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Sensation seeking among whitewater canoe and kayak paddlers
Person. indiuid. D# Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 489491, Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
1993 Copyright
019l-8869/93 $6.00 + 0.00 0 1993 Pergamon Press Ltd
Sensation seeking among whitewater canoe and kayak paddlers* JOHN B. CAMPBELL, DONALD J. TYRRELL and Department
of Psychology,
Franklin & Marshall (Received
MARIA ZINGARO~
College, Lancaster,
PA 17604-3003,
U.S.A.
5 June 1992)
Summary-Thirty-four male and 20 female members of two canoe clubs completed Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale, Form V. Respondents also rated their paddling level, highest difficulty level of the rivers they paddled with regularity, highest difficulty level of the rivers they would like to paddle, and anxiety level prior to put-in. As predicted, male and female paddlers had significantly higher Thrill and Adventure Seeking scores than the comparable normative scores. Thrill and Adventure Seeking scores correlated negatively with anxiety level, and their correlation with difficulty level of the rivers paddlers would like to attempt approached significance. Similar results were obtained when questionnaire responses were dichotomized and analyses of variance were conducted with sensation seeking scores as dependent variables.
Sensation seeking is a trait based on individual differences in reactivity to intense stimulation (Zuckerman, 1990). The trait has been defined in terms of a need for “varied, novel, and complex sensations and experience and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience” (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 10). The most recent measure of sensation seeking, the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSS-V) (Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978), includes four subscales. Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) measures the desire to engage in sports or physical activities that involve physical danger or risk. Experience Seeking (ES) contains items that express the desire to seek new experiences through the mind and senses by living an unconventional life-style. Disinhibition (Dis) refers to the need to seek social stimulation through disinhibited behavior. Boredom Susceptibility (BS) indexes an aversion for repetitive environments or unstimulating persons. The present research investigates levels and correlates of sensation seeking among members of canoe clubs. This sample is particularly relevant to sensation seeking, because members of these clubs frequently engage in whitewater paddling. They thus are self-selected by an eagerness to take physical risks in order to obtain intense and dangerous stimulation. There is a substantial body of work investigating the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports. In a summary of the early work, Zuckerman concluded, “The broad trait of SS is related to participation in specific kinds of sports, namely those that provide unusual sensations and novel experiences such as those involved in sky-diving, hang-gliding, skiing and scuba diving” (1983, p. 290). Zuckerman referred this observed difference to high sensation seekers’ “pronounced tendency to underestimate risk relative to low sensation seekers” (1983, p. 290), and he suggested that “anxiety state tends to increase more rapidly. for low sensation seekers than for highs as a function of appraised risk” (1983, p. 291). More recent work has replicated the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports (e.g. Cronin, 1991; Freixanet, 1991; Levenson, 1990). All three of these studies found that participants in “high risk sports” had significantly elevated scores on the TAS and ES subscales, as well as the sensation seeking total score. The correlations obtained in these studies with TAS scores may reflect reliability rather than validity. That is, with the exception of one question that asks for a choice between “A sensible person avoids activities that are dangerous” and “I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening”, all items on the TAS subscale specifically refer to the appeal of risky sports. This is a particular problem when research investigates risky sports that are specifically referred to in items on the TAS subscale. Zuckerman (1983, p. 286) made a similar point, noting that “Relationships with other subscales.. . would indicate that the broader trait [of sensation seeking] is somehow involved in the particular sports activity.” Freixanet (1991) dealt with this problem by defining a new TAS-OUT variable as the sum of the three other subscales. This is a reasonable psychometric strategy. It would, however, be unfortunate if researchers were to adopt a general strategy of excluding TAS, a specific trait with a strong theoretical basis, an apparent biochemical substratum (e.g. Zuckerman, 1983), as well as clear relevance, from such investigations. In the present research, we employed the compromise strategy of studying participation in a risky sport not specifically mentioned in any TAS items. Our predictions focused on the TAS subscale, rather than the overall sensation seeking score. A high score on this subscale should index a desire to engage in those behaviors (i.e. dangerous and exciting physical activities) that whitewater paddlers apparently seek. We predicted that members of the canoe clubs, both males and females, would be characterized by significantly elevated TAS scores. We also predicted a negative correlation between TAS scores and self-reported anxiety prior to put-in. Zuckerman (e.g. 1983) has described a connection between anxiety state and total sensation seeking. We are predicting that TAS will carry the relationship for the paddling-related behaviors investigated for our sample of paddlers. In addition, we predicted positive correlations between TAS and both self-reported paddling level and difficulty level of rivers that members would choose to paddle if given the opportunity. No relationship was predicted for difficulty level of rivers paddled with regularity, because this choice is confounded by practical constraints such as the proximity of certain *Portions of this research were reported at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, April 13, 1991, New York City and at the Fifth International Congress of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, July 23, 1991, Oxford, England. tNow at the University of Pennsylvania. 489
490
NOTES
AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
Finally, given the previous research, we also predicted that members of our sample would have significantly elevated ES scores, This final prediction was made despite the lack of face validity for most items on ES as predictors of preference for a risky activity such as whitewater paddling.
