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Semiconductor Safety Handbook: Safety and Health in the Semi-Conductor Industry
Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 14 (2001) 241–243 www.elsevier.com/locate/jlp
Book Reviews Semiconductor Safety Handbook: Safety and Health in the Semi-Conductor Industry Richard A. Bolmen, Jr. (Ed.); Noyes Publications, Westwood, NJ, 1st Edition, pp. 610, Price $86.00 The manufacture of semiconductors for use in computers involves the storage and handling of many flammable and toxic chemicals. Therefore, this handbook should be of use to professionals involved in environmental, health and safety issues (EH and S) aspects of semiconductor manufacture. The purpose of this book is to provide a current, single source reference for many of the primary semiconductor EH and S technologies and disciplines. To accomplish this, the editor has attempted to produce a reference manual that is comprehensive in its coverage of the technical aspects of each individual subject, while at the same time addressing practical applications of each topic. In order to achieve this goal, the editor has assembled 17 leading experts in EH and S in the semiconductor industry (including himself) to write this handbook. The book has 11 chapters and a good subject index. Chapter 1 is an overview of injury and illness of semiconductor workers. This includes a review and discussion of semiconductor industry work injuries and illnesses for the time period 1983–l995 and a review of epidemiologic studies. Chapter 2, on “Environmental Compliance in the Semiconductor Industry: Detection, Correction, and Prevention” is a very thorough review of the subject. Topics included are: external and internal sources affecting compliance, detection of environmental compliance and management issues (development of environmental audit programs), corrective action for environmental compliance and management issues (use of audit program results), mitigation and prevention of environmental compliance and management issues, adopting proactive environmental strategies, and going beyond compliance–holistic considerations. The chapter also contains two useful appendixes: EPA policy on environmental auditing, and an environmental compliance audit checklist. Chapter 3 is an overview of the types of chemicals used in the semiconductor industry in operations such as photolithography, wet etching, dry etching, implant/diffusion, cleaning, metallization, maintenance issues, and use of gases (tables listing specific hazards associated with gases used, TLVs of gases and other chemicals used, and confirmed and suspected carcinogens). The science and practical application of
industrial hygiene principles and practices are discussed in Chapter 4, which covers industrial hygiene monitoring, personal protective equipment, odor identification, and recordkeeping. Electrical hazards are reviewed in Chapter 5. The author offers a unique perspective and valuable insight into this pervasive hazard. Among the topics he discusses are how to identify an electrical hazard before someone gets hurt, terminology, human effects, scenario of an electrical shock, common elements of electrical accidents/accident investigation, electrical hazard management, typical electrical hazards, lockout/tagout, and an electrical safety cookbook (what can be done to avoid hazards and accidents). In Chapter 6, the authors offer a comprehensive review of the various classifications and associated hazards of radiation as well as potential sources and specific radiation exposures in a clean-room environment. Topics include: extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF/EMF), radiofrequency/ microwave radiation, lasers, ultraviolet radiation, and ionizing radiation (x-ray generating machines and radioactive materials). The recognition, evaluation and control of some plasma processing hazards are discussed in Chapter 7. Among the topics covered are: hazard evaluation, process hazard review, other mechanisms (guidelines) to address equipment safety, gas chemical safety (includes compressed gas cylinder safety and toxic gas handling safety), and toxicology (includes basic concepts, classification of toxic effects, and toxicology of specific gases used in the semiconductor industry). Chapter 8 is a very comprehensive review of fire protection technology for semiconductor operations. The chapter begins with a history of fire protection in the semiconductor industry and then discusses the evolution and development of Highly Protective Risk (HPR) standards, specific to semiconductor operations, in addition to present day property and fire protection issues for large Class I wafer fabrication facilities. Issues from site selection for a wafer fabrication facility to protection of individual pieces of processing equipment are addressed. Building and fire codes impacting the semiconductor industry are presented in Chapter 9. The author provides a critical review of the fire and building codes specific to the construction, operation and occupancy of semiconductor and related facilities, as well as a key reference guide to understanding the intent and practical application of these codes. This chapter is very comprehensive and covers the following topics: under-
242
Book Reviews / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 14 (2001) 241–243
