- Email: [email protected]
Sensation seeking, felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment in women
Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515 www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
Sensation seeking, felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment in women Sarah K. Saxvik
a,1
, Jeff Joireman
b,*
a
b
Seattle Pacific University, 2512 Williams Street, Bellingham, WA 98225, USA Department of Psychology, Washington State University, P.O. Box 644820, Pullman, WA 99164 4820, USA Received 24 May 2004; received in revised form 1 August 2004; accepted 21 September 2004 Available online 2 December 2004
Abstract Past research has linked higher felt gender compatibility with higher psychosocial adjustment (Egan and Perry, 2001), and sensation seeking (SS) with masculinity and poorer psychosocial adjustment (Zuckerman, 1979; 1994). The present study hypothesized that women high in SS would report low levels of felt gender compatibility and adjustment, and that felt compatibility would mediate the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment in women. In line with predictions, certain forms of felt gender compatibility mediated the relationship between certain forms of SS and psychosocial adjustment. Boredom susceptibility was most problematic for women at a state university, whereas disinhibition was most problematic for women at a religious university. Results replicate and extend past research, and suggest potential interventions for high SS women experiencing low levels of felt gender compatibility. Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Felt gender compatibility; Sensation seeking; Psychosocial adjustment
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 509 335 0191; fax: +1 509 335 5043. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.K. Saxvik), [email protected] (J. Joireman). 1 Tel.: +1 360 671 3034.
0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.019
1506
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1. Introduction In 1869, John Stuart Mill wrote that ‘‘Women are what we have required them to be’’. More than a century later women are still absorbing the rules of a culture laden with an ascribed female gender role that emphasizes being submissive, weak, feminine, dependent and emotional (Chrisler, 1989; Williams & Best, 1982). While some women may find their values, interests, and/or personality compatible with a traditional female gender role, others clearly do not, and this lack of felt compatibility with a traditional female gender role can have unfortunate negative consequences for womenÕs psychosocial adjustment (Egan & Perry, 2001; OÕHeron & Orlofsky, 1990). In therapy, these ‘‘non-traditional’’ women often report a paucity of female friendships, a feeling of competition with ‘‘feminine’’ women, and the relative ease with which they maintain friendships with male peers. Of primary interest to the current study is the fact that these young women also often present with a series of risky behaviors that may include multiple sexual partners, drug and alcohol use, depressive symptoms, and seemingly ‘‘rough edges’’. As explained in more detail below, this pattern suggests that such women may be high in what Zuckerman (1979) has called the trait of sensation seeking, which, it is relevant to note, has been linked to more masculine interests (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980) and poorer psychosocial adjustment (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Before turning to work on sensation seeking, it is important to first clarify what we mean by the term felt gender compatibility. 1.1. Gender identity One of the earliest and most well known typologies of gender identity (Bem, 1981) posits that people can be classified as masculine, feminine, or aschematic based on their standing on a variety of theoretically relevant personality traits. According to this theory, masculinity consists of socially desirable traits that are instrumental in nature, whereas femininity consists of traits of an expressive nature. While these categories may accurately describe certain aspects of peopleÕs gender identity, others have argued that the complexity of an individualÕs gender identity cannot be fully captured by a single underlying dimension. In response to this limitation, several researchers have suggested the need for a multidimensional framework to better conceptualize gender identity. One recent example is Egan and PerryÕs (2001) theory of gender identity. According to Egan and Perry (2001), gender identity is comprised of three basic elements: feelings of psychological compatibility with oneÕs gender, feelings of pressure from parents, peers, and self for conformity to gender stereotypes, and attitudes toward gender groups (i.e., the sentiment that oneÕs own sex is superior to the other). In line with past research (e.g., Beiley & Zucker, 1995; Berndt & Heller, 1986; Kohlberg, 1966; Rekers, 1985; Spence & Buckner, 1995), Egan and Perry assumed and showed that felt compatibility, assessed via their three components, is related to psychosocial adjustment. Based on their findings, Egan and Perry conclude that ‘‘childrenÕs adjustment is optimized when they (a) are secure in their conceptions of themselves as typical members of their sex yet (b) feel free to explore cross-sex options when they so desire’’ (p. 459). Given these consequences, Egan and Perry recommend that researchers begin to identify factors that ‘‘. . . lead girls either to shun masculine attributes in order to garner peer approval or to cultivate the male-typed competencies that bring self-satisfaction but subject them to peer disapproval’’ (p. 460). As noted earlier, past research suggests
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1507
that one possible precursor of felt gender incompatibility among women may be high levels of sensation seeking. 1.2. Sensation seeking Sensation seeking (SS) is, according to Zuckerman (1994), ‘‘. . . a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences’’ (p. 27). Four forms of SS typically distinguished include: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (DIS), and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). The TAS scale items reflect a desire to engage in dangerous and novel physical activities. The ES scale items reflect a desire to seek novel and spontaneous experiences through travel, music, art and non-conformity with others who wish to do the same. The DIS scale items reflect a need to engage in uninhibited social activities with or without the use of alcohol. And the BS scale items reflect distaste for repetition, routine and predictability. Experiences that significantly correlate with SS on all four scales to some degree include: drug and alcohol use, cigarette smoking, sex, and speeding when driving (Zuckerman, 1983). High sensation seekers also exhibit preferences for complex designs and music, as well as novelty over mundane options. A number of studies also suggest that SS may exert an important impact on the extent to which women feel compatible with the traditional female gender role. To begin, men consistently score higher than women on SS (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Several studies also suggest that SS motivates masculine behaviors. As examples, Daitzman and Zuckerman (1980) reported that high SS was negatively correlated with feminine interests, while Kish (1971) found that high sensation seekers were more masculine in temperament. In a similar vein, Waters and Pincus (1976) found that high levels of SS were associated with lower femininity scores on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1981). In addition, when SS was correlated with a self-actualization measure—the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI; Shostrom, 1964)—SS males revealed high self-regard and confidence, while high SS females did not. Finally, in a predictive study, Caspi et al. (1997) found that all three scales from the constraint factor of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; Tellegen, 1982)—traditionalism, harm avoidance, and control (all stereotypical ‘‘feminine’’ traits)— were negatively related to risk-taking, or SS behavior. In a composite risk-taking score, they found a negative relationship to traditionalism, harm-avoidance, control, and social closeness and a positive relationship to alienation and aggression. On the whole, these studies suggest that high SS women are likely to feel less compatible than low SS women with traditional female gender roles. 1.3. Hypotheses Based on the research reviewed above, we proposed four hypotheses. Hypothesis 1. Consistent with past work on SS, high levels of SS will be associated with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment. Hypothesis 2. As suggested by past work linking SS and masculinity, high levels of SS will be associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility.