rivers.
METHOD
Questionnaires were distributed 34 males and 20 females, a return to 60).
to 79 members of two local canoe clubs. We received completed questionnaires from rate of 68.4%. The mean age of these participants was 41.1 years (SD = 8.8, range = 26
One of the authors (DJT), a member of one of the canoe clubs, distributed questionnaires to other members of the two clubs. A cover letter indicated that the questionnaire had been designed to survey individuals who participate in outdoor activities. The questionnaire contained the SSS-V. On an additional page, respondents indicated their age and sex, and provided background information on their paddling activities, Specifically, respondents rated their paddling level on a 5-point scale from “Beginner” to “Expert” (corresponding to the American Canoe Association categories). Respondents also indicated the “highest difficulty level of rivers you paddle with some regularity” and the “highest difficulty level of river you would attempt to paddle if you had the opportunity” (both questions on a 6-point scale from Class I to VI). Finally, respondents rated their anxiety level (on a 4-point scale from “Not at All” to “Very”) prior to put-in on those rivers typically paddled. All responses were anonymous. Respondents returned their completed questionnaires in a stamped, pre-addressed envelope provided with the questionnaire.
RESULTS The average (mean, median, and modal) self-rated paddling level of the respondents fell in the third or “Intermediate” category. The average (mean, median, and modal) difficulty level of rivers paddled with some regularity was Class III. This corresponds to a river that requires extensive manoeuvering because of long rapids and waves up to three feet high. As predicted, mean TAS scores of both male and female paddlers (see Table 1) were significantly higher than the comparable mean scores reported by Zuckerman et al. (1978), t (33) = 3.18 for males, t (19) = 2.47 for females. The only other significant difference was a lower BS score for male paddlers, t (33) = -2.26, P i 0.05, two-tailed. This difference, although not predicted, is not surprising. One can obtain a low BS score by endorsing items that state a preference for “the comfortable familiarity of old friends,” predictable outcomes, and familiar surroundings. Such preferences fit our subjective impression of many paddlers. In addition, both male and female paddlers scored marginally higher than the corresponding norms on the ES subscale, t (33) = 1.91 for males, P < 0.10, two-tailed, and t (19) = 2.02 for females, P < 0.10. two-tailed. These differences are consistent with previous work cited in the Introduction. One can obtain a high ES score by endorsing items that state a preference for self-guided travel with no pre-planned timetable, friends in “far out” groups, and an individual style of dress. Again, such preferences fit our subjective impression of many paddlers. Also as predicted, TAS scores correlated negatively with anxiety at put-in, r (52) = -0.30, P i 0.05, two-tailed. That is, paddlers with greater interest in risky activities reported less anxiety when beginning those activities. None of the correlations between anxiety and the other subscales of sensation seeking approached significance, and the correlation between total sensation seeking and anxiety was essentially zero (r = -0.04, NS). The correlation of TAS with highest difficulty level of river the paddlers would like to attempt, approached significance, r (52) = 0.24, P -c0.10, two-tailed. Again, this is consistent with an interpretation that paddlers with higher appetites for risk prefer more physically challenging activities. The predicted correlation with paddling level was not obtained. Perhaps it is not surprising that, once committed to an activity, level of expertise is independent of desire for risk. One may develop expertise at paddling because of a desire for competence, a desire to protect oneself, or a desire to become sufficiently skilled that one can attempt even more challenging rivers. The correlation between sex and TAS was significant, r (52) = -0.49, P < 0.05, two-tailed, reflecting the higher mean score for males. The only other