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Sharing the catch or catching the shares: Catch shares for the western Pacific region?
Marine Policy 44 (2014) 3–8
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
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Sharing the catch or catching the shares: Catch shares for the western Pacific region? Craig Severance n Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii at Hilo, Hilo, Hawaii 96720 4091, USA
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Available online 13 September 2013
The applicability of catch shares programs is evaluated for the various fisheries of the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council region in each of the archipelagoes. Implementation of Catch Shares programs in the region is problematic, but would require better data to be done fairly and equitably. Catch shares are currently under initial consideration for the Hawaii and American Samoa longline fisheries and the Hawaii Deep 7 bottomfish fishery. It is argued that current conditions in all the other small boat fisheries in the region make them inappropriate for catch shares management. Overfishing and the “race for fish” are not yet an issue for these fisheries and some are underdeveloped. Catch share programs can cause significant negative social consequences for Western Pacific communities because data on fishermen's participation, catch histories, and motivations to fish for cultural needs is not adequate for any initial allocation scheme to be developed equitably. The prevailing Western Pacific cultural value of sharing the fish by gifting portions, sharing the catch widely and sharing fishing opportunities widely is in clear conflict with the individualized commercial profit motive philosophy of fisheries that are appropriate for catch shares. The small boat fisheries lack adequate monitoring and enforcement, and do not have a total allowable catch or quota. Nor do they usually have a demonstrated need for one. Preliminary community outreach by Council staff and community discussion of catch shares shows a general lack of information yet a potential for strong resistance to the imposition of catch shares. & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Catch shares Western Pacific Customary exchange
1. Introduction The Honolulu Catch Shares Workshop was held in response to the NOAA initiative to support the development of “Catch Shares” programs wherever they are considered to be an appropriate management tool [1]. The workshop brought together fisheries economists with experience with catch share programs and others with in depth understanding of the nature of the fisheries managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) (hereafter the Council) and the respective state, territorial, and international agencies of the region. Discussion was lively and the workshop ended on a comment offered by a Council Scientific and Statistical Committee (SSC) member: “Educate us but do not proselytize us”. This discussion paper considers the appropriateness of catch shares programs for the small boat fisheries in the Western Pacific region, briefly sketches the various small boat fisheries, and notes which fisheries may be appropriate for further discussion of catch shares, and which fisheries seem to be clearly inappropriate for catch share programs. It draws from a fisheries anthropology
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perspective rather than a fisheries economics perspective. It also draws from the author's long-term experience in the region developed through service on the Western Pacific Council's SSC and through informal interviewing and participant observation in the fisheries. It highlights the importance of equitable allocation, open participation, and the sharing of fish. It notes the cultural need for freely given fish for cultural and ceremonial occasions in ways that contribute to social solidarity and cultural continuity in the fishing communities of the Western Pacific region. It argues that “Sharing the Catch” in culturally appropriate ways is central to the lifestyles of fishing communities in the Western Pacific and that “Catching the Shares” could change them significantly. 1.1. Data adequacy The fisheries in the Western Pacific are generally different than U.S. mainland areas where catch shares have been utilized. Western Pacific “fishing communities” encompass entire islands and archipelagoes [2] and most of our fishermen believe in a widespread sharing of fish and fishing opportunities rather than in a narrow sharing of fishing privileges allocated to a few fishermen. Most are concerned about providing continuing opportunities for new entry for their children and grandchildren, extended family
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members and others. [3]. Many are part-timers who fish to give and to share as much as they fish for a profit motive. There is a blend of commercial, recreational and subsistence motivations. There is not usually a “race for fish”, and effort is often triggered by cultural and ceremonial needs. Post-landing catch distribution or “Fish Flow” through networks and sometimes through “customary exchange” sustains the health, food security and cultural strength and continuity of local communities [4]. The significance of fishing, and being able to continue fishing to meet cultural needs and subsistence by many of the small boat fishermen in the region cannot be overstated, and for some it is actively considered an indigenous right.
1.2. Existing management Only three of our current fisheries operate under a total allowable catch (TAC) or quota, which is prerequisite to the development of any catch share program. They are the three fisheries selected by NOAA for initial consideration for catch shares development. Two, the Hawaii and American Samoa pelagic longline fleets operate under limited entry and aggregate catch limits or quotas imposed by international agreement for two of the target species, bigeye tuna (BET), and yellowfin tuna (YFT). These two fisheries may appear closer to the image of industrial scale fisheries than other important fisheries in the Western Pacific region. However even these fisheries include some relatively small vessels and family- and extended family-based owner operators. The impact of these fleets on the overall stock condition of BET and YFT and other Pelagic Fisheries Ecosystem Plan (FEP) Management Unit species is small compared to international effort (estimated at less than 4–5%) [5], and to U. S. purse seine effort, which is managed not by the Council but under the South Pacific Tuna Treaty and now through the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) in the Western Pacific and by the InterAmerican Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) in the Eastern Pacific. The third fishery proposed by NMFS for discussion of possible catch shares is the Main Hawaiian Islands Bottomfish fishery which operates under a commercial quota and a recreational bag limit for the “deep 7” species1 (1), as well as a system of state bottomfish restricted fishing areas (BRFA) where fishing for “deep 7” bottomfish is prohibited. This fishery is currently co-managed by the Council and the State of Hawaii because the primary grounds overlap state and federal waters. Effective and sustainable bottomfish Limited Entry programs existed for two zones in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands until 2010, when that fishery was closed as the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument was developed. Even for these three fisheries, adoption of a catch shares management regime that is fair and equitable is problematic. [6–9]. Development of catch shares programs for most of the other small boat fisheries in the U.S. Pacific Islands region is unnecessary, impractical, culturally inappropriate, and likely to be resisted by fishermen. There is not enough data to establish catch shares in an equitable fashion that meets the intent of National Standard 4 “that such allocation shall be fair and equitable…and that no particular individual, entity or corporation acquires an excessive share” [10]. These fisheries do not operate under quotas and there is limited to quite inadequate data on effort, participation and catch histories. They have generally remained open access, and some are clearly underdeveloped. The small boat fisheries are generally not approaching MSY for most of their target species. 1 The Deep 7 include: ehu (Etelis carbunculus), gindai (Pristipomoides zonatus), kalekale (Pristipomoides sieboldii), hapuupuu (Epinephelus quernus), onaga (Etelis corsucans), opakapaka (Pristipomoides filamentosus) and lehi (Aphareus rutilans).
