Sensory properties, consumer liking and choice determinants of Lucanian dry cured sausages

Meat Science 111 (2016) 122–129

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Sensory properties, consumer liking and choice determinants of Lucanian dry cured sausages Ada Braghieri a, Nicoletta Piazzolla a, Angela Carlucci b, Andrea Bragaglio a, Fabio Napolitano a,⁎ a b

Scuola di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali, Alimentari ed Ambientali, Università degli Studi della Basilicata, Viale dell'Ateneo Lucano 10, Potenza 85100, Italy Smell and Taste 07 s.n.c., Bella (PZ), Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 24 February 2015 Received in revised form 29 July 2015 Accepted 9 September 2015 Available online 11 September 2015 Keywords: Lucanian dry sausage Food choice determinants Preservatives Sensory characteristics Consumer liking

a b s t r a c t Based on a food choice questionnaire we identified as the most influential aspects affecting consumer choice of Lucanian dry cured sausages: taste, animal health and addition of preservatives. Therefore, as a second step we conducted a study to assess the effect of preservative addition on sausage sensory properties and consumer liking, with a particular emphasis on taste. The addition of preservatives did not change the perception of taste attributes by an experienced panel, whereas differences were detected in terms of odor, texture and color attributes. However, consumers did not express a preference for a particular product in terms of overall liking, taste/ flavor liking and texture liking, whereas appearance liking was higher for sausages containing preservatives. Since sausage taste was unaffected by the addition of preservative, in order to prevent the potentially detrimental effect of a label indicating their presence, producers should make an effort to obtain high quality Lucanian dry cured sausages without using them. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The attention of researchers and consumers toward local food with a traditional character or image has been continuously increasing with a focus on marketing in terms of locally grown and manufactured products (Grau, Albarracín, Toldrà, Antequera, & Barat, 2008; Larrea et al., 2007; Moretti et al., 2004). Several aspects support the positive image of traditional products with familiarity and naturalness playing a central role (Pieniak, Verbeke, Vanhonacker, Guerrero, & Hersleth, 2009). Consumers from western countries are acquiring an increasing interest toward traditional foods, since they are perceived as more sustainable, related with particular rural geographic areas and enabling the employment of local people (Trichopoulou, Vasilopoulou, Georga, Soukara, & Dilis, 2006). Dry cured sausage is an Italian traditional pork-based product particularly common in the south of the country. The Lucanian dry cured sausages are produced in Basilicata region using different commercial cuts (e.g. shoulder, belly), fat cubes (20–25%), salt (1.8–2.8%) and other various ingredients (e.g., wild fennel, sweet pepper), which may or may not include preservatives, to be used as curing agents. In particular, in industrial cured meat products the use of preservatives such as nitrites and nitrates is very common. These ingredients are able to affect both the sensory characteristics (Sebranek & Bacus, 2007) and the image of the product (Shim et al., 2011). However, Pieniak et al. (2009) observed that in France the consumption of traditional food is associated with the relevance given to the natural content ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Napolitano).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.09.003 0309-1740/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

of the products, thus suggesting that the inclusion of chemical preservatives may deliver to consumers an inconsistent image of a traditional food such as Lucanian dry cured sausage. Other aspects identified as barriers to the choice and consumption of traditional foods were the importance given to weight control, as these products are usually perceived as rich in calories (Pieniak et al., 2009), high prices (Chambers, Lobb, Butler, Harvey, & Traill, 2007) and low convenience (Chambers et al., 2007; Pieniak et al., 2009). As only few studies have been conducted so far on this product (e.g. Girolami, Napolitano, Faraone, Di Bello, & Braghieri, 2014) and none on the main determinants orienting consumer choice, firstly we aimed to identify the main items affecting consumer decision to buy dry cured sausages; secondly, we intended to assess the performance of the product in relation with some of the most relevant items. In particular, we evaluated the effect of preservatives on sausage sensory profile and consumer liking to verify and possibly prevent contradictory effects on consumer willingness to buy. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Preliminary food choice questionnaire A total of 241 respondents out of 300 consumers were chosen on the basis of their consumption frequency of Lucanian sausage (selected respondents consumed Lucanian sausage at least once a week). The questionnaires were administered on site in the five GDO centers more representative of Basilicata region, southern Italy. A trained interviewer verbally informed consumers about the scope of the study and on the

