Mashburn, A., & Justice, L. (2012). Effects of web-mediated teacher professional development on the language and literacy skills of children enrolled in prekindergarten programs. NHSA Dialog, 14(4), 189e212. Duncan-Howell, J. (2010). Teachers making connections: Online communities as a source of professional learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 324e340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00953.x. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data (Rev.. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Garrison, D. R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive model. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 18e33. Garrison, D. R. (2003). Self-directed learning and distance education. In M. G. Moore, & W. G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 161e168). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Gikandi, J. (2013). How can open online reflective journals enhance learning in teacher education? Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 21(1), 5e26 (Chesapeake, VA: Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education). van Gog, T., Kester, L., Nievelstein, F., Giesbers, B., & Paas, F. (2009). Uncovering cognitive processes: Different techniques that can contribute to cognitive load research and instruction. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 325e331. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.021. van Gog, T., Paas, F., van Marrienboer, J., & Witte, P. (2005). Uncovering the problemsolving process: Cued retrospective reporting versus concurrent and retrospective reporting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(4), 237e244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.11.4.237. Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597e607. Guo, Y., Piasta, S. B., Justice, L. M., & Kaderavek, I. N. (2010). Relations among preschool teachers' self-efficacy, classroom quality, and children's language and literacy gains. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1094e1103. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tate.2009.11.005. Hoekstra, A., Brekelmans, M., Beijaard, D., & Korthagen, F. (2009). Experienced teachers' informal learning: Learning activities and changes in behaviour and cognition. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 663e673. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tate.2008.12.007. Hur, J. W., & Brush, T. A. (2009). Teacher participation in online communities: Why do teachers want to participate in self-generated online communities of K-12 teachers? Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41(3), 279e303. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.10782532. Hursen, C. (2016). The impact of curriculum developed in line with authentic learning on the teacher candidates' success, attitude and self-directed learning skills. Asia Pacific Educational Review, 17, 73e86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s12564-015-9409-2. Iding, M. K., Crosby, M. E., Auernheimer, B., & Klemm, E. B. (2009). Website credibility: Why do people believe what they believe? Instructional Science, 37, 43e63. Intons-Peterson, M. J., & Fournier, J. (1986). External and internal memory aids: When and how often do we use them? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 115(3), 267e280. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.115.3.267. Jaspers, M. W. (2009). A comparison of usability methods for testing interactive health technologies: Methodological aspects and empirical evidence. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 78, 340e353. Jones, M., & Dexter, S. (2014). How teachers learn: The roles of formal, informal, and independent learning. Educational Technology Research Development, 62, 367e384. Jurasaite-Harbison, E., & Rex, L. A. (2010). School cultures as contexts for informal teacher learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 267e277. Kanuka, H., & Nocente, N. (2003). Exploring the effects of personality type on perceived satisfaction with web-based learning in continuing professional development. Distance Education, 24(2), 227e244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 0158791032000127491. Kao, C. P., Wu, Y. T., & Tsai, C. C. (2011). Elementary school teachers' motivation toward web-based professional development, and the relationship with Internet self-efficacy and belief about web-based learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 406e415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.09.010. Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press. Knowles, M. S. (1980). My farewell address…andragogy: No panacea, no ideology. Training and Development Journal, 34(8), 48e50. Kuusela, H., & Paul, P. (2000). A comparison of concurrent and retrospective verbal protocol analysis. American Journal of Psychology, 113(3), 387e404. Lee, K., Tsai, P. S., Chai, C. S., & Koh, J. H. L. (2014). Students' perceptions of selfdirected learning and collaborative learning with and without technology. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 30, 425e437. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ jcal.12055. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