Annual catch limits are in the process of development for the other small boat fisheries, but it is generally anticipated that the limits will be significantly higher than current catches [11]. The development of catch shares programs for any of the small boat fisheries would require establishment of limited entry and quota systems for multiple targeted species, much better fishery history data, and a clear need for catch controls such as a race for fish as fishermen approach MSY for particular species in the fishery. It should be noted, however, that limited entry has been considered and evaluated for the Hawaii offshore handline/shortline/mixed gear fishery a number of times in the past, and a control date of June 2, 2005 exists for that fishery and for all Hawaii small boat pelagic fisheries should need for a limited entry program or other catch controls develop. It is not clear whether the Conservation and Management Measures (CMM) currently adopted by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission2 for BET and YFT or those that may be adopted in the future will directly affect the small boat commercial, recreational, subsistence mixed handline, troll and charter fisheries that operate solely within the U.S. EEZ. These are best understood as “artisanal” fisheries since vessel sizes range from 16–45 ft. and they generally operate within 10-30 miles from shore within the Hawaii EEZ. The Council made a decision to utilize the international exemption clause and adopt or set Annual Catch Limits (ACL) for pelagic species that reflect quotas that might be imposed by international management on the larger scale commercial fleets. The ability of the SSC and the Council to develop ACLs for important pelagic species is limited by the lack of reliable stock assessment and life history data for many of them. This decision means that stock assessments developed by the Oceanic Fisheries Program (OFP) of the Secretariat for the Pacific Community for the WCPFC could be applied to set both ACLs and Accountability Measures (AM) for the larger scale fisheries. How the overall ACLs might affect or be applied or allocated between the somewhat larger scale longline fleets and the smaller in catch but potentially much larger in number of participants in the small boat fleets is a significant challenge. As they develop ACLs for other species such as bottomfish and coral reef species the SSC and Council are also faced with significant challenges. Commercial catch records, life history and habitat data exist for some but not most species, and catch and effort data for recreational and subsistence fishermen is inadequate. The Council has determined that recreational data on effort and catch used in statistical estimations from the current Hawaii Marine Recreational fisheries Statistical Survey is not adequate for management, especially for potential allocation decisions. Revisions to the Marine Recreational Information Program MRIP are ongoing but they will only be in effect for Hawaii, not for the rest of the region and will take some time to implement and evaluate. The WPRFMC was the first council to develop an ecosystembased Fishery Management Plan and that plan for coral reef species was faced with the complex issue of managing a fishery with very large numbers of species and species groups and limited information about most of them. The Council now operates with place-based archipelagic Fisheries Ecosystem Plans (FEP) for all non-pelagics in each archipelago in the Council's jurisdiction. An important feature of the archipelagic FEPs is an emphasis on community-based management and an integration of traditional and local ecological knowledge into the management process. The Council has a single Pelagics FEP for all five parts of its jurisdiction.
2 WCPFC Conservation and Management Measure (CMM) 2008-01 www. WCPFC/int
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1.3. Management goals and cultural norms All of the Council's FEPs include the same general objectives and the two most relevant to this discussion are: to maintain biologically diverse and productive marine ecosystems and foster the long term sustainable use of marine resources in an ecologically and culturally sensitive manner through use of a science based ecosystem approach to resource management and to encourage and provide for the sustained and substantive participation of local communities in the exploration, development, conservation and management of marine resources [12]. There are also special provisions in the reauthorized MagnusonStevens Act (MSRA) to support indigenous Pacific Islander participation in and development of Western Pacific fisheries. Assigning catch shares to such “indigenous fishing communities” or smaller local fishing communities may appear to be a simple task, but these communities are not simply place based but are rather diasporic. Many local indigenous people have relatives residing elsewhere who return regularly to participate in cultural events and to participate in fishing as indigenous right and practice.
2. American Samoa Archipelago The American Samoa FEP covers bottomfish, coral reef species, crustaceans, and precious corals. Many of the species in these categories can be found on reefs and offshore banks in the EEZ. The most important species other than pelagics in American Samoa are shallow and deepwater bottomfish. A small export fishery for deepwater snappers developed in the 1980s with subsidized airfreight but was not commercially viable without airfreight subsidies [13]. There continues to be limited airfreight out of American Samoa, so significant levels of fresh fish exports are not currently practical. There is relatively little pressure on the bottomfish stocks and current exploitation rates are well below estimated MSY for the stock complex. American Samoa imports some fresh bottomfish and coral reef fish from neighboring (Independent) Samoa to meet local demand and local cultural needs. American Samoa pelagic fisheries are covered under the Pelagics FEP. A troll fishery developed in the 1950s and expanded through the 1980s slowly as the alia fleet developed. The original alias were small 28 ft outboard-powered aluminum catamarans that served as inexpensive multipurpose vessels that could switch from trolling to bottomfishing and small scale longlining. They had limited range and capacity for holding fish and targeted a mixed bag of troll fish that included YFT and skipjack tuna, as well as Mahi-mahi, and Ono, and occasional marlin. There is also a small sportfishing fleet that includes some larger monohulls and catamarans, but no active charter fishery. A few trollers had on land freezers and when their freezers were full of skipjack, those fish were delivered to the canneries [14]. Skipjack tuna are one of the most culturally significant fishes in American Samoa and they are frequently distributed with formal ceremonial protocols at important cultural and ceremonial events [15]. BET are rarely caught by trolling but became a small portion of the catch as small scale longlining targeting of albacore began developing on alias in the mid 1990s. The original alia longliners developed this fishery using manually operated reels and setting 2–3 miles of line and 250–300 hooks. As the alia fishery developed the longlines were set up to 10 miles in length and the number of hooks averaged 400 per set. Fresh albacore were initially delivered iced to the canneries the following morning and then in frozen form as this fishery developed and expanded rapidly in the latter half of the 1990s. Potentially valuable BET landed as incidental
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catch in this fishery often go into local distribution channels because of the lack of airfreight capacity. Because of the rapid expansion of this fishery and the development of both “superalias” (40–45 ft. in length) and the import of larger monohulls, a limited entry program was developed in 2005. That program was designed to encourage fishermen to move up to larger and safer vessels and utilized a complex range of four vessel size classes. There has been new entry, both Samoan and nonSamoan into this fleet and catches and catch rates have fluctuated significantly as has active fleet size and composition. The American Samoa longline fishery has high hook densities, and concerns have been expressed over the potential for localized depletion of albacore stocks. There is evidence, however, that Albacore population densities may be strongly influenced by the South Equatorial Current and Countercurrent and local oceanographic conditions [16]. The direction of and future development of the American Samoa longline fleet is unclear. Cyclones and tsunami have contributed to fleet size fluctuations as have fluctuations in local abundance of albacore. The future of access to local processing through the canneries or the new tuna loining and processing facility remains uncertain. Albacore catches do not appear to be approaching MSY and incidental catches of BET and YFT when the fleet was at its highest numbers of vessels were far below the WCPFC quotas for those species for the territory. Access to the EEZ's of neighboring countries such as the Cook Islands has occurred, but future of access is also uncertain. Future expansion of the fishery, especially if a swordfish component could be developed might lead to a need for further effort controls or catch controls. While the fishery has operated with federal logbooks for some time, the history of the early years of development by the original highliners is not well documented. Some social research has been done on the fleet and the American Samoa fishing community [17], but more social research into Samoan attitudes, values and participation and more active outreach and education about the social and economic implications of catch shares are needed before proposing any additional management programs. Samoan culture is strengthened, perpetuated and sustained by active pride and participation in Fa'asamoa (the Samoan way). This is based on communal control and management of resources through the Aiga (a bilateral extended family grouping somewhat like a corporation), the Matai (elected chief of the Aiga), and the chiefly title system. Matai manage the collection, distribution and consumption of resources (including fish and sometimes money earned from fish) for the benefit of the Aiga. Untitled men and women serve the Matai and the Matai in turn serve higher level titles. Tautua (service) is central to the title system and to the practice and maintenance of Samoan cultural identity [18,19]. Fish are expected at many cultural ceremonies. Fish flow upward through customary exchange [4] and there are a number of named transactions where fish is freely given, or exchanged for a reduced price both because of and in order to maintain the social relations between fisherman and fish receiver [20].