A. Braghieri et al. / Meat Science 111 (2016) 122–129

questionnaire construction. Consumers responded to the questionnaire by themselves and then handed it to the interviewer. They could ask the interviewer for further information in case of problems in understanding the meaning of specific questions. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first part concerned general consumers' socio-demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, education level, job category,) and habits (e.g. diet type, role in food purchase, role in meal preparation). The second section aimed to attain both specific information concerning consumer behavior (e.g. and frequency of purchase and consumption both evaluated using a 7-point scale: 1 = never; 2 = once/month; 3 = once/15 days; 4 = once/week; 5 = twice/week; 6= N twice/week; 7 = every day) in relation with dry-cured products (i.e. soppressata, dry-cured sausage, dry-cured ham) and their beliefs about items affecting dry-cured products' purchasing and consumption (e.g. appearance, color, intramuscular fat, brand name, geographic origin, preservatives content) using a 7-points scale from 1 (unimportant) to 7 (very important). 2.2. Products Dry sausages were processed in 10 different plants in Basilicata region, southern Italy. These ten plants were recruited on the basis of their process characteristics, as they all used the following traditional procedure. Pork cuts (shoulder, belly and trimmings of ham) were ground in a meat grinder using a plate of 12–18 mm of diameter; then salt and spices (ground sweet red pepper and wild fennel seeds) were added to the mixture. Five producers added nitrate, nitrite and L-ascorbic acid (nitrite sausages, NS), whereas the other 5 did not (no nitrite sausages, NNS). The sausage mixture was stuffed in natural casings (36–42 mm of diameter), brought to dry (2–7 days) into dedicated places (15 °C, 65% relative humidity, RH) and seasoned (13–18 °C, 75–85% RH) for a month. After ripening, the sausages were vacuum packaged (80 mbar) using bell-shaped machines (Mixer Duo, Euromatic Tecnology Srl, Italy) in plastic bags (oxygen transmission rate at 23 °C and 0% R.H. of ≤ 50 cm3/m2/bar/24 h, DIN 53380; water vapor transmission rate at 23 °C and 85% R.H. of ≤ 3 g/m2/24 h, DIN 53122). Sausages were analyzed at 0, 3 and 6 months of refrigerator storage at 4 °C. 2.3. Sensory analyses 2.3.1. Panel selection and training Twenty subjects were recruited by phone among regular eaters of sausages (defined as consuming the product at least once a week). Eleven panelists (4 males, 7 females; between 24 and 32 years of age) were selected according to ISO recommendations (ISO 3972:2011). For this purpose, sucrose (Carlo Erba, Milan, Italy), sodium chloride (Carlo Erba, Milan, Italy), citric acid (Carlo Erba, Milan, Italy) and quinine hydrochloride (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) at three levels each were used (Table 1). Filtered, de-ionized water at room temperature was added as diluent. The panelists were informed about the taste of each basic concentration. Then, a 10 mL quantity of high and low concentration

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for each taste solution was served in blind. Between tests, the panelists rinsed their mouths with filtered, de-ionized water. De-ionized water was also used to prepare two blanks. All taste solutions and blanks (totaling 10 samples) were presented in random order. The panelists were asked to identify the intensity (low and high) of each taste solution. The inability to recognize eight out of the 10 taste solutions was used as cutoff point for selection purposes (arbitrary threshold set on the basis of previous studies, e.g. Albenzio et al., 2013). Subsequently, panelists were trained for the scale use (Stone & Sidel, 2004). During preliminary sessions, the assessors, on the basis of available literature (Ruiz, Ventanas, Cava, Timon, & Garcia, 1998), developed and then agreed on a consensus list of attributes and their definitions (Table 2). Subsequently, a reference frame for assessor training was developed (Table 2). Standard reference products specific to each identified attribute were sought. Under the guidance of the panel leader, the assessors determined which of the proposed references were most suitable to represent the previously identified sensory attributes. The identification of reference standards required two 2 h sessions. For a reliable evaluation, at least two points of the scale were anchored to the reference material during the panel training. In order to assess the potential negative effect induced by the lack of added preservatives (i.e. nitrate, nitrite and L-ascorbic acid) the panel was subjected to a specific training for rancid off-flavor and odor detection based on oxidized (high intensity) and not oxidized corn oil (low intensity) as reference material (Nissen, Byrne, Bertelsen, & Skibsted, 2004).

2.3.2. Quantitative descriptive sensory analysis A quantitative–descriptive analysis (QDA) method (Murray, Delahunty, & Baxter, 2001) was used to assess the products. At each time (0, 3, 6 months), a total of six sessions were carried out. For each daily session, five samples were presented. Each sample was evaluated in triplicate. Samples were coded with three-digit randomized numbers and served in random order according to sample, replicate and assessor. For each sample, six 4.5 mm slices (two for appearance, three for taste and texture and one for rancid off-flavor and odor) were obtained using a commercial slicing machine and were immediately served to the panelists. After sensory profiling, the panelists were asked to score each sample for rancid off-flavor and odor. Both the slices and the plates were at room temperature (20–23 °C). Panelists were asked to drink a sip of still water at the beginning of the sensory evaluation and to eat unsalted crackers between samples to try to make the palate conditions similar for each sample. Attributes were rated on the basis of 100 mm unstructured lines with anchor points at each end (0 = absent, 100 = very strong). Tests were performed at about 10.00 a.m. in a controlled sensory analysis laboratory (ISO 8589, 2007), equipped with individual booths and under red lighting to mask color differences in the samples, except during the evaluation of sausage appearance, when white fluorescent lighting was used. The panelists were not provided with any information regarding the samples to be tasted. The interval between samples was approximately 10 min.