substantive significant correlation was between Dis and difficulty level of rivers the paddlers would like to attempt (I = 0.33, P < 0.05, two-tailed). These correlational results treat sensation seeking and the paddling measures as continuous variables. While that assumption is quite reasonable for sensation seeking, it is less defensible for the four paddling measures. Consequently, we partitioned anxiety level, paddling level, highest difficulty level of rivers paddled with regularity, and highest difficulty level of rivers one would like to paddle into high and low levels. We then did a series of analyses of variance for each of the four measures, with sensation seeking score and subscale scores as dependent variables. The results confirmed the correlational results. Paddlers with low anxiety levels had significantly higher TAS scores, F(1,49) = 6.2, P < 0.05. Paddlers who would like to paddle more difficult rivers had significantly higher Dis scores than those who preferred less challenge, F (1,51) = 4.0, P < 0.05, and the difference approached significance for TAS scores, F (1,51) = 2.7, P < 0.10. No other differences reached significance. Table 1. Means and standard
deviations
Zuckerman
from the present study and from Zuckerman
Female
Male
el al. (1978)
Present study
et al.
Female
Male
SC&
MeaIl
SD
Meall
SD
Meall
SD
MeritI
SD
TAS BS ES Dis Total
6.60” 3.50b 4.40 4.90 19.30
2.70 2.20 2.20 2.50 6.10
4.40’ 2.80 4.20 4.00 15.40
2.80 2.10 2.20 2.60 6.70
7.14” 2.79b 5.06 4.97 20.56
2.08 1.82 2.01 2.34 5.06
5.45’ 2.80 4.90 3.45 16.60
1.91 2.12 1.55 2.58 5.77
Means with identical
superscripts
differ significantly
(P < 0.05, two-tailed).
NOTES AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
491
DISCUSSION The present findings provide another illustration of the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports. The findings are noteworthy in that they involve whitewater paddling, a sport not previously investigated (see Freixanet’s, 1991, group of “sportsmen” as a partial exception). Furthermore, whitewater paddling is not specifically addressed in questions comprising the sensation seeking scale or its TAS subscale. The results provide a further indication of the particular relevance of the TAS subscale. The connection between TAS and participation in risky sports has been well documented. The present results, however, provide the first indication of a relationship between TAS and anxiety levels during such participation. The fact that general sensation seeking had no relationship with anxiety levels suggests that further work in this area should focus on TAS. This finding suggests an enhanced utility for TAS. That is, it argues against a simple interpretation that correlations between TAS and participation “ . might indicate [only] that the desire to engage in one type of risky sport is related to a more general desire to engage in other risky sports” (Zuckerman 1983, p. 286). Finally, Zuckerman’s (e.g. 1983) suggestion that differences between high and low sensation seekers in appraised risk may mediate the relationship with participation is intriguing. Information regarding the existence of such differences might have helped to account for the differences and relationships observed in the present study. Subsequent research in this area should incorporate measures of perceived risks. REFERENCES Cronin, C. (1991). Sensation seeking among mountain climbers. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 653454. Freixanet, M. (1991). Personality profile of subjects engaged in high physical risk sports. Personality and Individual Dtfirences, 12, 1087-1093. Levenson, M. R. (1990). Risk taking and personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 107331080. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum. Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation seeking and sports. Personaliiy and Individual Differences, 4, 285-293. Zuckerman, M. (1990). The psychophysiology of sensation seeking. Journal of Personality, 58, 313-345. Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S. B. G. & Eysenck, H. J. (1978). Sensation seeking in England and America. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 139-149.