3. Marianas Archipelago The Marianas Archipelago FEP covers Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, CNMI and generally their fisheries could well be considered underdeveloped. There is active bottomfishing for deepwater and shallow water snappers and grouper on the slopes of offshore banks in both parts of the archipelago and potential for expansion in the northern islands in CNMI. Some concerns have been expressed about the potential for overexploitation of some culturally significant species in the shallow water bottomfish complex. Preliminary analyses of
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recorded catch to estimated biomass ratios for the non-pelagic species suggest that exploitation rates are generally quite low. More active deepwater bottomfish fisheries have been conducted in the past, but those fisheries were not consistently monitored and the history of participation is not well documented. Distance and weather make expansion of the northern island fisheries problematic, though the potential for fisheries development there has cultural significance for the indigenous Chamorro and Carolinian or Refaluwasch people. There are also small but active charter fleets in both parts of the archipelago and tourism is an important part of both economies. Fishing activity and tourism both fluctuate significantly with local and international economic conditions and fish imports are significant for the tourism market. Much of the local small boat fleet fishes for subsistence, recreation and for cultural and social needs, and fishing for local fiestas continues to be important to the indigenous people [21]. Experimental tuna longlining began on Guam in the 1950s but the fishery never expanded and there is currently only one training vessel operating part-time under the Council's Community Development Program. Four large longliners recently started operating in the CNMI but it is unclear whether that activity will expand. The U.S. EEZ around the CNMI is considerably larger than that around Guam. Skipjack tuna resources appear to be substantial, but the current level of BET and YFT harvest is quite small relative to the assigned WCPFC quotas so these fisheries could be considered underdeveloped. Longlining, deep slope bottomfishing and charter trolling all have the potential for some expansion, so they need to be carefully monitored for potential need for some catch or effort controls. While some social and economic research has been conducted [22,23], much more is needed, and it needs to focus on motivation, participation, fleet dynamics, and cultural patterns of fish distribution. Better monitoring and more outreach and education about the potential impacts of catch share programs is required before they are given serious consideration for the Marianas Archipelago. Analysis of local understandings and attitudes about catch shares is also important for any such program to be implemented successfully. Management needs to be community-based to be effective in the Marianas context. 3.1. Customary exchange In American Samoa and the Marianas, indigenous fishermen are expected to provide fish for a variety of cultural ceremonies and this fish flows upward through the communities through customary exchange in ways that provide cultural continuity, solidarity and food security. The SSC and the Council have taken the position that when cash enters these exchanges, often as a way of offsetting costs, the cash exchange should be considered noncommercial. It should not mean that the fishing activity is determined to be commercial based on the MSRA definition of the catch “entering into commerce through sale, trade or barter” [10]. These “customary exchanges” do not entail a profit motive and there is not a calculated equivalency or immediate return to the exchange. Instead the fishermen's generosity contributes the sharing of fish that enters the community through social networks that are strengthened and affirmed by the acts of exchange [4].
4. Hawaii Hawaii's longline and “deep 7” bottomfish fisheries are under consideration for the potential for developing catch shares programs. The “deep 7” bottomfish fishery targets snappers and one grouper species in depth ranges of 60–140 fathoms. New stock
assessments are expected bi-annually, and this fishery now operates under an annual catch target (ACT), set below the ACL. There is a small core group of full-time bottomfish fishermen who catch a significant amount of the overall quota. There is a much larger group of very part-time commercial, recreational and subsistence fishermen who fish occasionally and often have lower catch rates. Successful targeting of these fish requires high quality depth sounders, GPS, electric or hydraulic reels, knowledge of gear and grounds, boat handling skills and good weather. The season is adjusted to be open during the peak season of cultural need for “red fish” for Christmas and New Year's celebrations, especially for the Native Hawaiian and Asian populations. Many people only fish for these species when there is a cultural or ceremonial need, and the opportunity to continue to fish successfully for these species is important. Should catch shares be developed for this fishery, there needs to be an adequate allocation of a portion of the overall quota set aside to allow occasional fishing in season by part-timers to meet cultural and ceremonial needs. Many of these part-timers fish only one to three times per year, but maintain expensive gear because of the cultural significance of participation and sharing their small catch. To develop catch shares in a way that meets National Standard 4 and the Council's FEP objective for “sustained community participation” will require much better data on both the recreational/subsistence sectors and the commercial sector than currently exists. That research should not only consider participation and catch histories, perhaps through acceptance of voluntarily kept personal logbooks, but also information on motivation to fish and catch distribution and sharing. The Hawaii based longline fleet is the most commercially valuable and important sector and its potential for consideration for catch shares is described elsewhere in this issue. Activity in the offshore handline, mixed gear, shortline fishery fluctuates dramatically and portions of it expand when there is economic downturn in the land-based economy. The offshore handline, mixed gear, shortline fishery expanded from the daytime “Palu Ahi” and night-time “Ika Shibi” nearshore handline fisheries and boats have been specifically designed and built for it. YFT and BET along with mahi mahi are targeted at the Offshore NOAA weather buoys and Cross Seamount. Chumming attracts “surface rushes” and fish are caught with pole and line and single handline along with “short lines” less than 1 nautical mile in length. The shortline gear does not meet the legal definition of longline gear so this fishery is not as well monitored or regulated as the longline fishery [24]. The mix of YFT and BET in the catches is not well documented historically because of initial species identification problems. The early history of this fishery is also not well documented, so creating a catch shares management program for the fishery could be considered, but a clear allocation of quota and better data on participation and catch histories would be needed to do catch shares equitably and effectively. A component of this fishery also has expanded recently by placing deepwater anchored private fish aggregation devices (PFADs) in a range from 15–60 miles offshore. The investment in the PFADs, especially if they are instrumented, is substantial and significant secrecy exists as to their location, catch rates, etc. It is likely that there is underreporting, since the state reporting requirements are by relatively large statistical grid areas. BET can be caught by trolling near these offshore PFADs, but the focus is on handline and pole and line gear. Separating the BET and YFT components of the catches, particularly for smaller fish remains problematic. To the extent that the PFAD or “projects” fishery can be separated from the near shore handline and troll fishery, and better data on participation and catch history developed, then it might be considered for catch shares development. But it should be noted that fishermen shift