Table 1 Definition, compound and concentrations (basic, low and high) used for the four basic tastes.

Definition Compound Basic concentration (g/L) Low intensity (g/L) High intensity (g/L)

Sourness

Sweetness

Bitterness

Saltiness

Fundamental taste associated with citric acid Citric acid 1.20

Fundamental taste associated with sucrose Sucrose 24.0

Fundamental taste associated with quinine Quinine hydrochloride 0.54

Fundamental taste associated with sodium chloride Sodium chloride 4.00

0.60

12.0

0.27

2.00

2.40

48.0

1.08

8.00

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Table 2 List of attributes and reference frame used by 11-member panel for dry-cured sausage sensory profiling. Attributes

Definition

Intensity Low

High

Presence of a darker external halo in the slice due to an anomalous drying process Intensity of the characteristic red color of the lean of the sausage Intensity of fat color Intensity of the characteristic red color (dark–light) of the dry-cured sausage Percentage of fat on the slice surface Mincing type of fat in the slice Amount of liquid fat on the surface

Two month-seasoned sausage Red orange = 2.5YR1 White = 10Y1 Black Bresaola Hungarian salami Dry sausage

Bresaola Dark red = 10RP1 Pink = 10R1 White Hungarian salami Soppressata “Cacciatore” salami

Odor Overall odor Fennel Seasoned Smoked

Level of overall odor before eating the sample Odor associated with fennel seed Odor associated with seasoned sausage Odor associated with smoked sausage

Fifteen day-seasoned sausage Cacciatore salami Cacciatore salami Prosciutto

“Napoli” salami Lucanian sausage Hungarian salami Speck

Flavor Overall flavor Fennel Seasoned Pepper Spiced Smoked

Level of overall flavor Flavor associated with fennel seed Intensity of the typical flavor of seasoned meat products Flavor associated with sweet red pepper powder Flavor associated with mixed aromatic spices Flavor associated with smoked sausage

Fifteen day-seasoned sausage Very low Cacciatore salami Lucanian sausage Dry sausage Dry cured ham

“Napoli” salami Very high Hungarian salami “Napoli” salami Hungarian salami Speck

Effort required to bite thorough lean and to make the sample ready to be swallowed Degree to which the product will return to its original shape after being compressed between the teeth Mechanical textural attribute relating to the degree to which sausage can be deformed before it breaks Perception of the amount of fat released by the product during mastication

Two month-seasoned cubed sausage

Cubed Hungarian salami

Cubed cooked ham

Cubed dry cured ham

Cubed cooked ham

Dry sausage

Cubed dry cured ham

Cubed Pancetta

Appearance Color uniformity Hue of meat Hue of fat Lightness Fat percentage Fat diameter Exudate

Texture Tenderness Springiness Cohesiveness Oiliness 1

Munsell Book of Color (Xrite color, Europe GmbH).

2.3.3. Consumer testing A total of 102 consumers with an average age of 32 years and with a balanced distribution with respect to gender participated in the test. Consumers were recruited by phone among regular eaters of sausages (defining as consuming the product at least once a week). In addition, they had to meet other criteria such as not reporting any conditions affecting the senses of taste or smell, and being available over the study period. Each participant evaluated ten samples (one 4.5 mm slice for each sample, only after 3 months of storage) in a controlled sensory analysis laboratory as described for QDA under white fluorescent lighting. Two sessions were conducted at 1 h interval; for each session five samples were presented in randomized order. They were asked to drink a sip of still water at the beginning of the sensory evaluation and to eat unsalted crackers between samples to try to make the palate conditions similar for each sample. For each product, consumers expressed an overall liking and a liking according to the following sensory inputs: appearance, taste/flavor and texture. Consumers rated their liking on a 9-point hedonic scale labeled at the left end with “extremely unpleasant” (1), at the right end with “extremely pleasant” (9) and at the central point with “neither pleasant nor unpleasant” (Kähkönen, Tuorila, & Rita, 1996).

2.4. Lipid oxidation The extent of oxidative deterioration of lipid during shelf life was measured at 0, 3 and 6 months, using the reaction of malondialdehyde (MDA) with 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) according to a modification of the method of Salih, Smith, Price, and Dawson (1987). Briefly, sausage sample (about 2 g) was homogenized for 30 s adding 10 mL of deionized distilled water and 100 μL of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (2% in ethanol) in a disposable test tube. After adding 10 mL of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) solution (10%), the mixture was stirred and then incubated at 90 °C for 15 min. Subsequently the mixture was left cooling at room temperature and then it was centrifuged at 716 ×g for 10 min at room