1993 Copyright
019l-8869/93 $6.00 + 0.00 0 1993 Pergamon Press Ltd
Sensation seeking among whitewater canoe and kayak paddlers* JOHN B. CAMPBELL, DONALD J. TYRRELL and Department
of Psychology,
Franklin & Marshall (Received
MARIA ZINGARO~
College, Lancaster,
PA 17604-3003,
U.S.A.
5 June 1992)
Summary-Thirty-four male and 20 female members of two canoe clubs completed Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale, Form V. Respondents also rated their paddling level, highest difficulty level of the rivers they paddled with regularity, highest difficulty level of the rivers they would like to paddle, and anxiety level prior to put-in. As predicted, male and female paddlers had significantly higher Thrill and Adventure Seeking scores than the comparable normative scores. Thrill and Adventure Seeking scores correlated negatively with anxiety level, and their correlation with difficulty level of the rivers paddlers would like to attempt approached significance. Similar results were obtained when questionnaire responses were dichotomized and analyses of variance were conducted with sensation seeking scores as dependent variables.
Sensation seeking is a trait based on individual differences in reactivity to intense stimulation (Zuckerman, 1990). The trait has been defined in terms of a need for “varied, novel, and complex sensations and experience and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experience” (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 10). The most recent measure of sensation seeking, the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSS-V) (Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978), includes four subscales. Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) measures the desire to engage in sports or physical activities that involve physical danger or risk. Experience Seeking (ES) contains items that express the desire to seek new experiences through the mind and senses by living an unconventional life-style. Disinhibition (Dis) refers to the need to seek social stimulation through disinhibited behavior. Boredom Susceptibility (BS) indexes an aversion for repetitive environments or unstimulating persons. The present research investigates levels and correlates of sensation seeking among members of canoe clubs. This sample is particularly relevant to sensation seeking, because members of these clubs frequently engage in whitewater paddling. They thus are self-selected by an eagerness to take physical risks in order to obtain intense and dangerous stimulation. There is a substantial body of work investigating the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports. In a summary of the early work, Zuckerman concluded, “The broad trait of SS is related to participation in specific kinds of sports, namely those that provide unusual sensations and novel experiences such as those involved in sky-diving, hang-gliding, skiing and scuba diving” (1983, p. 290). Zuckerman referred this observed difference to high sensation seekers’ “pronounced tendency to underestimate risk relative to low sensation seekers” (1983, p. 290), and he suggested that “anxiety state tends to increase more rapidly. for low sensation seekers than for highs as a function of appraised risk” (1983, p. 291). More recent work has replicated the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports (e.g. Cronin, 1991; Freixanet, 1991; Levenson, 1990). All three of these studies found that participants in “high risk sports” had significantly elevated scores on the TAS and ES subscales, as well as the sensation seeking total score. The correlations obtained in these studies with TAS scores may reflect reliability rather than validity. That is, with the exception of one question that asks for a choice between “A sensible person avoids activities that are dangerous” and “I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening”, all items on the TAS subscale specifically refer to the appeal of risky sports. This is a particular problem when research investigates risky sports that are specifically referred to in items on the TAS subscale. Zuckerman (1983, p. 286) made a similar point, noting that “Relationships with other subscales.. . would indicate that the broader trait [of sensation seeking] is somehow involved in the particular sports activity.” Freixanet (1991) dealt with this problem by defining a new TAS-OUT variable as the sum of the three other subscales. This is a reasonable psychometric strategy. It would, however, be unfortunate if researchers were to adopt a general strategy of excluding TAS, a specific trait with a strong theoretical basis, an apparent biochemical substratum (e.g. Zuckerman, 1983), as well as clear relevance, from such investigations. In the present research, we employed the compromise strategy of studying participation in a risky sport not specifically mentioned in any TAS items. Our predictions focused on the TAS subscale, rather than the overall sensation seeking score. A high score on this subscale should index a desire to engage in those behaviors (i.e. dangerous and exciting physical activities) that whitewater paddlers apparently seek. We predicted that members of the canoe clubs, both males and females, would be characterized by significantly elevated TAS scores. We also predicted a negative correlation between TAS scores and self-reported anxiety prior to put-in. Zuckerman (e.g. 1983) has described a connection between anxiety state and total sensation seeking. We are predicting that TAS will carry the relationship for the paddling-related behaviors investigated for our sample of paddlers. In addition, we predicted positive correlations between TAS and both self-reported paddling level and difficulty level of rivers that members would choose to paddle if given the opportunity. No relationship was predicted for difficulty level of rivers paddled with regularity, because this choice is confounded by practical constraints such as the proximity of certain *Portions of this research were reported at the Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, April 13, 1991, New York City and at the Fifth International Congress of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, July 23, 1991, Oxford, England. tNow at the University of Pennsylvania. 489
490
NOTES
AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
Finally, given the previous research, we also predicted that members of our sample would have significantly elevated ES scores, This final prediction was made despite the lack of face validity for most items on ES as predictors of preference for a risky activity such as whitewater paddling.