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between the two locations and gear types regularly and sometimes in the same trip. Troll and handline fishing also often occurs on the same trip [25], so a clear separation into potential “sectors” would be difficult. The nearshore handline fishery targets yellowfin and other pelagics at known locations of aggregations (koa) and the state fish aggregation devices(FADs) which were intended to reduce search time and fuel costs. Small BET tuna are occasionally landed on the state FADs but are easily confused with YFT confounding the catch statistics. The state buoys are frequently fished by occasional “weekend warriors” who fish part time commercially, recreationally and for food. Most of these boats range from 16– 28 ft and are set up for trolling and target a mix of gamefish including YFT, mahi mahi, ono and marlin. Estimates of the total number of participating boats on the recreational and subsistence side vary greatly, since captains and crew need to be commercially licensed but boats don't need to be commercially registered. There is a widespread customary pattern of taking visiting relatives and friends fishing, whether they are licensed or not and whether or not they participate in the new MRIP federal National Saltwater Angler Registry. Historic data on participation and catch histories that could contribute to a catch shares program is quite poor though it may improve through ongoing MRIP redesign. Some of these small vessels participate in tournaments and Hawaii has a number of large prestigious and small local style tournaments [26–28]. Some tournament sportfishing now includes catch and release of marlin, but post hooking mortality rates are poorly known. Many clubs often use donated marlin for smoking and as fund raisers, and some clubs target marlin for that purpose. Hawaii, and, for that matter, the rest of the Pacific region has a long cultural tradition of eating marlin, so that national efforts to legislatively block sales of marlin are widely perceived as a “recreational grab” of a culturally important edible species that could be “wasted” through “catch and release”. Tournament fishing includes a mix of motivations and some part time commercial fishermen do fish in tournaments. The mix of commercial/noncommercial captains and crew participating in tournaments and the proportions of the catch are not well known. Tournaments are important both for the tourist industry, the small boat sector and the charter boat sector, and related businesses and tournament catch records can be mined as a data source [29]. The charter boat sector is also economically important, and having flexible access to fishing opportunities contributes to Hawaii's tourism image and promotion. Charter captains are commercially licensed and expected to report all catches. Enforcement of state reporting provisions has recently improved yet participation histories are incomplete. BET are not a major target or common catch but YFT and other pelagics are. The Hawaii State Constitution and the legislative mandates it provides are considered by some to guarantee free access to fishery resources in state waters.3 Fishing in state waters is regulated, however, by legislative action and the state administrative rules procedures. Open access and the continuation of fishing opportunities is widely perceived to be crucial to the maintenance of the cultural traditions associated with fishing and fish sharing [30] by all ethnic groups. Preliminary discussion of catch shares through a series of fishermen's meetings held over Summer 2010 suggests strong opposition to catch shares programs for the small boat fisheries in Hawaii. Catch shares may be appropriate yet remain problematic for the longline fisheries and perhaps for the commercial sector of
3
ARTICLE 11, Section 6, Hawaii State Constitution reads “All fisheries in the sea waters of the State not included in any fishpond, artificial enclosure, or statelicensed mariculture operation shall be free to the public.”
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the Hawaii Bottomfish fishery. They could even be explored for the offshore handline fishery should that fishery expand significantly. Much better data and a demonstrated need for effort reduction or catch controls is needed before catch shares are given serious consideration for the rest of the nearshore small boat fisheries in Hawaii.
5. Conclusions Catch share programs are another tool in the manager's toolbox, but they are not a solution for all fisheries, as has been noted in the new NOAA Policy on “Catch Shares”[1]. There are legitimate philosophical objections to catch shares [31,32]. There are practical and cultural objections as well, especially in the initial allocations and management system details. In this author's view, there is a difference between being a firm believer and being a true believer in catch shares. The former will tend to give careful analysis of the appropriateness of catch shares for particular fisheries, sectors and communities. The latter will tend to ignore or override objections and may even proselytize. As with any effort or catch limitation, the devil is in the details of the initial allocation. Without good catch and effort data on all of the participants in a fishery, as well as their motivations to fish and their patterns of fish sharing, it is difficult to imagine how a truly equitable catch shares program could be developed for the small boat fisheries in the context of local cultural style and beliefs in all three archipelagoes. Any such program should meet National Standard 4 and the Council's FEP objectives noted above. Social research needs for each archipelago have been noted above. A structured social and economic research program focused on fishermen's participation, ideas about future participation, motivations to fish and to share and patterns of fish distribution is needed to characterize the small boat fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. What is generally known supports the argument presented here that Western Pacific fishermen are generally motivated to fish in order to “share their catches” in culturally meaningful ways, not to “catch their share” in a way that competitively excludes others from the cultural experience of fishing and giving and sharing fish.
Acknowledgements Support for ethnographic interviewing and survey research carried out in the 1980s and 1990s came from a research contract with the WPRFMC for work in American Samoa and from the Pelagic Fisheries Research Program at the University of Hawaii Manoa for work in American Samoa and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. The author thanks the directors of the local marine resource management agencies: Henry Sesepesara, Ray Tulafono and Richard Seman and the staff members of those agencies who helped support the research projects. The author also acknowledges that opportunities provided by service on the SSC and opportunities to attend Council meetings and to talk with fishermen, have helped to develop the position taken in this paper. The conclusions and views expressed here are those of the author and do not reflect any official position of NOAA Fisheries, the Council, or State, Commonwealth or Territorial authorities. References [1] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA catch share policy; 2010. 〈http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/domes_fish/catchshare/docs/ noaa_cs_policy.pdf〉. [2] Severance, C. Communities and fisheries of the Western Pacific. In: The Community Development Quota Program in Alaska and lessons for the
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[17] Levine A, Allen S. American Samoa as a fishing community. NOAA Technical Memorandum. NOAA-TM-NMFS-PIFSC-19; 2009. [18] Holmes L. Samoan village then and now.New York: Henry Holt and Co; 1991. [19] Franco R. Samoan perceptions of work: moving up and moving around. AMS Press; 1991. [20] Severance C, Franco R, Hamnett M, Anderson C, Aitaoto F. Effort triggers, fish flow, and customary exchange in American Samoa and the Northern Marianas: Critical human dimensions of western Pacific fisheries. Pacific Science 2013;67(3):383–93. [21] Pinhey T, Rubinstein D, Vaughn S. Fishing and fiestas in Guam, an exploratory note on the reinforcement of cultural traditions. Pacific Studies 2006;3 (4):74–8229 2006;3(4):74–82. [22] Allen S, Bartram P. Guam as a fishing community. Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Administrative Report. H-08-01. [23] Hamnett M, et. al. Coordinated socio-cultural investigation of pelagic fishermen in the Northern Marianas Islands. n.d. Draft Report submitted to the WPRFMC, Honolulu. [24] Glazier E. Report on historic and contemporary patterns of change in Hawaiibased pelagic handline fishing operations. Final Report. SOEST 09-01, JIMAR Contribution 09-370; 2009. [25] Glazier E. Hawaiian fishermen.Belmont CA: Wadsworth-Thompson; 2007. [26] Severance C. Big fish from small boats: challenge, competition and camaraderie in Hawaii small-scale trolling tournaments. In: M Miller et al., Eds. Proceedings of the 1998 Pacific Island gamefish tournament symposium. Honolulu, WPRFMC; 2001. [27] Miller ML, et al. Proceedings of the 1998 Pacific Island gamefish tournament symposium. Honolulu, WPRFMC; 2001. [28] Schultz J et al. Pelagic fishing tournaments and clubs in Hawaii; 2006. SOEST 06- 02. JIMAR Contribution 06-361. [29] Curran D, et al. Recreational metadata: using tournament data to describe a poorly documented pelagic fishery; 2006. SOEST 06-03. JIMAR Contribution 06-363. [30] Glazier E. Supply, demand and distribution of pelagic seafood on Oahu: select results from the PFRP seafood distribution project. PFRP 2009;14(1):13–7. [31] Bromley D. Abdicating responsibility: the deceits of fisheries policy. Fisheries 2009;34:280–302. [32] Macinko S, Bromley D. Who owns America's fisheries? Washington D.C.: Island Press; 2002.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol
Sharing the catch or catching the shares: Catch shares for the western Pacific region? Craig Severance n Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii at Hilo, Hilo, Hawaii 96720 4091, USA
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Available online 13 September 2013
The applicability of catch shares programs is evaluated for the various fisheries of the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council region in each of the archipelagoes. Implementation of Catch Shares programs in the region is problematic, but would require better data to be done fairly and equitably. Catch shares are currently under initial consideration for the Hawaii and American Samoa longline fisheries and the Hawaii Deep 7 bottomfish fishery. It is argued that current conditions in all the other small boat fisheries in the region make them inappropriate for catch shares management. Overfishing and the “race for fish” are not yet an issue for these fisheries and some are underdeveloped. Catch share programs can cause significant negative social consequences for Western Pacific communities because data on fishermen's participation, catch histories, and motivations to fish for cultural needs is not adequate for any initial allocation scheme to be developed equitably. The prevailing Western Pacific cultural value of sharing the fish by gifting portions, sharing the catch widely and sharing fishing opportunities widely is in clear conflict with the individualized commercial profit motive philosophy of fisheries that are appropriate for catch shares. The small boat fisheries lack adequate monitoring and enforcement, and do not have a total allowable catch or quota. Nor do they usually have a demonstrated need for one. Preliminary community outreach by Council staff and community discussion of catch shares shows a general lack of information yet a potential for strong resistance to the imposition of catch shares. & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Catch shares Western Pacific Customary exchange
1. Introduction The Honolulu Catch Shares Workshop was held in response to the NOAA initiative to support the development of “Catch Shares” programs wherever they are considered to be an appropriate management tool [1]. The workshop brought together fisheries economists with experience with catch share programs and others with in depth understanding of the nature of the fisheries managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) (hereafter the Council) and the respective state, territorial, and international agencies of the region. Discussion was lively and the workshop ended on a comment offered by a Council Scientific and Statistical Committee (SSC) member: “Educate us but do not proselytize us”. This discussion paper considers the appropriateness of catch shares programs for the small boat fisheries in the Western Pacific region, briefly sketches the various small boat fisheries, and notes which fisheries may be appropriate for further discussion of catch shares, and which fisheries seem to be clearly inappropriate for catch share programs. It draws from a fisheries anthropology
n
Tel.: +1 8089351734; fax: +1 8089747737. E-mail address: [email protected]
0308-597X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.08.002
perspective rather than a fisheries economics perspective. It also draws from the author's long-term experience in the region developed through service on the Western Pacific Council's SSC and through informal interviewing and participant observation in the fisheries. It highlights the importance of equitable allocation, open participation, and the sharing of fish. It notes the cultural need for freely given fish for cultural and ceremonial occasions in ways that contribute to social solidarity and cultural continuity in the fishing communities of the Western Pacific region. It argues that “Sharing the Catch” in culturally appropriate ways is central to the lifestyles of fishing communities in the Western Pacific and that “Catching the Shares” could change them significantly. 1.1. Data adequacy The fisheries in the Western Pacific are generally different than U.S. mainland areas where catch shares have been utilized. Western Pacific “fishing communities” encompass entire islands and archipelagoes [2] and most of our fishermen believe in a widespread sharing of fish and fishing opportunities rather than in a narrow sharing of fishing privileges allocated to a few fishermen. Most are concerned about providing continuing opportunities for new entry for their children and grandchildren, extended family
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members and others. [3]. Many are part-timers who fish to give and to share as much as they fish for a profit motive. There is a blend of commercial, recreational and subsistence motivations. There is not usually a “race for fish”, and effort is often triggered by cultural and ceremonial needs. Post-landing catch distribution or “Fish Flow” through networks and sometimes through “customary exchange” sustains the health, food security and cultural strength and continuity of local communities [4]. The significance of fishing, and being able to continue fishing to meet cultural needs and subsistence by many of the small boat fishermen in the region cannot be overstated, and for some it is actively considered an indigenous right.
1.2. Existing management Only three of our current fisheries operate under a total allowable catch (TAC) or quota, which is prerequisite to the development of any catch share program. They are the three fisheries selected by NOAA for initial consideration for catch shares development. Two, the Hawaii and American Samoa pelagic longline fleets operate under limited entry and aggregate catch limits or quotas imposed by international agreement for two of the target species, bigeye tuna (BET), and yellowfin tuna (YFT). These two fisheries may appear closer to the image of industrial scale fisheries than other important fisheries in the Western Pacific region. However even these fisheries include some relatively small vessels and family- and extended family-based owner operators. The impact of these fleets on the overall stock condition of BET and YFT and other Pelagic Fisheries Ecosystem Plan (FEP) Management Unit species is small compared to international effort (estimated at less than 4–5%) [5], and to U. S. purse seine effort, which is managed not by the Council but under the South Pacific Tuna Treaty and now through the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC) in the Western Pacific and by the InterAmerican Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) in the Eastern Pacific. The third fishery proposed by NMFS for discussion of possible catch shares is the Main Hawaiian Islands Bottomfish fishery which operates under a commercial quota and a recreational bag limit for the “deep 7” species1 (1), as well as a system of state bottomfish restricted fishing areas (BRFA) where fishing for “deep 7” bottomfish is prohibited. This fishery is currently co-managed by the Council and the State of Hawaii because the primary grounds overlap state and federal waters. Effective and sustainable bottomfish Limited Entry programs existed for two zones in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands until 2010, when that fishery was closed as the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument was developed. Even for these three fisheries, adoption of a catch shares management regime that is fair and equitable is problematic. [6–9]. Development of catch shares programs for most of the other small boat fisheries in the U.S. Pacific Islands region is unnecessary, impractical, culturally inappropriate, and likely to be resisted by fishermen. There is not enough data to establish catch shares in an equitable fashion that meets the intent of National Standard 4 “that such allocation shall be fair and equitable…and that no particular individual, entity or corporation acquires an excessive share” [10]. These fisheries do not operate under quotas and there is limited to quite inadequate data on effort, participation and catch histories. They have generally remained open access, and some are clearly underdeveloped. The small boat fisheries are generally not approaching MSY for most of their target species. 1 The Deep 7 include: ehu (Etelis carbunculus), gindai (Pristipomoides zonatus), kalekale (Pristipomoides sieboldii), hapuupuu (Epinephelus quernus), onaga (Etelis corsucans), opakapaka (Pristipomoides filamentosus) and lehi (Aphareus rutilans).