temperature. The supernatant was filtered through Minisart filter (Sigma-Aldrich). The filtrate (1 mL) was mixed with 1 mL of TBA (0.02 M), stirred and then incubated at 90 °C for 30 min. After being cooled, the absorbance of the mixture was read at 532 nm against a blank. Lipid oxidation was expressed as mg MDA × kg−1. 2.5. Statistical analyses Data were analyzed using SAS software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). One-way ANOVA was used to test differences among items in the ratings expressed by 241 consumers in the preliminary food questionnaire. In order to verify panel performance in terms of QDA and off-flavor and odor detection, sensory data were subjected to ANOVA with product (6 levels = 2 kind of preservation × 3 time of storage), assessors (11 levels), replications (3 levels) and their first order interactions as factors. A further ANOVA on these data and on MDA data with kind of preservation (2 levels), time of storage (3 levels) and their interaction as factors was performed. To identify the most liked product, acceptability data were analyzed by one-way (general linear model procedure) ANOVA, using the kind of preservation as factor. The relationship between overall liking and attribute liking (appearance, taste/flavor and texture) was analyzed by linear regression analysis, according to the following equation: overall liking = k0 + k1 (attribute liking), where k1 are the individual slopes relating attribute liking to overall liking (raw slopes). Each consumer served as his own control. Significance of this linear equation was evaluated by r coefficient. Goodness of fit for the individuals was measured by the Pearson r2, which shows the percentage of variability that can be accounted for by a straight line. Each individual generated three raw slopes (appearance liking, taste/flavor liking and texture liking versus overall liking, respectively). The standard deviation (SD) measured the variability of that individual's raw slopes. The larger the SD of the three raw slopes, the more differentially one sensory attribute liking drove overall liking. The smaller the SD of the three raw slopes, the

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more equally the sensory attributes liking drove overall liking. A second analysis was done to normalize each individual's “raw slopes” (Moskowitz & Krieger, 1995) according to the following equation: Normalized Slope = Absolute value of attribute liking slope/Sum of the absolute slopes for the person. The normalized slopes were used to construct a triangular plot graphically portraying the relative importance of each liking attribute. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics and consumers' habits The sample of 241 consumers participating to the questionnaires consisted of 89 males and 152 females. The age of respondents was between 25 and 35 years in 70 cases (29%), between 36 and 45 years in 86 cases (35.7%) and between 46 and 60 in 85 cases (35.3%). More than half of them had a high school degree (53.9%), 28.6% had a university degree and 17.4% a secondary school degree. In terms of job category, 37.3% were housewife, 23.2% office workers, 10.1% self-employed, 6.20% students and 6.22% workers; however there were also unemployed (5.80%), traders (3.7%), retired (3.30%), manager (0.40%) and employer (0.80%). All the respondents were meat consumers (100%). Half of them (50.2%) were directly involved in cooking, 41.6% partially involved and 8.20% did not cook personally. 3.2. Aspects affecting consumer purchasing decision Table 3 shows consumers' beliefs about items affecting purchasing and consumption of dry-cured products. In order to identify differences between items, the value of least significance difference (LSD) was calculated (0.37 corresponding to a significance level of 95%). Based on this LSD value items were clustered into three different significant groups (Table 3). The first group showed the highest consumers' scores and included the items taste, animal health and use of preservatives. In the second group, with intermediate scores, geographic origin, rearing system, health benefits, animal welfare, visible fat content, nutritional characteristics and others were included. The last group included place of purchase and brand. Therefore, the aspects mainly affecting consumer purchasing decision were sensory and safety traits, followed by ethical and nutritional factors. In particular, in terms of sensory properties, taste was the most important factor followed by color and texture. These attributes were rated as the most influential also in a previous study conducted on consumer liking for Podolian bresaola (Braghieri et al., 2009). Sensory attributes (intrinsic factors) seem to be more important than extrinsic (brand, store, information, etc.) for many food products such as dryTable 3 Aspects affecting consumer decision of purchasing dry-cured products (means ± SE). Item

Score1

Taste Animal health Addition of preservatives Geographical origin Rearing system (i.e. confinement or free-ranging) Health benefits Animal welfare Visible fat content Nutritional characteristics Color Animal diet Texture Appearance Energy content Softness to the touch Place of purchase Brand

6.78 ± 0.08a 6.60 ± 0.12ab 6.53 ± 0.10ab 6.35 ± 0.12bc 6.29 ± 0.14bcd 6.08 ± 0.16cde 5.93 ± 0.15def 5.87 ± 0.15efg 5.75 ± 0.17efgh 5.72 ± 0.14efgh 5.71 ± 0.18fgh 5.69 ± 0.14fgh 5.64 ± 0.17fgh 5.50 ± 0.18ghi 5.49 ± 0.16hi 5.22 ± 0.19ij 4.99 ± 0.19j

1

Mean scores based on a 7-point scale from 1 (unimportant) to 7 (very important).