1508
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Hypothesis 3. Consistent with Egan and PerryÕs work, felt gender compatibility will be positively associated with psychosocial adjustment. Hypothesis 4. Felt gender compatibility will mediate the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment. This hypothesis rests on the assumption that a significant percentage of the variance in the SS-maladjustment relationship for women is due to the fact that high SS women may feel ‘‘out of place’’ with their female peers, due to the fact that their preferences and activities are likely to violate normative standards within their peer groups. In an exploratory vein, we tested these hypotheses among women at a state university and a religious university to explore whether different forms of SS might prove to be problematic within these different contexts. As a general hypothesis, we assumed that disinhibition might prove especially problematic among women at a religious university, as the types of activities characteristic of high levels of disinhibition (drinking, drugs, and sex) strongly violate the norms present in such a religious context. Beyond this line of reasoning, we had no strong basis for predicting differences between two contexts, and therefore treated this aspect of the study as more exploratory in nature.
2. Method 2.1. Participants A total of 319 women participated in this research (median = 18, mean = 18.7, SD = 1.45, range = 17–35). Participants were recruited from a Religious University (RU; N = 150) and a State University (SU; N = 169). Both samples consisted primarily of Caucasians. RU participants received extra credit, while SU participants fulfilled a portion of the research participation requirement for an introductory psychology course. All measures were administered in a single session lasting approximately 30 min. Participants were debriefed at the end of their session. 2.2. Measures Sensation seeking was assessed using the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (Zuckerman, 1979), a 40-item, self-report questionnaire containing four subscales: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (DIS), and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). As shown in Table 1, both the TAS and DIS scales evidenced acceptable reliabilities in the current study, whereas the ES and BS scales demonstrated somewhat lower reliabilities. Felt gender compatibility was assessed using scales from Egan and PerryÕs (2001) 92-item questionnaire. Items were presented using a method developed by Harter (1985) to reduce response biases, and the term ‘‘women’’ was used instead of ‘‘girls’’ given our sample. HarterÕs approach involves presenting participants with two opposing statements and then having them rate the extent to which the statement they select is true for them (either very true or somewhat true). Thus, each item is converted into a 4-point scale. As an example, one gender contentedness item reads:
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1509
Table 1 Correlations within and mean comparisons between universities BS BS – DIS .42*** ES .13 TAS .20* GC .18* GT .09 SW .16* SC .01 Religious University M 1.21 SD .17 Alpha .53 State University M 1.25 SD .18 Alpha .50 F(1,294) 3.46
DIS
ES
.42***
.38*** .42***
– .43*** .31*** .31*** .13 .28*** .06 1.16 .18 .69 1.40 .27 .77 78.93***
–
TAS .23** .30*** .37***
.42*** .25** .16* .15 .01
– .26** .10 .19 .02
1.44 .19 .54
1.65 .26 .75
1.53 .20 .56 16.76***
1.67 .26 .77 .22
GC
GT
SW
SC
.23** .05 .30*** .20** – .40*** .34*** .29***
.24** .04 .21** .03 .32*** – .31*** .40***
.13 .02 .01 .22** .20** .33*** – .47***
.04 .13 .04 .23** .21** .47*** .47*** –
2.82 .54 .75
3.22 .58 .84
2.88 .55 .78
2.76 .5 .69 .94
3.24 .62 .88 .11
2.92 .54 .75 .37
2.80 .56 .76 2.46 .52 .72 29.66***
Note: Correlations for RU are shown on the bottom of the diagonal. RU (N = 139), SU (N = 162). BS = boredom susceptibility; DIS = disinhibition; ES = experience seeking; TAS = thrill and adventure seeking; GC = gender contentedness; GT = gender typicality; SW = self-worth; SC = social competence. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 (two-tailed).
‘‘Some women like being a woman (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other women do not like being a woman (somewhat true, very true for me)’’. One gender typicality item reads ‘‘Some women feel they are just like all the other women their age (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other women do not feel they are just like all the other women their age (somewhat true, very true for me)’’. Psychosocial adjustment was assessed using the 6-item self-perceived social competence and global self-worth scales developed by Harter (1985). One social competence item reads, ‘‘Some people find it hard to make friends (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other people find it pretty easy to make friends (somewhat true, very true for me), and one self-worth item reads, ‘‘Some people are often unhappy with themselves (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT Other people are pretty pleased with themselves (somewhat true, very true for me). As shown in the bottom of Table 1, the felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment scales showed reasonable to relatively high reliabilities. Items on the respective scales were averaged prior to analysis.
3. Results Several variables had skewed distributions. However, the transformations used to address these problems did not impact the results. Thus, the original variables were retained. Multivariate outliers were, however, dropped from the regression analyses.