standing the need for code compliance, overview of applicable codes, overview of uniform building and fire codes, occupancy classifications, classification of hazardous materials, allowable area and separations, location of various occupancies, exiting, exit corridors, service corridors, hazardous material storage and dispense rooms, mechanical HVAC systems, fire suppression, electrical power systems, life safety alarm and monitoring systems, retrofit and renovation of hazardous facilities to comply with “H” codes, prioritizing code compliance issues, and phasing of project construction. Chapter 10 is also a very comprehensive one on gases and gas equipment. Among the topics discussed are: gas distribution systems in plant piping, gas cylinders—safe use and handling, general gas handling equipment (pressure regulators, valves, pressure sensors, flow meters, filters and purifiers, and vacuum equipment), cylinder gas delivery systems (enclosures, gas panels, system monitoring, and system control), and specific gases used in the semiconductor industry (physical properties and EH and S data for 39 gases). The final chapter on “Toxic Gas Monitoring” discusses gas monitoring requirements and methodologies from a technology, installation, and utilization perspective. The author presents a detailed discussion of requirements for continuous monitoring (including a brief history), purpose of a toxic gas monitoring system, functional model of a toxic gas monitoring system (transport of air sample, analysis instruments, gas identification methods, alarm systems, response actions), selection of a toxic gas monitoring system (single- or multi-point, gas detection technology, gas detection integration, role of portable gas detectors), and future trends. Most of the chapters have up-to-date references or a bibliography which will enable the reader to pursue a subject in further detail. In my opinion, this handbook will be of great use to EH and S professionals not only in the semiconductor industry, but also to other loss prevention and process safety engineers who have to deal with the handling of highly flammable and toxic gases. Stanley S. Grossel (President) Process Safety and Design, Inc., Clifton, NJ, USA 29 July 2000 PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 4 2 3 0 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 2 7 - 9
Estimating the flammable mass of a vapor cloud (1998) John L. Woodward; Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 289 pp., Price $140 Vapor cloud explosions can cause great damage and in order to calculate the magnitude of this damage it is
necessary to estimate the amount of flammable vapor in the cloud. The purpose of this book is to assist practicing engineers to realistically estimate the fraction of a vapor cloud of accidentally released flammable material that is capable of being involved in a vapor cloud explosion or flash fire. This is important because it is not realistic to use the total amount of flammable materials discharged for such estimates. The book contains 8 chapters, 12 appendixes, a glossary, and a subject index. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the book explaining why is it necessary to calculate a flammable mass, how are flammable mass estimates used, and a listing of other relevant CCPS publications. Chapter 2 is an overview of the book which briefly sets flammable mass calculations in the context of the first few steps of a risk analysis (consequence analysis), explains the objectives of the book, and how to use the book. Industry experiences with flammable vapor clouds are discussed in Chapter 3. The author briefly reviews property losses from vapor cloud accidents, describes 6 examples of vapor cloud explosion events, and 3 examples with post accident determination of the flammable mass. Chapter 4 is a thorough discussion of the basic concepts of fluid flow, fires, and explosions. It provides useable formulas to calculate parameters needed to analyze release and dispersion of flammable clouds. It also provides a brief background on the properties of flammable materials that affect flammable vapor clouds. Among the topics discussed are discharge characteristics of single-phase and multi-phase systems for various release scenarios, dispersion factors (jet mixing, meteorology, surface roughness and terrain, averaging times, impingement and cratering, and obstacle effects), sources of ignition, flame characteristics, aerosol flammability, turbulence effects, flash fires, various aspects of vapor cloud explosions, minimum flammable mass for vapor cloud explosions, and probability of vapor cloud ignition and explosions. This is a very useful chapter and the equations are applicable for other hazard evaluations besides vapor cloud explosions. Chapter 5 provides useable equations for determination of the flammable mass in vapor clouds. The topics discussed include estimation methods by degree of confinement, methods for finding the flammable mass in unconfined vapor clouds (screening rules of thumb and calculating flammable mass with dispersion models), methods for finding the flammable mass in partially confined vapor clouds, and methods for finding the flammable mass in confined vapor clouds (flammable mass in well-mixed room with spill outdoors and flammable mass from indoor release in well-mixed room with low ventilation). This chapter is also a very thorough and useful exposition of the subjects covered. An overview of related computer programs is listed and discussed in Chapter 6. Tables are presented which provide general information and data on model capabilities for 33 com-