Annual catch limits are in the process of development for the other small boat fisheries, but it is generally anticipated that the limits will be significantly higher than current catches [11]. The development of catch shares programs for any of the small boat fisheries would require establishment of limited entry and quota systems for multiple targeted species, much better fishery history data, and a clear need for catch controls such as a race for fish as fishermen approach MSY for particular species in the fishery. It should be noted, however, that limited entry has been considered and evaluated for the Hawaii offshore handline/shortline/mixed gear fishery a number of times in the past, and a control date of June 2, 2005 exists for that fishery and for all Hawaii small boat pelagic fisheries should need for a limited entry program or other catch controls develop. It is not clear whether the Conservation and Management Measures (CMM) currently adopted by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission2 for BET and YFT or those that may be adopted in the future will directly affect the small boat commercial, recreational, subsistence mixed handline, troll and charter fisheries that operate solely within the U.S. EEZ. These are best understood as “artisanal” fisheries since vessel sizes range from 16–45 ft. and they generally operate within 10-30 miles from shore within the Hawaii EEZ. The Council made a decision to utilize the international exemption clause and adopt or set Annual Catch Limits (ACL) for pelagic species that reflect quotas that might be imposed by international management on the larger scale commercial fleets. The ability of the SSC and the Council to develop ACLs for important pelagic species is limited by the lack of reliable stock assessment and life history data for many of them. This decision means that stock assessments developed by the Oceanic Fisheries Program (OFP) of the Secretariat for the Pacific Community for the WCPFC could be applied to set both ACLs and Accountability Measures (AM) for the larger scale fisheries. How the overall ACLs might affect or be applied or allocated between the somewhat larger scale longline fleets and the smaller in catch but potentially much larger in number of participants in the small boat fleets is a significant challenge. As they develop ACLs for other species such as bottomfish and coral reef species the SSC and Council are also faced with significant challenges. Commercial catch records, life history and habitat data exist for some but not most species, and catch and effort data for recreational and subsistence fishermen is inadequate. The Council has determined that recreational data on effort and catch used in statistical estimations from the current Hawaii Marine Recreational fisheries Statistical Survey is not adequate for management, especially for potential allocation decisions. Revisions to the Marine Recreational Information Program MRIP are ongoing but they will only be in effect for Hawaii, not for the rest of the region and will take some time to implement and evaluate. The WPRFMC was the first council to develop an ecosystembased Fishery Management Plan and that plan for coral reef species was faced with the complex issue of managing a fishery with very large numbers of species and species groups and limited information about most of them. The Council now operates with place-based archipelagic Fisheries Ecosystem Plans (FEP) for all non-pelagics in each archipelago in the Council's jurisdiction. An important feature of the archipelagic FEPs is an emphasis on community-based management and an integration of traditional and local ecological knowledge into the management process. The Council has a single Pelagics FEP for all five parts of its jurisdiction.
2 WCPFC Conservation and Management Measure (CMM) 2008-01 www. WCPFC/int
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1.3. Management goals and cultural norms All of the Council's FEPs include the same general objectives and the two most relevant to this discussion are: to maintain biologically diverse and productive marine ecosystems and foster the long term sustainable use of marine resources in an ecologically and culturally sensitive manner through use of a science based ecosystem approach to resource management and to encourage and provide for the sustained and substantive participation of local communities in the exploration, development, conservation and management of marine resources [12]. There are also special provisions in the reauthorized MagnusonStevens Act (MSRA) to support indigenous Pacific Islander participation in and development of Western Pacific fisheries. Assigning catch shares to such “indigenous fishing communities” or smaller local fishing communities may appear to be a simple task, but these communities are not simply place based but are rather diasporic. Many local indigenous people have relatives residing elsewhere who return regularly to participate in cultural events and to participate in fishing as indigenous right and practice.
2. American Samoa Archipelago The American Samoa FEP covers bottomfish, coral reef species, crustaceans, and precious corals. Many of the species in these categories can be found on reefs and offshore banks in the EEZ. The most important species other than pelagics in American Samoa are shallow and deepwater bottomfish. A small export fishery for deepwater snappers developed in the 1980s with subsidized airfreight but was not commercially viable without airfreight subsidies [13]. There continues to be limited airfreight out of American Samoa, so significant levels of fresh fish exports are not currently practical. There is relatively little pressure on the bottomfish stocks and current exploitation rates are well below estimated MSY for the stock complex. American Samoa imports some fresh bottomfish and coral reef fish from neighboring (Independent) Samoa to meet local demand and local cultural needs. American Samoa pelagic fisheries are covered under the Pelagics FEP. A troll fishery developed in the 1950s and expanded through the 1980s slowly as the alia fleet developed. The original alias were small 28 ft outboard-powered aluminum catamarans that served as inexpensive multipurpose vessels that could switch from trolling to bottomfishing and small scale longlining. They had limited range and capacity for holding fish and targeted a mixed bag of troll fish that included YFT and skipjack tuna, as well as Mahi-mahi, and Ono, and occasional marlin. There is also a small sportfishing fleet that includes some larger monohulls and catamarans, but no active charter fishery. A few trollers had on land freezers and when their freezers were full of skipjack, those fish were delivered to the canneries [14]. Skipjack tuna are one of the most culturally significant fishes in American Samoa and they are frequently distributed with formal ceremonial protocols at important cultural and ceremonial events [15]. BET are rarely caught by trolling but became a small portion of the catch as small scale longlining targeting of albacore began developing on alias in the mid 1990s. The original alia longliners developed this fishery using manually operated reels and setting 2–3 miles of line and 250–300 hooks. As the alia fishery developed the longlines were set up to 10 miles in length and the number of hooks averaged 400 per set. Fresh albacore were initially delivered iced to the canneries the following morning and then in frozen form as this fishery developed and expanded rapidly in the latter half of the 1990s. Potentially valuable BET landed as incidental
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catch in this fishery often go into local distribution channels because of the lack of airfreight capacity. Because of the rapid expansion of this fishery and the development of both “superalias” (40–45 ft. in length) and the import of larger monohulls, a limited entry program was developed in 2005. That program was designed to encourage fishermen to move up to larger and safer vessels and utilized a complex range of four vessel size classes. There has been new entry, both Samoan and nonSamoan into this fleet and catches and catch rates have fluctuated significantly as has active fleet size and composition. The American Samoa longline fishery has high hook densities, and concerns have been expressed over the potential for localized depletion of albacore stocks. There is evidence, however, that Albacore population densities may be strongly influenced by the South Equatorial Current and Countercurrent and local oceanographic conditions [16]. The direction of and future development of the American Samoa longline fleet is unclear. Cyclones and tsunami have contributed to fleet size fluctuations as have fluctuations in local abundance of albacore. The future of access to local processing through the canneries or the new tuna loining and processing facility remains uncertain. Albacore catches do not appear to be approaching MSY and incidental catches of BET and YFT when the fleet was at its highest numbers of vessels were far below the WCPFC quotas for those species for the territory. Access to the EEZ's of neighboring countries such as the Cook Islands has occurred, but future of access is also uncertain. Future expansion of the fishery, especially if a swordfish component could be developed might lead to a need for further effort controls or catch controls. While the fishery has operated with federal logbooks for some time, the history of the early years of development by the original highliners is not well documented. Some social research has been done on the fleet and the American Samoa fishing community [17], but more social research into Samoan attitudes, values and participation and more active outreach and education about the social and economic implications of catch shares are needed before proposing any additional management programs. Samoan culture is strengthened, perpetuated and sustained by active pride and participation in Fa'asamoa (the Samoan way). This is based on communal control and management of resources through the Aiga (a bilateral extended family grouping somewhat like a corporation), the Matai (elected chief of the Aiga), and the chiefly title system. Matai manage the collection, distribution and consumption of resources (including fish and sometimes money earned from fish) for the benefit of the Aiga. Untitled men and women serve the Matai and the Matai in turn serve higher level titles. Tautua (service) is central to the title system and to the practice and maintenance of Samoan cultural identity [18,19]. Fish are expected at many cultural ceremonies. Fish flow upward through customary exchange [4] and there are a number of named transactions where fish is freely given, or exchanged for a reduced price both because of and in order to maintain the social relations between fisherman and fish receiver [20].