1510
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Before proceeding to test the mediation model, we first examined whether scores on the eight scales varied between the religious university (RU) and the state university (SU). Multivariate tests indicated a significant difference between the students at RU and SU, WilksÕ K = .72, F(8, 292) = 14.45, p < .001, g2 = .28. As can be seen in the bottom of Table 1, univariate tests revealed that women at RU reported significantly higher levels of gender contentedness, and significantly lower levels of DIS and ES, than women at SU. Correlations among the measures, shown in the top of Table 1, revealed generally good preliminary support for our hypotheses. Consistent with H1, high levels of SS were associated with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment. While this was not true at SU (at the level of simple correlations), it was at RU. Specifically, DIS and TAS were both significantly, negatively correlated with self-worth at RU. Results also supported H2, in that high levels of SS were associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility. As can be seen, this was true for the women at RU between all forms of SS and gender contentedness. Furthermore, ES was significantly negatively correlated with gender typicality for the women at RU. High levels of SS were associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility at SU as well. With the exception of DIS, gender contentedness was negatively correlated with SS for the women at SU. Also, significant and negative correlations were found between gender typicality and BS as well as gender typicality and ES among the women at SU. Finally, felt gender compatibility was positively associated with psychosocial adjustment, a pattern of findings consistent with H3. 3.1. Mediation analyses (RU) We next conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the mediation model at RU (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Evidence for mediation requires that (a) SS be related to felt gender compatibility and (b) psychosocial adjustment; (c) felt gender compatibility be related to psychosocial adjustment; and (d) that the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment be reduced once felt gender compatibility is entered into the model. To the mediation hypothesis, we conducted a two-step regression analysis. On Step 1, we entered the four SS scales to evaluate their unique contribution to psychosocial adjustment. On Step 2, we entered gender typicality and gender contentedness, and evaluated the reduction in the SS-adjustment relationship. Table 2 summarizes these analyses, which focus only on the outcome of self-worth, as none of the SS scales (uniquely) predicted social competence. As can be seen, the present results provide some support for the proposed mediation model at RU. To begin, DIS showed a significant negative relationship with one of the two presumed mediators, gender contentedness (b = .22, p < .03), and DIS was also negatively associated with self-worth (b = .23, p < .03). In addition, gender contentedness and gender typicality were significantly associated with self-worth (b = .20 and b = .19, respectively), both ps < .03, and the relationship between DIS and self-worth was reduced to non-significance (b dropping from .23 to .17), once gender contentedness and gender typicality were entered into the model. Formal tests (Baron & Kenny, 1986) indicated that the reduction in the DIS ! self-worth relationship due to gender contentedness was marginally significant (z = 1.51, p < .07, one-tailed), whereas the drop due to gender typicality was not significant (z = .05, ns).
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1511
Table 2 Hierarchical regression models predicting self-worth at RU and SU School
Overall model R
RU Model Model SU Model Model
2
Predictor variables (standardized regression coefficients) 2
Adj-R
F
a
BS
Dis
ES
TAS
GC
GT
.13 .10
.20*
.19*
.21*
.18*
1 2
.11 .20
.08 .17
4.11** 5.73**
.07 .06
.23* .17
.01 .05
1 2
.10 .18
.08 .15
4.29** 5.63**
.27** .18*
.06 .01
.05 .14
.24** .25**
Note: RU = religious university (N = 141), SU = state university; (N = 159); BS = boredom susceptibility; DIS = disinhibition; ES = experience seeking; TAS = thrill and adventure seeking; GC = gender contentedness; GT = gender typicality. *p < .05, **p < .01. a dfs = RU Model 1 (4, 136), RU Model 2 (6, 134), SU Model 1 (4, 154), SU Model 2 (6, 152).
3.2. Mediation analysis (SU) We next conducted a similar series of mediation analyses for the SU sample. As can be seen in Table 2, the analyses at SU focused only on the outcome variable of self-worth, as none of the SS scales predicted social competence. Similar to the results at RU, the present results provide some support for the proposed mediation model at SU. To begin, BS showed a marginally significant negative relationship with gender contentedness (b = .17, p < .052) and experience seeking showed a significant negative relationship with gender contentedness (b = .26, p < .004), and BS and experience seeking showed significant negative relationships with gender typicality (b = .29, p < .001 and b = .20, p < .027, respectively), a pattern of results consistent with H2. BS was also negatively associated with self-worth (b = .27, p < .002), in line with H1. In addition, gender contentedness and gender typicality were significantly and positively associated with self-worth (b = .21, p < .01, b = .18, p < .01), supporting H3, and the relationship between BS and self-worth was reduced (b dropping from .27 to .18) once gender contentedness and gender typicality were entered into the model. Formal tests (Baron & Kenny, 1986) indicated that the reduction in the BS ! self-worth relationship due to gender typicality was significant (z = 1.82, p < .02, one-tailed) and the reduction due to gender contentedness was marginally significant (z = 1.50, p < .07, one-tailed).
4. Discussion Previous research has established that both felt gender compatibility and SS are predictors of psychosocial adjustment (Egan & Perry, 2001; Zuckerman, 1979, 1994, respectively). Less is known, however, about what predicts felt gender compatibility. The present study examined whether SS was a possible predictor of felt gender compatibility and, in turn, whether felt gender compatibility might act as a mediator in the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment. Consistent with past work on SS (Zuckerman, 1979), high levels of SS were found to be associated
1512
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment in the present study (i.e., self-worth), supporting Hypothesis 1. In support of Hypothesis 2, high levels of SS also predicted lower levels of felt gender compatibility. Consistent with Egan and PerryÕs (2001) work, and Hypothesis 3, the present results revealed a positive association between felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment. Finally, consistent with Hypothesis 4, the relationship between certain forms of SS and certain forms of psychosocial adjustment were mediated by felt gender compatibility. Perhaps more interesting is the fact that the types of SS that predicted adjustment problems, and the relevant mediational processes were different at the two schools. At RU, gender contentedness mediated the relationship between disinhibition and self-worth, while at SU, both gender typicality and gender contentedness mediated the relationship between BS and self-worth. These replicate past research, and extend it in both interesting and potentially practical ways. To begin, the current study complements and extends Egan and PerryÕs (2001) recent research on the relationship between felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment in at least two ways. First, the present study helps to identify a possible precursor of felt gender (in)compatibility among women. While the major thrust of Egan and PerryÕs (2001) work was on the multidimensional nature of gender identity, the researchers did provide some initial insight into the possible determinants of felt gender compatibility, linking compatibility with self-perceived competency with activities that were either stereotypical of boys (e.g., ‘‘horsing around and play fighting’’ and ‘‘sports’’) or girls (e.g., ‘‘babysitting or looking after younger kids’’ and ‘‘making jewelry’’). By linking (low levels of) felt compatibility with (high levels of) SS, the current study helps to extend this work by suggesting another possible determinant of felt compatibility with roots in a major dimension of personality (impulsive sensation seeking; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993). More important, the current study helps extend Eagan and PerryÕs work by demonstrating that felt compatibility partly