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cured ham (Morales, Guerrero, Claret, Guàrdia, & Gou, 2008), olive oil (Caporale, Policastro, Carlucci, & Monteleone, 2006) and beef (Bello Acebrón & Calvo Dopico, 2000). According to Moskowitz (1995) it is not sufficient to motivate consumers with high quality standard information without adequate sensory properties, whereas a study on yogurt found that actual liking was affected by both sensory properties and information about credence characteristics and the most preferred products were those combining the best sensory properties with the most ethically sound information (Carlucci, Monteleone, Braghieri, & Napolitano, 2009). In this study animal health was another important aspect affecting consumer decision in purchasing sausages. In comparison, animal welfare received lower scores (Table 3) possibly because animal health is more associated with product safety. As for other products, such as yogurt (Napolitano, Pacelli, Girolami, & Braghieri, 2008), lamb (Napolitano, Braghieri, et al., 2007) and beef (Napolitano, Caporale, Carlucci, & Monteleone, 2007), consumers are aware of the possible negative effects of poor animal conditions on product quality and use animal health and welfare as indicators of other product attributes, including food safety (Harper & Henson, 2001). Consumer concerns about food safety and the impact of food consumption on human health have continuously increased, particularly for animal based food (Verbeke & Viaene, 2000), considered to be responsible for a number of public health issues. Another important feature having high consumers' scores is the addition of preservatives (Table 3). Several ingredients including sodium chloride, sugar, spices and others are included in cured meats to obtain a distinctive flavor (Cassens, 1990). Although the term cured relative to processed meats is also related to the addition of nitrite or nitrate for improved preservation and color (Pegg & Shahidi, 2000), there is a raising concern among consumers about the use of nitrate and nitrite for cured meat including chemical toxicity, formation of carcinogens in food or after ingestion, and reproductive and developmental toxicity (Sebranek & Bacus, 2007). Numerous authors (e.g. Pieniak et al., 2009) showed that the traditional character or image of local food is a relevant element affecting consumer purchasing decisions. Accordingly, in this study the geographical origin of the Lucanian dry cured sausage, a traditional Italian product, was an important consumer behavior determinant. Besides other credence attributes human health, either directly (health benefits) or through other features (visible fat content, nutritional characteristics, energy content), is a recurrent consumers' determinant for purchasing sausages. Although fat content is able to markedly affect technological and organoleptic characteristics of sausages, improving flavor, odor and tenderness of Lucanian dry sausage, consumers rated as more acceptable and preferred the product showing lower levels of visible fat (Girolami et al., 2014). Women, in particular, showed a higher preference for the leanest sausage as they possibly associated high fat contents with reduced self-confidence and potential detrimental effects on health (Webb & O'Neill, 2008). 3.3. Quantitative descriptive sensory analysis A preliminary analysis of variance showed that no product × replication and product × assessor interactions were significant (P N 0.05), thus indicating that both the training program and the reference frame were adequate to reach a high reliability of the panel, as each product was not evaluated differently in different replications or by different assessors. Based on the previous results, sensory data were analyzed considering preservatives use, storage time and their interactions as factors. No significant preservatives × time interactions were observed. As to appearance (Table 4), preservatives induced higher color uniformity (P b 0.001) and lightness (P b 0.001). Lorenzo, Fontan, Franco, and Carballo (2008) obtained similar results on dry-cured Lacòn, a Spanish traditional meat product. Nitrate by itself does not produce the cured color and it has to be reduced to nitrite by some nitrate

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Table 4 Sensory appearance1 of Lucanian dry sausages as affected by nitrate/nitrite preservatives and vacuum storage time at 4 °C (means ± SE). Preservatives

Color uniformity Hue of meat Hue of fat Lightness Fat percentage Fat diameter Exudate a, b 1

Time

Significance

YES

NO

1 month

3 months

6 months

Preservatives

Time

58.22 ± 1.18e 51.60 ± 1.16 31.03 ± 1.11f 44.65 ± 0.97e 41.01 ± 0.92 41.82 ± 1.05e 39.01 ± 1.13

43.52 ± 1.18f 52.60 ± 1.16 42.52 ± 1.11e 34.28 ± 0.97f 38.62 ± 0.92 33.86 ± 1.05f 40.40 ± 1.13

49.18 ± 1.44 54.01 ± 1.43c 35.70 ± 1.36 38.84 ± 1.19d 40.78 ± 1.13 39.26 ± 1.28 35.84 ± 1.38d

52.40 ± 1.44 53.49 ± 1.43ad 36.35 ± 1.36 36.04 ± 1.19f 39.47 ± 1.13 37.23 ± 1.28 41.01 ± 1.38c

51.04 ± 1.44 48.79 ± 1.43b 38.28 ± 1.36 43.51 ± 1.19ce 39.19 ± 1.13 37.03 ± 1.28 42.26 ± 1.38c

P b 0.001 NS P b 0.001 P b 0.001 NS P b 0.001 NS

NS P b 0.05 NS P b 0.001 NS NS P b 0.01

P b 0.05; c, d P b 0.01; e, f P b 0.001. Attributes rated on the basis of a 100 mm unstructured line with anchor points at each end (0 = absent, 100 = very strong).