3. Marianas Archipelago The Marianas Archipelago FEP covers Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, CNMI and generally their fisheries could well be considered underdeveloped. There is active bottomfishing for deepwater and shallow water snappers and grouper on the slopes of offshore banks in both parts of the archipelago and potential for expansion in the northern islands in CNMI. Some concerns have been expressed about the potential for overexploitation of some culturally significant species in the shallow water bottomfish complex. Preliminary analyses of
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recorded catch to estimated biomass ratios for the non-pelagic species suggest that exploitation rates are generally quite low. More active deepwater bottomfish fisheries have been conducted in the past, but those fisheries were not consistently monitored and the history of participation is not well documented. Distance and weather make expansion of the northern island fisheries problematic, though the potential for fisheries development there has cultural significance for the indigenous Chamorro and Carolinian or Refaluwasch people. There are also small but active charter fleets in both parts of the archipelago and tourism is an important part of both economies. Fishing activity and tourism both fluctuate significantly with local and international economic conditions and fish imports are significant for the tourism market. Much of the local small boat fleet fishes for subsistence, recreation and for cultural and social needs, and fishing for local fiestas continues to be important to the indigenous people [21]. Experimental tuna longlining began on Guam in the 1950s but the fishery never expanded and there is currently only one training vessel operating part-time under the Council's Community Development Program. Four large longliners recently started operating in the CNMI but it is unclear whether that activity will expand. The U.S. EEZ around the CNMI is considerably larger than that around Guam. Skipjack tuna resources appear to be substantial, but the current level of BET and YFT harvest is quite small relative to the assigned WCPFC quotas so these fisheries could be considered underdeveloped. Longlining, deep slope bottomfishing and charter trolling all have the potential for some expansion, so they need to be carefully monitored for potential need for some catch or effort controls. While some social and economic research has been conducted [22,23], much more is needed, and it needs to focus on motivation, participation, fleet dynamics, and cultural patterns of fish distribution. Better monitoring and more outreach and education about the potential impacts of catch share programs is required before they are given serious consideration for the Marianas Archipelago. Analysis of local understandings and attitudes about catch shares is also important for any such program to be implemented successfully. Management needs to be community-based to be effective in the Marianas context. 3.1. Customary exchange In American Samoa and the Marianas, indigenous fishermen are expected to provide fish for a variety of cultural ceremonies and this fish flows upward through the communities through customary exchange in ways that provide cultural continuity, solidarity and food security. The SSC and the Council have taken the position that when cash enters these exchanges, often as a way of offsetting costs, the cash exchange should be considered noncommercial. It should not mean that the fishing activity is determined to be commercial based on the MSRA definition of the catch “entering into commerce through sale, trade or barter” [10]. These “customary exchanges” do not entail a profit motive and there is not a calculated equivalency or immediate return to the exchange. Instead the fishermen's generosity contributes the sharing of fish that enters the community through social networks that are strengthened and affirmed by the acts of exchange [4].