mediates the relationship between SS and selfworth. More specifically, the results of this study show that high SS predicts low felt gender compatibility, which in turn predicts low self-worth. This suggests that a woman born with a predisposition of high SS may eventually experience a lower sense of gender compatibility and, thereby, a lower sense of self-worth. Another interesting finding concerns the differences observed between the religious and state universities. These differences suggest that the problems high SS women experience may be context dependent. For women in a conservative context, high levels of disinhibition predict lower felt gender contentedness and lower self-worth, whereas for women in a more liberal context, high levels of BS predict lower gender contentedness, lower gender typicality, and lower selfworth. These findings suggest that a womanÕs psychosocial adjustment may be jeopardized when she scores high on a form of SS that does not match well with the context in which she finds herself. Future research should more carefully evaluate this line of reasoning by directly assessing the extent to which women view certain behaviors appropriate within a given context, and evaluating whether these perceptions mediate the relationships observed in the current study. Within our sample from the religious university, DIS was the most problematic form of SS, whereas in the state university sample, BS was the most problematic. DIS is a type of SS in which an individual ‘‘. . . seeks release and social disinhibition through drinking, partying, gambling, and sex’’ (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 103). DIS also reflects a ‘‘. . . traditional pattern of non-conformity
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1513
through rebellion against strict codes about acceptable social behavior’’ (p. 103). Clearly, a woman who displays higher levels of DIS in a conservative environment like RU will have problems. If she believes that her (traditional) role expectations are inhibiting, then she may be more likely to react with DIS. Situated in this environment, she would, however, most likely be shunned and/or judged for exhibiting such behaviors. It seems that whether she reveals patterns of DIS, or merely thinks about them, her sense of self-worth would be negatively affected within this context. It is not surprising then that a woman like this would feel less content being a woman, and, thereby, experience a lowered sense of self-worth in this state of discontent. In another context, like SU, the problems surface in a different way. Here it is those women who are easily bored who have problems with self-worth. These women revealed feeling less content as a woman and less typical of the traditional female gender role, resulting in a lowered sense of self-worth. These women are likely to be bored with the stereotypical things traditional females discuss and do. In the effort to discuss something other than ‘‘boys’’ or spend time getting their nails done (as examples), these women will likely engage in conversation with men, find themselves in a circle of male friends and might enjoy engaging in more traditionally masculine activities. Unfortunately, this picture might lead them to be labeled as an outgroup among women who adhere to more traditional gender roles. 4.1. Practical implications While preliminary, the present study also suggests several possible practical interventions for high SS women suffering from a low sense of self-worth. For example, one promising solution for the high SS women may be to help those women identify and join a group of like-minded individuals, thereby increasing their sense of self-worth. Within a therapeutic context, the present results also suggest that it may be helpful, when dealing with high SS women, to explore the possible gap between ÔouterÕ perceptions of what it means to be a woman and the ÔinnerÕ sense of self-worth this creates. Clearly, more research is needed before the form and efficacy of such interventions will become apparent. 4.2. Strengths and limitations Before closing, it is important to consider some of the limitations of the current study. To begin, the current study focused only on a narrow range of variables reflecting felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment. In understanding gender identity, Egan and Perry (2001) also argue that it is important to understand pressure from parents, peers, and self to conform to gender stereotypes as a component of gender identity and its relationship to psychosocial adjustment. Their results indicated that felt pressure to conform was negatively associated with psychosocial adjustment. One possible direction for future research, then, would be to examine whether the relationship between SS, low levels of felt compatibility, and lower levels of self-worth is weakened when felt pressure to conform to traditional gender roles is low. Another limitation is that we did not test a set of complementary hypotheses in men. Since the traditional male gender role seems to encourage high SS behaviors, the patterns observed in the current study might reverse within men so that low SS would predict low felt gender compatibility and low psychosocial adjustment in men.
1514
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Despite these limitations, the current study yields potentially valuable insights into gender identity among women. Though the mediational analyses do not prove causation, they do provide some evidence for a process that involves disinhibition, gender contentedness, and self-worth in one context, and BS, gender contentedness, gender typicality, and self-worth in another. Therefore, regardless of causation or context, there is a common thread: certain forms of SS tend to be associated with low felt compatibility and low self-worth in women. Future research aimed at replicating and extending these findings could yield important insights into the relationship between SS, felt gender compatibility, and psychosocial adjustment. References Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. Beiley, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55. Bem, S. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889–898. Caspi, A., Begg, D., Dickson, N., Harrington, H., Langley, J., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Personality differences predict health-risk behaviors in young adulthood: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 1052–1063. Chrisler, J. C. (1989). Review of the book measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Women in Therapy: A Feminist Quarterly, 8(4), 133. Daitzman, R., & Zuckerman, M. (1980). Disinhibitory sensation seeking and gonadal hormones. Personality & Individual Differences, 1, 103–110. Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37(4), 451–463. Harter, S. (1985). The self-perception profile for children: Revision of the perceived competence scale for children (Manual). University of Denver Denver, CO. Kish, G. B. (1971). CPI correlates of stimulus-seeking in male alcoholics. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 252–253. Kohlberg, I. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of childrenÕs sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. OÕHeron, C. A., & Orlofsky, J. L. (1990). Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), 134–143. Rekers, G. A. (1985). Gender identity problems. In P. A. Bornstein & A. E. Kadin (Eds.), Handbook of clinical behavior therapy with children (pp. 658–699). Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. Shostrom, E. L. (1964). An inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24, 207–218. Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. (1995). Masculinity and femininity: Defining the undefinable. In P. J. Kalbfleisch & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power, and communication in human relationships (pp. 105–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Tellegen, A. (1982). Brief manual for the multidimensional personality questionnaire. University of Minnesota. Waters, C. W., & Pincus, S. (1976). Sex of respondent, respondentÕs sex-role self-concept and responses to the sensationseeking scale. Psychological Reports, 39, 749–750. Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing, Inc. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Zuckerman, M. (1983). Biological bases of sensation, seeking, impulsivity, and anxiety. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1515
Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. New York: Cambridge University Press. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J. A., Teta, P., & Kraft, M. (1993). A comparison of three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 757–768.