rivers.
METHOD
Questionnaires were distributed 34 males and 20 females, a return to 60).
to 79 members of two local canoe clubs. We received completed questionnaires from rate of 68.4%. The mean age of these participants was 41.1 years (SD = 8.8, range = 26
One of the authors (DJT), a member of one of the canoe clubs, distributed questionnaires to other members of the two clubs. A cover letter indicated that the questionnaire had been designed to survey individuals who participate in outdoor activities. The questionnaire contained the SSS-V. On an additional page, respondents indicated their age and sex, and provided background information on their paddling activities, Specifically, respondents rated their paddling level on a 5-point scale from “Beginner” to “Expert” (corresponding to the American Canoe Association categories). Respondents also indicated the “highest difficulty level of rivers you paddle with some regularity” and the “highest difficulty level of river you would attempt to paddle if you had the opportunity” (both questions on a 6-point scale from Class I to VI). Finally, respondents rated their anxiety level (on a 4-point scale from “Not at All” to “Very”) prior to put-in on those rivers typically paddled. All responses were anonymous. Respondents returned their completed questionnaires in a stamped, pre-addressed envelope provided with the questionnaire.
RESULTS The average (mean, median, and modal) self-rated paddling level of the respondents fell in the third or “Intermediate” category. The average (mean, median, and modal) difficulty level of rivers paddled with some regularity was Class III. This corresponds to a river that requires extensive manoeuvering because of long rapids and waves up to three feet high. As predicted, mean TAS scores of both male and female paddlers (see Table 1) were significantly higher than the comparable mean scores reported by Zuckerman et al. (1978), t (33) = 3.18 for males, t (19) = 2.47 for females. The only other significant difference was a lower BS score for male paddlers, t (33) = -2.26, P i 0.05, two-tailed. This difference, although not predicted, is not surprising. One can obtain a low BS score by endorsing items that state a preference for “the comfortable familiarity of old friends,” predictable outcomes, and familiar surroundings. Such preferences fit our subjective impression of many paddlers. In addition, both male and female paddlers scored marginally higher than the corresponding norms on the ES subscale, t (33) = 1.91 for males, P < 0.10, two-tailed, and t (19) = 2.02 for females, P < 0.10. two-tailed. These differences are consistent with previous work cited in the Introduction. One can obtain a high ES score by endorsing items that state a preference for self-guided travel with no pre-planned timetable, friends in “far out” groups, and an individual style of dress. Again, such preferences fit our subjective impression of many paddlers. Also as predicted, TAS scores correlated negatively with anxiety at put-in, r (52) = -0.30, P i 0.05, two-tailed. That is, paddlers with greater interest in risky activities reported less anxiety when beginning those activities. None of the correlations between anxiety and the other subscales of sensation seeking approached significance, and the correlation between total sensation seeking and anxiety was essentially zero (r = -0.04, NS). The correlation of TAS with highest difficulty level of river the paddlers would like to attempt, approached significance, r (52) = 0.24, P -c0.10, two-tailed. Again, this is consistent with an interpretation that paddlers with higher appetites for risk prefer more physically challenging activities. The predicted correlation with paddling level was not obtained. Perhaps it is not surprising that, once committed to an activity, level of expertise is independent of desire for risk. One may develop expertise at paddling because of a desire for competence, a desire to protect oneself, or a desire to become sufficiently skilled that one can attempt even more challenging rivers. The correlation between sex and TAS was significant, r (52) = -0.49, P < 0.05, two-tailed, reflecting the higher mean score for males. The only