reductase microorganisms (Arnau, Serra, Comaposada, Gou, & Garriga, 2007). The nitrite reaction sequences involved in cured color development also play a role in the expression of antioxidant activities; proposed mechanisms for the antioxidant effect of nitrite include reaction with heme proteins and metals and formation of nitroso- and nitrosyl-compounds with anti-oxidant properties (Pegg & Shahidi, 2000). Time affected meat hue (P b 0.05) that decreased with storage, whereas lightness (P b 0.001) increased, possibly due to the increased perceived exudate (P b 0.01). Table 5 shows the results concerning odor, flavor, taste and texture of sausages. Overall odor and flavor (P b 0.001) and all the other odor and flavor attributes (P b 0.01) were perceived with higher intensities in no preservative sausages with the exception of the flavor spiced, which was higher (P b 0.01) in cured sausages. The flavor features of dry sausages are the result of a combination of spices, meat endogenous enzyme activities, microbial activities and autoxidation (Arnau et al., 2007). Therefore, some of the differences in odor and flavor between products may be due to the inhibition of most of these activities in NS. Preservatives did not affect taste attributes, such as sweetness, saltiness and bitterness, whereas in terms of texture NS showed higher springiness (P b 0.01) and cohesiveness (P b 0.001) and lower tenderness (P b 0.001) as compared with NNS. Texture is perceived from sensory impressions of the physical properties of a material, its nature,

composition and behavior on deformation received from senses of touch, sight and hearing (Mathoniere, Mioche, Dransfield, & Culioli, 2000). The effect of preservatives on texture of cured meat is still questioned, as some authors observed that the addition of nitrite, up to 1000 ppm, to chopped ham did not change its texture (Randall & Voisey, 1977), whereas others found that as little as 40 ppm of nitrite in combination with sorbate in mortadella (a type of Italian cured sausage) was enough to increase firm texture (Al-Shuibi & Al-Abdullah, 2002). Tenderness of dry sausages is associated with proteolysis (Parolari, Virgili, & Schivazappa, 1994; Virgili, Parolari, Schivazappa, Bordini, & Borri, 1995), which depends on moisture and salt content, and on temperature (Arnau et al., 2007). In our study the lower tenderness perceived in NS products may be attributed to the inhibiting effect of preservatives on proteolytic bacteria (Al Marazanya, Ahmedb, & AlAswadb, 2009). Time affected fennel odor (P b 0.001) and flavor intensities (P b 0.01), which increased with storage time. Smoked odor (P b 0.05), pepper flavor (P b 0.001), sweetness (P b 0.01) and saltiness (P b 0.01) increased with time. Texture attributes, except for oiliness, were all significantly affected by storage: springiness (P b 0.001) and cohesiveness (P b 0.01) decreased, whereas tenderness (P b 0.001) increased. According to Santamaria, Lizarraga, Astiasaran, and Bello (1992), changes in texture during storage may be due to variations in disulfide bonds and contents of amino acid.

Table 5 Sensory profile1 of Lucanian dry sausages as affected by nitrate/nitrite preservatives and vacuum storage time at 4 °C (means ± SE). Preservatives

Time

Significance

YES

NO

1 month

3 months

6 month

Preservatives

Time

Odor Overall Fennel Seasoned Smoked

59.31 ± 0.91f 36.13 ± 1.10d 49.20 ± 1.08f 21.61 ± 1.33f

65.99 ± 0.91e 40.23 ± 1.10c 58,91 ± 1.08e 34.00 ± 1.33e

61.75 ± 1.11 33.14 ± 1.35f 53.32 ± 1.32 24,22 ± 1.63B

63.41 ± 1.11 39.87 ± 1.35e 53.53 ± 1.32 28.18 ± 1.63

62.80 ± 1.11 41.54 ± 1.35e 55.33 ± 1.32 31.01 ± 1.63c

P b 0.001 P b 0.01 P b 0.001 P b 0.001

NS P b 0.001 NS P b 0.01

Flavor Overall Fennel Seasoned Smoked Pepper Spiced

57.46 ± 0.90f 33.92 ± 1.12d 46.35 ± 1.03f 17.36 ± 1.22f 27.03 ± 1.21f 46.17 ± 1.27c

62.49 ± 0.90e 38.70 ± 1.12c 54.43 ± 1.03e 30.22 ± 1.22e 40.47 ± 1.21e 41.11 ± 1.27d

58.96 ± 1.11 32.94 ± 1.38bd 49.18 ± 1.27 22.20 ± 1.49 29.82 ± 1.48be 43.16 ± 1.56