Sensation seeking, felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment in women Sarah K. Saxvik
a,1
, Jeff Joireman
b,*
a
b
Seattle Pacific University, 2512 Williams Street, Bellingham, WA 98225, USA Department of Psychology, Washington State University, P.O. Box 644820, Pullman, WA 99164 4820, USA Received 24 May 2004; received in revised form 1 August 2004; accepted 21 September 2004 Available online 2 December 2004
Abstract Past research has linked higher felt gender compatibility with higher psychosocial adjustment (Egan and Perry, 2001), and sensation seeking (SS) with masculinity and poorer psychosocial adjustment (Zuckerman, 1979; 1994). The present study hypothesized that women high in SS would report low levels of felt gender compatibility and adjustment, and that felt compatibility would mediate the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment in women. In line with predictions, certain forms of felt gender compatibility mediated the relationship between certain forms of SS and psychosocial adjustment. Boredom susceptibility was most problematic for women at a state university, whereas disinhibition was most problematic for women at a religious university. Results replicate and extend past research, and suggest potential interventions for high SS women experiencing low levels of felt gender compatibility. Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Felt gender compatibility; Sensation seeking; Psychosocial adjustment
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 509 335 0191; fax: +1 509 335 5043. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.K. Saxvik), [email protected] (J. Joireman). 1 Tel.: +1 360 671 3034.
0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.019
1506
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1. Introduction In 1869, John Stuart Mill wrote that ‘‘Women are what we have required them to be’’. More than a century later women are still absorbing the rules of a culture laden with an ascribed female gender role that emphasizes being submissive, weak, feminine, dependent and emotional (Chrisler, 1989; Williams & Best, 1982). While some women may find their values, interests, and/or personality compatible with a traditional female gender role, others clearly do not, and this lack of felt compatibility with a traditional female gender role can have unfortunate negative consequences for womenÕs psychosocial adjustment (Egan & Perry, 2001; OÕHeron & Orlofsky, 1990). In therapy, these ‘‘non-traditional’’ women often report a paucity of female friendships, a feeling of competition with ‘‘feminine’’ women, and the relative ease with which they maintain friendships with male peers. Of primary interest to the current study is the fact that these young women also often present with a series of risky behaviors that may include multiple sexual partners, drug and alcohol use, depressive symptoms, and seemingly ‘‘rough edges’’. As explained in more detail below, this pattern suggests that such women may be high in what Zuckerman (1979) has called the trait of sensation seeking, which, it is relevant to note, has been linked to more masculine interests (Daitzman & Zuckerman, 1980) and poorer psychosocial adjustment (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Before turning to work on sensation seeking, it is important to first clarify what we mean by the term felt gender compatibility. 1.1. Gender identity One of the earliest and most well known typologies of gender identity (Bem, 1981) posits that people can be classified as masculine, feminine, or aschematic based on their standing on a variety of theoretically relevant personality traits. According to this theory, masculinity consists of socially desirable traits that are instrumental in nature, whereas femininity consists of traits of an expressive nature. While these categories may accurately describe certain aspects of peopleÕs gender identity, others have argued that the complexity of an individualÕs gender identity cannot be fully captured by a single underlying dimension. In response to this limitation, several researchers have suggested the need for a multidimensional framework to better conceptualize gender identity. One recent example is Egan and PerryÕs (2001) theory of gender identity. According to Egan and Perry (2001), gender identity is comprised of three basic elements: feelings of psychological compatibility with oneÕs gender, feelings of pressure from parents, peers, and self for conformity to gender stereotypes, and attitudes toward gender groups (i.e., the sentiment that oneÕs own sex is superior to the other). In line with past research (e.g., Beiley & Zucker, 1995; Berndt & Heller, 1986; Kohlberg, 1966; Rekers, 1985; Spence & Buckner, 1995), Egan and Perry assumed and showed that felt compatibility, assessed via their three components, is related to psychosocial adjustment. Based on their findings, Egan and Perry conclude that ‘‘childrenÕs adjustment is optimized when they (a) are secure in their conceptions of themselves as typical members of their sex yet (b) feel free to explore cross-sex options when they so desire’’ (p. 459). Given these consequences, Egan and Perry recommend that researchers begin to identify factors that ‘‘. . . lead girls either to shun masculine attributes in order to garner peer approval or to cultivate the male-typed competencies that bring self-satisfaction but subject them to peer disapproval’’ (p. 460). As noted earlier, past research suggests
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1507
that one possible precursor of felt gender incompatibility among women may be high levels of sensation seeking. 1.2. Sensation seeking Sensation seeking (SS) is, according to Zuckerman (1994), ‘‘. . . a trait defined by the seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences’’ (p. 27). Four forms of SS typically distinguished include: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (DIS), and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). The TAS scale items reflect a desire to engage in dangerous and novel physical activities. The ES scale items reflect a desire to seek novel and spontaneous experiences through travel, music, art and non-conformity with others who wish to do the same. The DIS scale items reflect a need to engage in uninhibited social activities with or without the use of alcohol. And the BS scale items reflect distaste for repetition, routine and predictability. Experiences that significantly correlate with SS on all four scales to some degree include: drug and alcohol use, cigarette smoking, sex, and speeding when driving (Zuckerman, 1983). High sensation seekers also exhibit preferences for complex designs and music, as well as novelty over mundane options. A number of studies also suggest that SS may exert an important impact on the extent to which women feel compatible with the traditional female gender role. To begin, men consistently score higher than women on SS (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Several studies also suggest that SS motivates masculine behaviors. As examples, Daitzman and Zuckerman (1980) reported that high SS was negatively correlated with feminine interests, while Kish (1971) found that high sensation seekers were more masculine in temperament. In a similar vein, Waters and Pincus (1976) found that high levels of SS were associated with lower femininity scores on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1981). In addition, when SS was correlated with a self-actualization measure—the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI; Shostrom, 1964)—SS males revealed high self-regard and confidence, while high SS females did not. Finally, in a predictive study, Caspi et al. (1997) found that all three scales from the constraint factor of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; Tellegen, 1982)—traditionalism, harm avoidance, and control (all stereotypical ‘‘feminine’’ traits)— were negatively related to risk-taking, or SS behavior. In a composite risk-taking score, they found a negative relationship to traditionalism, harm-avoidance, control, and social closeness and a positive relationship to alienation and aggression. On the whole, these studies suggest that high SS women are likely to feel less compatible than low SS women with traditional female gender roles. 1.3. Hypotheses Based on the research reviewed above, we proposed four hypotheses. Hypothesis 1. Consistent with past work on SS, high levels of SS will be associated with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment. Hypothesis 2. As suggested by past work linking SS and masculinity, high levels of SS will be associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility.