72

P. Beach / Teaching and Teacher Education 61 (2017) 60e72

Lohman, M. C. (2006). Factors influencing teachers' engagement in informal learning activities. Journal of Workplace Learning, 18(3), 141e156. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1108/13665620610654577. Lomard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Campanella Bracken, C. (2004). Practical resources for assessing and reporting intercoder reliability in content analysis research projects. Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://astro.temple.edu/~lombard/reliability. Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33e43. Loyens, S. M., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. (2008). Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationship with self-regulated learning. Educational Psychological Review, 20, 411e427. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9082-7. Mayer, R. (2002). Cognitive theory and the design of multimedia instruction: An example of the two-way street between cognition and instruction. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 89, 55e71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/tl.47. McCartney, R., Boustedt, J., Eckerdal, A., Sanders, K., Thomas, L., & Zander, C. (2016). Why computing students learn on their own: Motivation for self-directed learning of computing. ACM Transactions of Computing Education, 16. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1145/2747008. McDonald, S., Edwards, H., & Zhao, T. (2012). Exploring think-alouds in usability testing: An international survey. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 55(1), 2e19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TPC.2011.2182569. Mello, L. V. (2016). Fostering postgraduate student engagement: Online resources supporting self-directed learning in a diverse cohort. Research in Learning Technology, 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v24.29366. Mushayikwa, E., & Lubben, F. (2009). Self-directed professional development-Hope for teachers working in deprived environments? Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(3), 375e382. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Reports of the subgroups. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Poland, B. D. (1995). Transcription quality as an aspect of rigor in qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 1(3), 290e310. Ponti, M. (2014). Self-directed learning and guidance in non-formal open courses. Learning, Media and Technology, 39(2), 154e168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 17439884.2013.799073. Porche, M. V., Pallante, D. H., & Snow, C. E. (2012). Professional development for reading achievement. The Elementary School Journal, 112(4), 649e671. Pressley, M., Mohan, L., Raphael, L. M., & Fingeret, L. (2007). How does Bennett Woods Elementary School produce such high reading and writing achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 221e240. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.221. Protheroe, N. (2008). Teacher efficacy: What is it and does it matter? Principal, 87(5), 42. Rogers, C. R. (1969). Freedom to learn. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Rowan, M., & Huston, P. (1997). Qualitative research articles: Information for authors and peer reviewers. Canadian Medical Association, 157(10), 1442e1446. Schryer, E., & Ross, M. (2013). The use and benefits of external memory aids in older and younger adults. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 27, 663e671. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1002/acp.2946. Shulman, L. S., & Shulman, J. H. (2004). How and what teachers learn: A shifting perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(2), 257e271. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/0022027032000148298. van Someren, M. W., Barnard, Y. F., & Sandberg, J. A. (1994). The think aloud method: A practical guide to modelling cognitive processes. London: Academic Press. Song, L., & Hill, J. R. (2007). A conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning in online environments. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 6(1), 27e41. Song, D., & Lee, J. (2014). Has web 2.0 revitalized informal learning? The relationship between web 2.0 and informal learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 30, 511e533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12056. Stosic, L., & Stosic, I. (2014). Perception of teachers regarding the implementation of the Internet in education. Computers in Human Behavior, 53, 462e468. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.027. Tillema, H. H. (2000). Belief change towards self-directed learning in student teachers: Immersion in practice or reflection on action. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 575e591. Tilley, S. A. (2003). “Challenging” research practices: Turning a critical lens on the work of transcription. Qualitative Inquiry, 9(5), 750e773. Tough, A. (1971). The adult's learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Johnson, D. (2011). Exploring literacy teachers' selfefficacy beliefs: Potential sources at play. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 751e761. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2010.12.005. Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202e248. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543068002202. Uppal, T. (2011). Internet use for lesson preparation by pre-service teachers: A mixed methods study (Unpublished Master’s thesis.). Toronto, Canada: OISE, University of Toronto. Wiley, J., Goldman, S. R., Graesser, A. C., Sanches, C. A., Ash, I. K., & Hemmerich, J. A. (2009). Source evaluation, comprehension, and learning in Internet science inquiry tasks. American Educational Research Journal, 46(4), 1060e1106. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3102/0002831209333183. Wu, M., & Chen, S. (2008). Elementary schoolteachers' use of instructional materials on the web. The Electronic Library, 26(6), 833e843. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 02640470810921619. Zaharias, P. (2008). Usability in the context of e-learning: A framework augmenting ‘traditional’ usability constructs with instructional design and motivation to learn. International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 5(4), 37e59.