Book Reviews Semiconductor Safety Handbook: Safety and Health in the Semi-Conductor Industry Richard A. Bolmen, Jr. (Ed.); Noyes Publications, Westwood, NJ, 1st Edition, pp. 610, Price $86.00 The manufacture of semiconductors for use in computers involves the storage and handling of many flammable and toxic chemicals. Therefore, this handbook should be of use to professionals involved in environmental, health and safety issues (EH and S) aspects of semiconductor manufacture. The purpose of this book is to provide a current, single source reference for many of the primary semiconductor EH and S technologies and disciplines. To accomplish this, the editor has attempted to produce a reference manual that is comprehensive in its coverage of the technical aspects of each individual subject, while at the same time addressing practical applications of each topic. In order to achieve this goal, the editor has assembled 17 leading experts in EH and S in the semiconductor industry (including himself) to write this handbook. The book has 11 chapters and a good subject index. Chapter 1 is an overview of injury and illness of semiconductor workers. This includes a review and discussion of semiconductor industry work injuries and illnesses for the time period 1983–l995 and a review of epidemiologic studies. Chapter 2, on “Environmental Compliance in the Semiconductor Industry: Detection, Correction, and Prevention” is a very thorough review of the subject. Topics included are: external and internal sources affecting compliance, detection of environmental compliance and management issues (development of environmental audit programs), corrective action for environmental compliance and management issues (use of audit program results), mitigation and prevention of environmental compliance and management issues, adopting proactive environmental strategies, and going beyond compliance–holistic considerations. The chapter also contains two useful appendixes: EPA policy on environmental auditing, and an environmental compliance audit checklist. Chapter 3 is an overview of the types of chemicals used in the semiconductor industry in operations such as photolithography, wet etching, dry etching, implant/diffusion, cleaning, metallization, maintenance issues, and use of gases (tables listing specific hazards associated with gases used, TLVs of gases and other chemicals used, and confirmed and suspected carcinogens). The science and practical application of
industrial hygiene principles and practices are discussed in Chapter 4, which covers industrial hygiene monitoring, personal protective equipment, odor identification, and recordkeeping. Electrical hazards are reviewed in Chapter 5. The author offers a unique perspective and valuable insight into this pervasive hazard. Among the topics he discusses are how to identify an electrical hazard before someone gets hurt, terminology, human effects, scenario of an electrical shock, common elements of electrical accidents/accident investigation, electrical hazard management, typical electrical hazards, lockout/tagout, and an electrical safety cookbook (what can be done to avoid hazards and accidents). In Chapter 6, the authors offer a comprehensive review of the various classifications and associated hazards of radiation as well as potential sources and specific radiation exposures in a clean-room environment. Topics include: extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF/EMF), radiofrequency/ microwave radiation, lasers, ultraviolet radiation, and ionizing radiation (x-ray generating machines and radioactive materials). The recognition, evaluation and control of some plasma processing hazards are discussed in Chapter 7. Among the topics covered are: hazard evaluation, process hazard review, other mechanisms (guidelines) to address equipment safety, gas chemical safety (includes compressed gas cylinder safety and toxic gas handling safety), and toxicology (includes basic concepts, classification of toxic effects, and toxicology of specific gases used in the semiconductor industry). Chapter 8 is a very comprehensive review of fire protection technology for semiconductor operations. The chapter begins with a history of fire protection in the semiconductor industry and then discusses the evolution and development of Highly Protective Risk (HPR) standards, specific to semiconductor operations, in addition to present day property and fire protection issues for large Class I wafer fabrication facilities. Issues from site selection for a wafer fabrication facility to protection of individual pieces of processing equipment are addressed. Building and fire codes impacting the semiconductor industry are presented in Chapter 9. The author provides a critical review of the fire and building codes specific to the construction, operation and occupancy of semiconductor and related facilities, as well as a key reference guide to understanding the intent and practical application of these codes. This chapter is very comprehensive and covers the following topics: under-
242
Book Reviews / Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 14 (2001) 241–243