1508
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Hypothesis 3. Consistent with Egan and PerryÕs work, felt gender compatibility will be positively associated with psychosocial adjustment. Hypothesis 4. Felt gender compatibility will mediate the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment. This hypothesis rests on the assumption that a significant percentage of the variance in the SS-maladjustment relationship for women is due to the fact that high SS women may feel ‘‘out of place’’ with their female peers, due to the fact that their preferences and activities are likely to violate normative standards within their peer groups. In an exploratory vein, we tested these hypotheses among women at a state university and a religious university to explore whether different forms of SS might prove to be problematic within these different contexts. As a general hypothesis, we assumed that disinhibition might prove especially problematic among women at a religious university, as the types of activities characteristic of high levels of disinhibition (drinking, drugs, and sex) strongly violate the norms present in such a religious context. Beyond this line of reasoning, we had no strong basis for predicting differences between two contexts, and therefore treated this aspect of the study as more exploratory in nature.
2. Method 2.1. Participants A total of 319 women participated in this research (median = 18, mean = 18.7, SD = 1.45, range = 17–35). Participants were recruited from a Religious University (RU; N = 150) and a State University (SU; N = 169). Both samples consisted primarily of Caucasians. RU participants received extra credit, while SU participants fulfilled a portion of the research participation requirement for an introductory psychology course. All measures were administered in a single session lasting approximately 30 min. Participants were debriefed at the end of their session. 2.2. Measures Sensation seeking was assessed using the Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (Zuckerman, 1979), a 40-item, self-report questionnaire containing four subscales: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), Disinhibition (DIS), and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). As shown in Table 1, both the TAS and DIS scales evidenced acceptable reliabilities in the current study, whereas the ES and BS scales demonstrated somewhat lower reliabilities. Felt gender compatibility was assessed using scales from Egan and PerryÕs (2001) 92-item questionnaire. Items were presented using a method developed by Harter (1985) to reduce response biases, and the term ‘‘women’’ was used instead of ‘‘girls’’ given our sample. HarterÕs approach involves presenting participants with two opposing statements and then having them rate the extent to which the statement they select is true for them (either very true or somewhat true). Thus, each item is converted into a 4-point scale. As an example, one gender contentedness item reads:
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1509
Table 1 Correlations within and mean comparisons between universities BS BS – DIS .42*** ES .13 TAS .20* GC .18* GT .09 SW .16* SC .01 Religious University M 1.21 SD .17 Alpha .53 State University M 1.25 SD .18 Alpha .50 F(1,294) 3.46
DIS
ES
.42***
.38*** .42***
– .43*** .31*** .31*** .13 .28*** .06 1.16 .18 .69 1.40 .27 .77 78.93***
–
TAS .23** .30*** .37***
.42*** .25** .16* .15 .01
– .26** .10 .19 .02
1.44 .19 .54
1.65 .26 .75
1.53 .20 .56 16.76***
1.67 .26 .77 .22
GC
GT
SW
SC
.23** .05 .30*** .20** – .40*** .34*** .29***
.24** .04 .21** .03 .32*** – .31*** .40***
.13 .02 .01 .22** .20** .33*** – .47***
.04 .13 .04 .23** .21** .47*** .47*** –
2.82 .54 .75
3.22 .58 .84
2.88 .55 .78
2.76 .5 .69 .94
3.24 .62 .88 .11
2.92 .54 .75 .37
2.80 .56 .76 2.46 .52 .72 29.66***
Note: Correlations for RU are shown on the bottom of the diagonal. RU (N = 139), SU (N = 162). BS = boredom susceptibility; DIS = disinhibition; ES = experience seeking; TAS = thrill and adventure seeking; GC = gender contentedness; GT = gender typicality; SW = self-worth; SC = social competence. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 (two-tailed).
‘‘Some women like being a woman (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other women do not like being a woman (somewhat true, very true for me)’’. One gender typicality item reads ‘‘Some women feel they are just like all the other women their age (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other women do not feel they are just like all the other women their age (somewhat true, very true for me)’’. Psychosocial adjustment was assessed using the 6-item self-perceived social competence and global self-worth scales developed by Harter (1985). One social competence item reads, ‘‘Some people find it hard to make friends (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT other people find it pretty easy to make friends (somewhat true, very true for me), and one self-worth item reads, ‘‘Some people are often unhappy with themselves (very true, somewhat true for me) BUT Other people are pretty pleased with themselves (somewhat true, very true for me). As shown in the bottom of Table 1, the felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment scales showed reasonable to relatively high reliabilities. Items on the respective scales were averaged prior to analysis.
3. Results Several variables had skewed distributions. However, the transformations used to address these problems did not impact the results. Thus, the original variables were retained. Multivariate outliers were, however, dropped from the regression analyses.