61.15 ± 1.11 37.21 ± 1.38a 50.38 ± 1.27 25.42 ± 1.49 34.54 ± 1.48a 44.23 ± 1.56

59.81 ± 1.11 38.79 ± 1.38c 51.61 ± 1.27 23.76 ± 1.49 36.89 ± 1.48f 43.53 ± 1.56

P b 0.001 P b 0.01 P b 0.001 P b 0.001 P b 0.01 P b 0.01

NS P b 0.01 NS NS P b 0.001 NS

Taste Sweetness Saltiness Bitterness

18.90 ± 0.93 50.30 ± 1.08 14.70 ± 0,86

19.57 ± 0.93 50.97 ± 1.08 14.14 ± 0,86

15.95 ± 1.14d 47.86 ± 1.32f 14.30 ± 1.05

20.67 ± 1.14c 49.66 ± 1.32b 15.51 ± 1.05

21.08 ± 1.14c 54.38 ± 1.32ae 13.45 ± 1.05

NS NS NS

P b 0.01 P b 0.01 NS

Texture Springiness Tenderness Cohesiveness Oiliness

49.51 ± 1.02c 39.44 ± 0.96d 60.86 ± 0.96e 38.13 ± 1.05

44.89 ± 1.02d 59.03 ± 0.96c 41.79 ± 0.96f 36.42 ± 1.05

49.14 ± 1.25e 44.60 ± 1.90df 54.26 ± 1.18ac 35.85 ± 1.28

49.42 ± 1.25e 53.25 ± 1.90e 50.53 ± 1.18b 37.90 ± 1.28

43.05 ± 1.25f 49.89 ± 1.90c 49.17 ± 1.18d 38.07 ± 1.28

P b 0.01 P b 0.001 P b 0.001 NS

P b 0.001 P b 0.001 P b 0.01 NS

a, b 1

P b 0.05; c, d P b 0.01; e, f P b 0.001. Attributes rated on the basis of a 100 mm unstructured line with anchor points at each end (0 = absent, 100 = very strong).

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Table 6 Hedonic test of Lucanian dry sausages as affected by nitrate/nitrite preservatives (means ± SE). Liking1 Overall Appearance Taste/flavor Texture

Preservatives

Significance

Yes

No

6.05 ± 0.08 6.59 ± 0.07 5.99 ± 0.08 6.28 ± 0.07

6.08 ± 0.08 6.10 ± 0.08 6.01 ± 0.09 6.21 ± 0.08

NS P b 0.001 NS NS

1 Mean liking based on a 9-point hedonic scale from “extremely unpleasant” (1) to “extremely pleasant” (9).

Storage time affected rancid off-flavor (13.85 ± 1.18, 15.19 ± 1.18 and 18.50 ± 1.18 for 0, 3 and 6 months, respectively, P b 0.05) and odor (10.21 ± 1.04, 13.09 ± 1.04 and 13.51 ± 1.04 for 0, 3 and 6 months, respectively, P b 0.05), whereas no effect of preservatives and the interaction was detected on both sensory defects. These results (i.e. very low levels of perceived off-flavor and odor) suggest that this sensory defect is hardly detectable. 3.4. Consumer testing The results of the hedonic test on 102 consumers are depicted in Table 6. No significant effect of preservatives was observed for overall liking, taste/flavor and texture. Other authors (Bozkurt & Erkmen, 2004) found that the overall sensory quality of sausages increased as the nitrate/nitrite concentration increased, particularly as compared with sausages with no preservatives. Sausages significantly (P b 0.001) differed in terms of appearance as cured sausages showed higher scores compared with uncured products. Appearance is a major factor affecting perception of product quality and, as a consequence, consumer purchasing behavior (Resurreccion, 2003). In particular, external appearance was considered an important factor by consumers of dry-cured ham (Morales, Guerrero, Aguiar, Guàrdia & Gou, 2013). Consumer acceptability regressed against analytical sensory data is able to explain which input drives the acceptance for a specific product (Ward, Stampanoni Koeferli, Piccinali Schwegler, Schaeppi, & Plemmons, 1999; Moskowitz, 2001). In order to determine the drivers of liking in terms of sensory inputs, the relationship between overall liking and liking of specific sensory inputs (appearance, taste/flavor and texture) was analyzed by linear regression analysis. Twenty-three percent of the consumers showed no significant correlation for all the sensory inputs; thus, these consumers were not included in the analysis. Significant differences were observed between appearance and taste/ flavor (P b 0.05). In agreement with a previous study on Podolian bresaola (Braghieri et al., 2009), the overall liking of sausages was affected primarily by taste/flavor as its raw slope value was high (k = 0.83). Accordingly, Ruiz, Garcia, Muriel, Andres, and Ventanas (2002) found that flavor intensity was the trait that better explained the acceptability of dry-cured ham. A high slope value was also found for texture (k = 0.75). Appearance showed a lower raw slope value (k = 0.71) compared with the other two attributes. These results match those previously reported concerning the items affecting consumer decision. Ruiz, Villanueva, Favaro-Trindade, and Contreras-Castillo (2014) also found that the drivers of consumer acceptance for Italian salami were mainly flavor and texture with lower influence of appearance. However, other studies report that appearance features, including visible fat and marbling, play an important role in orienting consumer preference before consumption (Fortin, Robertson, & Tong, 2005). Studies in Iberian dry-cured products reported a close relationship between marbling and consumer preference (Ruiz-Carrascal, Ventanas, Cava, Andrés, & García, 2000). As to sausages, Girolami et al. (2014) reported a negative influence of visible fat percentage on consumer preference. The three normalized slopes were plotted in triangular coordinates. The triangular plot graphically portrays the relative importance of each sensory input (Fig. 1). Each vertex of the triangle depicts a specific