other substantive significant correlation was between Dis and difficulty level of rivers the paddlers would like to attempt (I = 0.33, P < 0.05, two-tailed). These correlational results treat sensation seeking and the paddling measures as continuous variables. While that assumption is quite reasonable for sensation seeking, it is less defensible for the four paddling measures. Consequently, we partitioned anxiety level, paddling level, highest difficulty level of rivers paddled with regularity, and highest difficulty level of rivers one would like to paddle into high and low levels. We then did a series of analyses of variance for each of the four measures, with sensation seeking score and subscale scores as dependent variables. The results confirmed the correlational results. Paddlers with low anxiety levels had significantly higher TAS scores, F(1,49) = 6.2, P < 0.05. Paddlers who would like to paddle more difficult rivers had significantly higher Dis scores than those who preferred less challenge, F (1,51) = 4.0, P < 0.05, and the difference approached significance for TAS scores, F (1,51) = 2.7, P < 0.10. No other differences reached significance. Table 1. Means and standard
deviations
Zuckerman
from the present study and from Zuckerman
Female
Male
el al. (1978)
Present study
et al.
Female
Male
SC&
MeaIl
SD
Meall
SD
Meall
SD
MeritI
SD
TAS BS ES Dis Total
6.60” 3.50b 4.40 4.90 19.30
2.70 2.20 2.20 2.50 6.10
4.40’ 2.80 4.20 4.00 15.40
2.80 2.10 2.20 2.60 6.70
7.14” 2.79b 5.06 4.97 20.56
2.08 1.82 2.01 2.34 5.06
5.45’ 2.80 4.90 3.45 16.60
1.91 2.12 1.55 2.58 5.77
Means with identical
superscripts
differ significantly
(P < 0.05, two-tailed).
NOTES AND
SHORTER
COMMUNICATIONS
491
DISCUSSION The present findings provide another illustration of the relationship between sensation seeking and participation in risky sports. The findings are noteworthy in that they involve whitewater paddling, a sport not previously investigated (see Freixanet’s, 1991, group of “sportsmen” as a partial exception). Furthermore, whitewater paddling is not specifically addressed in questions comprising the sensation seeking scale or its TAS subscale. The results provide a further indication of the particular relevance of the TAS subscale. The connection between TAS and participation in risky sports has been well documented. The present results, however, provide the first indication of a relationship between TAS and anxiety levels during such participation. The fact that general sensation seeking had no relationship with anxiety levels suggests that further work in this area should focus on TAS. This finding suggests an enhanced utility for TAS. That is, it argues against a simple interpretation that correlations between TAS and participation “ . might indicate [only] that the desire to engage in one type of risky sport is related to a more general desire to engage in other risky sports” (Zuckerman 1983, p. 286). Finally, Zuckerman’s (e.g. 1983) suggestion that differences between high and low sensation seekers in appraised risk may mediate the relationship with participation is intriguing. Information regarding the existence of such differences might have helped to account for the differences and relationships observed in the present study. Subsequent research in this area should incorporate measures of perceived risks. REFERENCES Cronin, C. (1991). Sensation seeking among mountain climbers. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 653454. Freixanet, M. (1991). Personality profile of subjects engaged in high physical risk sports. Personality and Individual Dtfirences, 12, 1087-1093. Levenson, M. R. (1990). Risk taking and personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 107331080. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum. Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation seeking and sports. Personaliiy and Individual Differences, 4, 285-293. Zuckerman, M. (1990). The psychophysiology of sensation seeking. Journal of Personality, 58, 313-345. Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S. B. G. & Eysenck, H. J. (1978). Sensation seeking in England and America. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 139-149.