1510
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Before proceeding to test the mediation model, we first examined whether scores on the eight scales varied between the religious university (RU) and the state university (SU). Multivariate tests indicated a significant difference between the students at RU and SU, WilksÕ K = .72, F(8, 292) = 14.45, p < .001, g2 = .28. As can be seen in the bottom of Table 1, univariate tests revealed that women at RU reported significantly higher levels of gender contentedness, and significantly lower levels of DIS and ES, than women at SU. Correlations among the measures, shown in the top of Table 1, revealed generally good preliminary support for our hypotheses. Consistent with H1, high levels of SS were associated with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment. While this was not true at SU (at the level of simple correlations), it was at RU. Specifically, DIS and TAS were both significantly, negatively correlated with self-worth at RU. Results also supported H2, in that high levels of SS were associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility. As can be seen, this was true for the women at RU between all forms of SS and gender contentedness. Furthermore, ES was significantly negatively correlated with gender typicality for the women at RU. High levels of SS were associated with lower levels of felt gender compatibility at SU as well. With the exception of DIS, gender contentedness was negatively correlated with SS for the women at SU. Also, significant and negative correlations were found between gender typicality and BS as well as gender typicality and ES among the women at SU. Finally, felt gender compatibility was positively associated with psychosocial adjustment, a pattern of findings consistent with H3. 3.1. Mediation analyses (RU) We next conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the mediation model at RU (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Evidence for mediation requires that (a) SS be related to felt gender compatibility and (b) psychosocial adjustment; (c) felt gender compatibility be related to psychosocial adjustment; and (d) that the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment be reduced once felt gender compatibility is entered into the model. To the mediation hypothesis, we conducted a two-step regression analysis. On Step 1, we entered the four SS scales to evaluate their unique contribution to psychosocial adjustment. On Step 2, we entered gender typicality and gender contentedness, and evaluated the reduction in the SS-adjustment relationship. Table 2 summarizes these analyses, which focus only on the outcome of self-worth, as none of the SS scales (uniquely) predicted social competence. As can be seen, the present results provide some support for the proposed mediation model at RU. To begin, DIS showed a significant negative relationship with one of the two presumed mediators, gender contentedness (b = .22, p < .03), and DIS was also negatively associated with self-worth (b = .23, p < .03). In addition, gender contentedness and gender typicality were significantly associated with self-worth (b = .20 and b = .19, respectively), both ps < .03, and the relationship between DIS and self-worth was reduced to non-significance (b dropping from .23 to .17), once gender contentedness and gender typicality were entered into the model. Formal tests (Baron & Kenny, 1986) indicated that the reduction in the DIS ! self-worth relationship due to gender contentedness was marginally significant (z = 1.51, p < .07, one-tailed), whereas the drop due to gender typicality was not significant (z = .05, ns).
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1511
Table 2 Hierarchical regression models predicting self-worth at RU and SU School
Overall model R
RU Model Model SU Model Model
2
Predictor variables (standardized regression coefficients) 2
Adj-R
F
a
BS
Dis
ES
TAS
GC
GT
.13 .10
.20*
.19*
.21*
.18*
1 2
.11 .20
.08 .17
4.11** 5.73**
.07 .06
.23* .17
.01 .05
1 2
.10 .18
.08 .15
4.29** 5.63**
.27** .18*
.06 .01
.05 .14
.24** .25**
Note: RU = religious university (N = 141), SU = state university; (N = 159); BS = boredom susceptibility; DIS = disinhibition; ES = experience seeking; TAS = thrill and adventure seeking; GC = gender contentedness; GT = gender typicality. *p < .05, **p < .01. a dfs = RU Model 1 (4, 136), RU Model 2 (6, 134), SU Model 1 (4, 154), SU Model 2 (6, 152).
3.2. Mediation analysis (SU) We next conducted a similar series of mediation analyses for the SU sample. As can be seen in Table 2, the analyses at SU focused only on the outcome variable of self-worth, as none of the SS scales predicted social competence. Similar to the results at RU, the present results provide some support for the proposed mediation model at SU. To begin, BS showed a marginally significant negative relationship with gender contentedness (b = .17, p < .052) and experience seeking showed a significant negative relationship with gender contentedness (b = .26, p < .004), and BS and experience seeking showed significant negative relationships with gender typicality (b = .29, p < .001 and b = .20, p < .027, respectively), a pattern of results consistent with H2. BS was also negatively associated with self-worth (b = .27, p < .002), in line with H1. In addition, gender contentedness and gender typicality were significantly and positively associated with self-worth (b = .21, p < .01, b = .18, p < .01), supporting H3, and the relationship between BS and self-worth was reduced (b dropping from .27 to .18) once gender contentedness and gender typicality were entered into the model. Formal tests (Baron & Kenny, 1986) indicated that the reduction in the BS ! self-worth relationship due to gender typicality was significant (z = 1.82, p < .02, one-tailed) and the reduction due to gender contentedness was marginally significant (z = 1.50, p < .07, one-tailed).
4. Discussion Previous research has established that both felt gender compatibility and SS are predictors of psychosocial adjustment (Egan & Perry, 2001; Zuckerman, 1979, 1994, respectively). Less is known, however, about what predicts felt gender compatibility. The present study examined whether SS was a possible predictor of felt gender compatibility and, in turn, whether felt gender compatibility might act as a mediator in the relationship between SS and psychosocial adjustment. Consistent with past work on SS (Zuckerman, 1979), high levels of SS were found to be associated
1512
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
with lower levels of psychosocial adjustment in the present study (i.e., self-worth), supporting Hypothesis 1. In support of Hypothesis 2, high levels of SS also predicted lower levels of felt gender compatibility. Consistent with Egan and PerryÕs (2001) work, and Hypothesis 3, the present results revealed a positive association between felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment. Finally, consistent with Hypothesis 4, the relationship between certain forms of SS and certain forms of psychosocial adjustment were mediated by felt gender compatibility. Perhaps more interesting is the fact that the types of SS that predicted adjustment problems, and the relevant mediational processes were different at the two schools. At RU, gender contentedness mediated the relationship between disinhibition and self-worth, while at SU, both gender typicality and gender contentedness mediated the relationship between BS and self-worth. These replicate past research, and extend it in both interesting and potentially practical ways. To begin, the current study complements and extends Egan and PerryÕs (2001) recent research on the relationship between felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment in at least two ways. First, the present study helps to identify a possible precursor of felt gender (in)compatibility among women. While the major thrust of Egan and PerryÕs (2001) work was on the multidimensional nature of gender identity, the researchers did provide some initial insight into the possible determinants of felt gender compatibility, linking compatibility with self-perceived competency with activities that were either stereotypical of boys (e.g., ‘‘horsing around and play fighting’’ and ‘‘sports’’) or girls (e.g., ‘‘babysitting or looking after younger kids’’ and ‘‘making jewelry’’). By linking (low levels of) felt compatibility with (high levels of) SS, the current study helps to extend this work by suggesting another possible determinant of felt compatibility with roots in a major dimension of personality (impulsive sensation seeking; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta, & Kraft, 1993). More important, the current study helps extend Eagan and PerryÕs work by demonstrating that felt compatibility partly mediates the relationship between SS and selfworth. More specifically, the results of this study show that high SS predicts low felt gender compatibility, which in turn predicts low