Fig. 1. Triangular plot of normalized slopes. Each vertex of the triangle depicts a specific sensory input (texture, taste/flavor and appearance). Each point in the figure corresponds to a single consumer. Points lying very close to or actually on a vertex suggest that the consumer pays primary attention to that sensory input when rating overall liking. The plot has been divided into six sections to help visualizing which consumers were more affected by each sensory input.

sensory input (texture, taste/flavor and appearance). Each point in the figure corresponds to a single consumer. Points lying very close to or actually on a vertex suggest that the consumer pays primary attention to that sensory input when rating overall liking. Points lying midway between two vertices mean that the consumer pays equal attention to both sensory inputs. Finally, points in the middle mean that the consumer pays approximately equal attention to all three sensory inputs. The triangular plot can be divided into six sections. Although many consumers were placed in the middle of the plot, many other points gathered in A, F and B sections. Consumers lying in A and F sections were very close to taste/flavor as driver of liking. Many consumers in B section, very close to texture, indicate that this input played a role in driving their preference. Few points lie close to the appearance vertex indicating that this sensory input was important only for a low number of consumers.

3.5. Lipid oxidation The extent of oxidative deterioration of lipid during storage (at 0, 3 and 6 months) and related to preservatives addition was evaluated using the reaction of MDA with TBA. No significant interaction time × preservatives was detected. In agreement with the results concerning off-flavor and odor sensory evaluation, MDA content was well below the threshold of rancidity perception (0.6–2.0 mg/kg) in both products (Greene & Cumuze, 1982). However, it was significantly lower in NS as compared with NNS (0.05 ± 0.01 mg/kg vs 0.09 ± 0.01 mg/kg, respectively; P b 0.05). Accordingly, Fernandez, Perez-Alvarez, and FernandezLopez (1997) pointed out that the presence of nitrite in the medium reduced the TBA value. Nitrite has an inhibitory effect on oxidative fat breakdown in meat products (Sanz, Vila, Toldra, Nieto, & Flores, 1997; Toldrá, Aristoy, & Flores, 2009). The exact mechanisms for this antioxidant action is still debated since four different mechanisms have been proposed by Pegg and Shahidi (2000): 1) reaction of nitrite with heme pigments forming a stable complex, 2) action in tissue membranes by stabilizing its unsaturated lipids, 3) action of nitrite as a metal chelator and 4) the formation of nitroso compounds that can act as radical scavengers. Conversely, Ordonez, Hierro, Bruna, and Hoz (1999) stated that nitrite has higher antioxidant power than other antioxidants commonly used as preservatives by inhibiting the action of pro-oxidant compounds.

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Lipid oxidation did not significantly vary during sausage shelf life (0.06 ± 0.01 mg/kg, 0.07 ± 0.01 mg/kg and 0.07 ± 0.01 mg/kg at 0, 3 and 6 months of vacuum storage, respectively). Other studies found significant increases of TBA during ripening (Aguirrezabal, Mateo, Dominguez, & Zumalacarregui, 2000; Bozkurt & Erkmen, 2004), and after 30 days of storage (Aguirrezabal et al., 2000), possibly because in these experiments the products were not stored under vacuum. In addition, the low amount of detected MDA and low panel perception of rancid off-flavor and odor may explain the lack of agreement between instrumental and sensory evaluation of rancidity in terms of storage time and treatment effects.

4. Conclusions The three most influential aspects affecting sausage consumer choice were taste, animal health and addition of preservatives. One main finding of this study is the agreement between the results concerning sausage choice determinants and consumer liking in terms of sausage sensory properties, as in both cases taste was rated as the most important aspect followed by texture, whereas appearance was the least important. The addition of preservatives did not change the perception of taste attributes by an experienced panel, whereas differences were detected in terms of odor, texture and color attributes. However, consumers did not express a preference for a particular product in terms of overall liking, taste/flavor liking and texture liking, whereas appearance liking was higher for sausages containing preservatives. This latter result may be attributed to the lower oxidation level observed in sausages containing preservatives. As sausages are usually sold as single entire pieces (unsliced), color is unlikely to markedly affect consumer purchasing decision. Conversely, the lack of perceived differences between products in terms of taste and the potentially detrimental effect exerted by a label indicating the presence of preservatives (one of the most influential determinant affecting consumer purchasing decision), suggest that producers should make an effort to obtain high quality traditional products, such as Lucanian dry cured sausages, without using these ingredients in order to meet the consumer demand for products characterized by good taste and naturalness. The present paper may provide a novel approach (i.e. identification of the main aspects affecting consumer purchasing decision and verification of product compliance to the identified determinants) to be followed for the study and promotion of other traditional meat products worldwide.

Acknowledgments Research funded by Regione Basilicata (DGR 12/03/2010 N. 496). Thanks are due to A. M. Riviezzi for expert technical assistance. Thanks are also due to the Editor for improving the quality of the manuscript.

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