standing the need for code compliance, overview of applicable codes, overview of uniform building and fire codes, occupancy classifications, classification of hazardous materials, allowable area and separations, location of various occupancies, exiting, exit corridors, service corridors, hazardous material storage and dispense rooms, mechanical HVAC systems, fire suppression, electrical power systems, life safety alarm and monitoring systems, retrofit and renovation of hazardous facilities to comply with “H” codes, prioritizing code compliance issues, and phasing of project construction. Chapter 10 is also a very comprehensive one on gases and gas equipment. Among the topics discussed are: gas distribution systems in plant piping, gas cylinders—safe use and handling, general gas handling equipment (pressure regulators, valves, pressure sensors, flow meters, filters and purifiers, and vacuum equipment), cylinder gas delivery systems (enclosures, gas panels, system monitoring, and system control), and specific gases used in the semiconductor industry (physical properties and EH and S data for 39 gases). The final chapter on “Toxic Gas Monitoring” discusses gas monitoring requirements and methodologies from a technology, installation, and utilization perspective. The author presents a detailed discussion of requirements for continuous monitoring (including a brief history), purpose of a toxic gas monitoring system, functional model of a toxic gas monitoring system (transport of air sample, analysis instruments, gas identification methods, alarm systems, response actions), selection of a toxic gas monitoring system (single- or multi-point, gas detection technology, gas detection integration, role of portable gas detectors), and future trends. Most of the chapters have up-to-date references or a bibliography which will enable the reader to pursue a subject in further detail. In my opinion, this handbook will be of great use to EH and S professionals not only in the semiconductor industry, but also to other loss prevention and process safety engineers who have to deal with the handling of highly flammable and toxic gases. Stanley S. Grossel (President) Process Safety and Design, Inc., Clifton, NJ, USA 29 July 2000 PII: S 0 9 5 0 - 4 2 3 0 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 2 7 - 9
Estimating the flammable mass of a vapor cloud (1998) John L. Woodward; Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 289 pp., Price $140 Vapor cloud explosions can cause great damage and in order to calculate the magnitude of this damage it is
necessary to estimate the amount of flammable vapor in the cloud. The purpose of this book is to assist practicing engineers to realistically estimate the fraction of a vapor cloud of accidentally released flammable material that is capable of being involved in a vapor cloud explosion or flash fire. This is important because it is not realistic to use the total amount of flammable materials discharged for such estimates. The book contains 8 chapters, 12 appendixes, a glossary, and a subject index. Chapter 1 is an introduction to the book explaining why is it necessary to calculate a flammable mass, how are flammable mass estimates used, and a listing of other relevant CCPS publications. Chapter 2 is an overview of the book which briefly sets flammable mass calculations in the context of the first few steps of a risk analysis (consequence analysis), explains the objectives of the book, and how to use the book. Industry experiences with flammable vapor clouds are discussed in Chapter 3. The author briefly reviews property losses from vapor cloud accidents, describes 6 examples of vapor cloud explosion events, and 3 examples with post accident determination of the flammable mass. Chapter 4 is a thorough discussion of the basic concepts of fluid flow, fires, and explosions. It provides useable formulas to calculate parameters needed to analyze release and dispersion of flammable clouds. It also provides a brief background on the properties of flammable materials that affect flammable vapor clouds. Among the topics discussed are discharge characteristics of single-phase and multi-phase systems for various release scenarios, dispersion factors (jet mixing, meteorology, surface roughness and terrain, averaging times, impingement and cratering, and obstacle effects), sources of ignition, flame characteristics, aerosol flammability, turbulence effects, flash fires, various aspects of vapor cloud explosions, minimum flammable mass for vapor cloud explosions, and probability of vapor cloud ignition and explosions. This is a very useful chapter and the equations are applicable for other hazard evaluations besides vapor cloud explosions. Chapter 5 provides useable equations for determination of the flammable mass in vapor clouds. The topics discussed include estimation methods by degree of confinement, methods for finding the flammable mass in unconfined vapor clouds (screening rules of thumb and calculating flammable mass with dispersion models), methods for finding the flammable mass in partially confined vapor clouds, and methods for finding the flammable mass in confined vapor clouds (flammable mass in well-mixed room with spill outdoors and flammable mass from indoor release in well-mixed room with low ventilation). This chapter is also a very thorough and useful exposition of the subjects covered. An overview of related computer programs is listed and discussed in Chapter 6. Tables are presented which provide general information and data on model capabilities for 33 com-