4. Hawaii Hawaii's longline and “deep 7” bottomfish fisheries are under consideration for the potential for developing catch shares programs. The “deep 7” bottomfish fishery targets snappers and one grouper species in depth ranges of 60–140 fathoms. New stock
assessments are expected bi-annually, and this fishery now operates under an annual catch target (ACT), set below the ACL. There is a small core group of full-time bottomfish fishermen who catch a significant amount of the overall quota. There is a much larger group of very part-time commercial, recreational and subsistence fishermen who fish occasionally and often have lower catch rates. Successful targeting of these fish requires high quality depth sounders, GPS, electric or hydraulic reels, knowledge of gear and grounds, boat handling skills and good weather. The season is adjusted to be open during the peak season of cultural need for “red fish” for Christmas and New Year's celebrations, especially for the Native Hawaiian and Asian populations. Many people only fish for these species when there is a cultural or ceremonial need, and the opportunity to continue to fish successfully for these species is important. Should catch shares be developed for this fishery, there needs to be an adequate allocation of a portion of the overall quota set aside to allow occasional fishing in season by part-timers to meet cultural and ceremonial needs. Many of these part-timers fish only one to three times per year, but maintain expensive gear because of the cultural significance of participation and sharing their small catch. To develop catch shares in a way that meets National Standard 4 and the Council's FEP objective for “sustained community participation” will require much better data on both the recreational/subsistence sectors and the commercial sector than currently exists. That research should not only consider participation and catch histories, perhaps through acceptance of voluntarily kept personal logbooks, but also information on motivation to fish and catch distribution and sharing. The Hawaii based longline fleet is the most commercially valuable and important sector and its potential for consideration for catch shares is described elsewhere in this issue. Activity in the offshore handline, mixed gear, shortline fishery fluctuates dramatically and portions of it expand when there is economic downturn in the land-based economy. The offshore handline, mixed gear, shortline fishery expanded from the daytime “Palu Ahi” and night-time “Ika Shibi” nearshore handline fisheries and boats have been specifically designed and built for it. YFT and BET along with mahi mahi are targeted at the Offshore NOAA weather buoys and Cross Seamount. Chumming attracts “surface rushes” and fish are caught with pole and line and single handline along with “short lines” less than 1 nautical mile in length. The shortline gear does not meet the legal definition of longline gear so this fishery is not as well monitored or regulated as the longline fishery [24]. The mix of YFT and BET in the catches is not well documented historically because of initial species identification problems. The early history of this fishery is also not well documented, so creating a catch shares management program for the fishery could be considered, but a clear allocation of quota and better data on participation and catch histories would be needed to do catch shares equitably and effectively. A component of this fishery also has expanded recently by placing deepwater anchored private fish aggregation devices (PFADs) in a range from 15–60 miles offshore. The investment in the PFADs, especially if they are instrumented, is substantial and significant secrecy exists as to their location, catch rates, etc. It is likely that there is underreporting, since the state reporting requirements are by relatively large statistical grid areas. BET can be caught by trolling near these offshore PFADs, but the focus is on handline and pole and line gear. Separating the BET and YFT components of the catches, particularly for smaller fish remains problematic. To the extent that the PFAD or “projects” fishery can be separated from the near shore handline and troll fishery, and better data on participation and catch history developed, then it might be considered for catch shares development. But it should be noted that fishermen shift
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between the two locations and gear types regularly and sometimes in the same trip. Troll and handline fishing also often occurs on the same trip [25], so a clear separation into potential “sectors” would be difficult. The nearshore handline fishery targets yellowfin and other pelagics at known locations of aggregations (koa) and the state fish aggregation devices(FADs) which were intended to reduce search time and fuel costs. Small BET tuna are occasionally landed on the state FADs but are easily confused with YFT confounding the catch statistics. The state buoys are frequently fished by occasional “weekend warriors” who fish part time commercially, recreationally and for food. Most of these boats range from 16– 28 ft and are set up for trolling and target a mix of gamefish including YFT, mahi mahi, ono and marlin. Estimates of the total number of participating boats on the recreational and subsistence side vary greatly, since captains and crew need to be commercially licensed but boats don't need to be commercially registered. There is a widespread customary pattern of taking visiting relatives and friends fishing, whether they are licensed or not and whether or not they participate in the new MRIP federal National Saltwater Angler Registry. Historic data on participation and catch histories that could contribute to a catch shares program is quite poor though it may improve through ongoing MRIP redesign. Some of these small vessels participate in tournaments and Hawaii has a number of large prestigious and small local style tournaments [26–28]. Some tournament sportfishing now includes catch and release of marlin, but post hooking mortality rates are poorly known. Many clubs often use donated marlin for smoking and as fund raisers, and some clubs target marlin for that purpose. Hawaii, and, for that matter, the rest of the Pacific region has a long cultural tradition of eating marlin, so that national efforts to legislatively block sales of marlin are widely perceived as a “recreational grab” of a culturally important edible species that could be “wasted” through “catch and release”. Tournament fishing includes a mix of motivations and some part time commercial fishermen do fish in tournaments. The mix of commercial/noncommercial captains and crew participating in tournaments and the proportions of the catch are not well known. Tournaments are important both for the tourist industry, the small boat sector and the charter boat sector, and related businesses and tournament catch records can be mined as a data source [29]. The charter boat sector is also economically important, and having flexible access to fishing opportunities contributes to Hawaii's tourism image and promotion. Charter captains are commercially licensed and expected to report all catches. Enforcement of state reporting provisions has recently improved yet participation histories are incomplete. BET are not a major target or common catch but YFT and other pelagics are. The Hawaii State Constitution and the legislative mandates it provides are considered by some to guarantee free access to fishery resources in state waters.3 Fishing in state waters is regulated, however, by legislative action and the state administrative rules procedures. Open access and the continuation of fishing opportunities is widely perceived to be crucial to the maintenance of the cultural traditions associated with fishing and fish sharing [30] by all ethnic groups. Preliminary discussion of catch shares through a series of fishermen's meetings held over Summer 2010 suggests strong opposition to catch shares programs for the small boat fisheries in Hawaii. Catch shares may be appropriate yet remain problematic for the longline fisheries and perhaps for the commercial sector of
3
ARTICLE 11, Section 6, Hawaii State Constitution reads “All fisheries in the sea waters of the State not included in any fishpond, artificial enclosure, or statelicensed mariculture operation shall be free to the public.”
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the Hawaii Bottomfish fishery. They could even be explored for the offshore handline fishery should that fishery expand significantly. Much better data and a demonstrated need for effort reduction or catch controls is needed before catch shares are given serious consideration for the rest of the nearshore small boat fisheries in Hawaii.
5. Conclusions Catch share programs are another tool in the manager's toolbox, but they are not a solution for all fisheries, as has been noted in the new NOAA Policy on “Catch Shares”[1]. There are legitimate philosophical objections to catch shares [31,32]. There are practical and cultural objections as well, especially in the initial allocations and management system details. In this author's view, there is a difference between being a firm believer and being a true believer in catch shares. The former will tend to give careful analysis of the appropriateness of catch shares for particular fisheries, sectors and communities. The latter will tend to ignore or override objections and may even proselytize. As with any effort or catch limitation, the devil is in the details of the initial allocation. Without good catch and effort data on all of the participants in a fishery, as well as their motivations to fish and their patterns of fish sharing, it is difficult to imagine how a truly equitable catch shares program could be developed for the small boat fisheries in the context of local cultural style and beliefs in all three archipelagoes. Any such program should meet National Standard 4 and the Council's FEP objectives noted above. Social research needs for each archipelago have been noted above. A structured social and economic research program focused on fishermen's participation, ideas about future participation, motivations to fish and to share and patterns of fish distribution is needed to characterize the small boat fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. What is generally known supports the argument presented here that Western Pacific fishermen are generally motivated to fish in order to “share their catches” in culturally meaningful ways, not to “catch their share” in a way that competitively excludes others from the cultural experience of fishing and giving and sharing fish.
Acknowledgements Support for ethnographic interviewing and survey research carried out in the 1980s and 1990s came from a research contract with the WPRFMC for work in American Samoa and from the Pelagic Fisheries Research Program at the University of Hawaii Manoa for work in American Samoa and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. The author thanks the directors of the local marine resource management agencies: Henry Sesepesara, Ray Tulafono and Richard Seman and the staff members of those agencies who helped support the research projects. The author also acknowledges that opportunities provided by service on the SSC and opportunities to attend Council meetings and to talk with fishermen, have helped to develop the position taken in this paper. The conclusions and views expressed here are those of the author and do not reflect any official position of NOAA Fisheries, the Council, or State, Commonwealth or Territorial authorities. References [1] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). NOAA catch share policy; 2010. 〈http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/domes_fish/catchshare/docs/ noaa_cs_policy.pdf〉. [2] Severance, C. Communities and fisheries of the Western Pacific. In: The Community Development Quota Program in Alaska and lessons for the
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