self-worth. This suggests that a woman born with a predisposition of high SS may eventually experience a lower sense of gender compatibility and, thereby, a lower sense of self-worth. Another interesting finding concerns the differences observed between the religious and state universities. These differences suggest that the problems high SS women experience may be context dependent. For women in a conservative context, high levels of disinhibition predict lower felt gender contentedness and lower self-worth, whereas for women in a more liberal context, high levels of BS predict lower gender contentedness, lower gender typicality, and lower selfworth. These findings suggest that a womanÕs psychosocial adjustment may be jeopardized when she scores high on a form of SS that does not match well with the context in which she finds herself. Future research should more carefully evaluate this line of reasoning by directly assessing the extent to which women view certain behaviors appropriate within a given context, and evaluating whether these perceptions mediate the relationships observed in the current study. Within our sample from the religious university, DIS was the most problematic form of SS, whereas in the state university sample, BS was the most problematic. DIS is a type of SS in which an individual ‘‘. . . seeks release and social disinhibition through drinking, partying, gambling, and sex’’ (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 103). DIS also reflects a ‘‘. . . traditional pattern of non-conformity
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1513
through rebellion against strict codes about acceptable social behavior’’ (p. 103). Clearly, a woman who displays higher levels of DIS in a conservative environment like RU will have problems. If she believes that her (traditional) role expectations are inhibiting, then she may be more likely to react with DIS. Situated in this environment, she would, however, most likely be shunned and/or judged for exhibiting such behaviors. It seems that whether she reveals patterns of DIS, or merely thinks about them, her sense of self-worth would be negatively affected within this context. It is not surprising then that a woman like this would feel less content being a woman, and, thereby, experience a lowered sense of self-worth in this state of discontent. In another context, like SU, the problems surface in a different way. Here it is those women who are easily bored who have problems with self-worth. These women revealed feeling less content as a woman and less typical of the traditional female gender role, resulting in a lowered sense of self-worth. These women are likely to be bored with the stereotypical things traditional females discuss and do. In the effort to discuss something other than ‘‘boys’’ or spend time getting their nails done (as examples), these women will likely engage in conversation with men, find themselves in a circle of male friends and might enjoy engaging in more traditionally masculine activities. Unfortunately, this picture might lead them to be labeled as an outgroup among women who adhere to more traditional gender roles. 4.1. Practical implications While preliminary, the present study also suggests several possible practical interventions for high SS women suffering from a low sense of self-worth. For example, one promising solution for the high SS women may be to help those women identify and join a group of like-minded individuals, thereby increasing their sense of self-worth. Within a therapeutic context, the present results also suggest that it may be helpful, when dealing with high SS women, to explore the possible gap between ÔouterÕ perceptions of what it means to be a woman and the ÔinnerÕ sense of self-worth this creates. Clearly, more research is needed before the form and efficacy of such interventions will become apparent. 4.2. Strengths and limitations Before closing, it is important to consider some of the limitations of the current study. To begin, the current study focused only on a narrow range of variables reflecting felt gender compatibility and psychosocial adjustment. In understanding gender identity, Egan and Perry (2001) also argue that it is important to understand pressure from parents, peers, and self to conform to gender stereotypes as a component of gender identity and its relationship to psychosocial adjustment. Their results indicated that felt pressure to conform was negatively associated with psychosocial adjustment. One possible direction for future research, then, would be to examine whether the relationship between SS, low levels of felt compatibility, and lower levels of self-worth is weakened when felt pressure to conform to traditional gender roles is low. Another limitation is that we did not test a set of complementary hypotheses in men. Since the traditional male gender role seems to encourage high SS behaviors, the patterns observed in the current study might reverse within men so that low SS would predict low felt gender compatibility and low psychosocial adjustment in men.
1514
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
Despite these limitations, the current study yields potentially valuable insights into gender identity among women. Though the mediational analyses do not prove causation, they do provide some evidence for a process that involves disinhibition, gender contentedness, and self-worth in one context, and BS, gender contentedness, gender typicality, and self-worth in another. Therefore, regardless of causation or context, there is a common thread: certain forms of SS tend to be associated with low felt compatibility and low self-worth in women. Future research aimed at replicating and extending these findings could yield important insights into the relationship between SS, felt gender compatibility, and psychosocial adjustment. References Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. Beiley, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55. Bem, S. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. Berndt, T. J., & Heller, K. A. (1986). Gender stereotypes and social inferences: A developmental study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 889–898. Caspi, A., Begg, D., Dickson, N., Harrington, H., Langley, J., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Personality differences predict health-risk behaviors in young adulthood: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 1052–1063. Chrisler, J. C. (1989). Review of the book measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Women in Therapy: A Feminist Quarterly, 8(4), 133. Daitzman, R., & Zuckerman, M. (1980). Disinhibitory sensation seeking and gonadal hormones. Personality & Individual Differences, 1, 103–110. Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37(4), 451–463. Harter, S. (1985). The self-perception profile for children: Revision of the perceived competence scale for children (Manual). University of Denver Denver, CO. Kish, G. B. (1971). CPI correlates of stimulus-seeking in male alcoholics. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 252–253. Kohlberg, I. (1966). A cognitive-developmental analysis of childrenÕs sex-role concepts and attitudes. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences (pp. 82–173). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. OÕHeron, C. A., & Orlofsky, J. L. (1990). Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), 134–143. Rekers, G. A. (1985). Gender identity problems. In P. A. Bornstein & A. E. Kadin (Eds.), Handbook of clinical behavior therapy with children (pp. 658–699). Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. Shostrom, E. L. (1964). An inventory for the measurement of self-actualization. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 24, 207–218. Spence, J. T., & Buckner, C. (1995). Masculinity and femininity: Defining the undefinable. In P. J. Kalbfleisch & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power, and communication in human relationships (pp. 105–138). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Tellegen, A. (1982). Brief manual for the multidimensional personality questionnaire. University of Minnesota. Waters, C. W., & Pincus, S. (1976). Sex of respondent, respondentÕs sex-role self-concept and responses to the sensationseeking scale. Psychological Reports, 39, 749–750. Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing, Inc. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Zuckerman, M. (1983). Biological bases of sensation, seeking, impulsivity, and anxiety. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
S.K. Saxvik, J. Joireman / Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 1505–1515
1515
Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral expressions and biosocial bases of sensation seeking. New York: Cambridge University Press. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J. A., Teta, P., & Kraft, M. (1993). A comparison of three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 757–768.