Shifting subsistence patterns from the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene: A regional Southeast Asian analysis

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Shifting subsistence patterns from the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene: A regional Southeast Asian analysis Rebecca K. Jonesa,∗, Philip J. Pipera, Colin P. Grovesa, Tuấn Nguyễn Anhb, Mai Huong Nguyễn Thib, Hảo Nguyễn Thịc, Trinh Hiep Hoangc, Marc F. Oxenhama a

School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Australia Anthropological and Palaeoenvironmental Department, Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi, Viet Nam c Department of Prehistoric Archaeology, Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, Hanoi, Viet Nam b

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Zooarchaeology Southeast Asia Principal component analysis Holocene Pleistocene Domestication

The emergence of agriculture in Mainland Southeast Asia appears to have resulted in a subsistence shift from hunting terrestrial and arboreal game to a combined hunting/animal management subsistence regime focused on the maintenance of pigs and dogs. These conclusions are currently based on nominal differences in vertebrate taxonomic composition observed at different archaeological sites. In this paper, we take a statistical approach to test whether hunter-gather and early agricultural subsistence economies really can be confidently distinguished based on the relative taxonomic composition of the recovered animal bone assemblages. A regional database of terrestrial and arboreal vertebrate faunas was created for 32 archaeological sites across Southeast Asia from the Terminal Pleistocene to the Late Holocene, and principal component analysis was performed. The resultant data indicates that terrestrial vertebrate taxonomic composition is a relatively strong indicator of the general subsistence base for the various archaeological sites studied and can be used to determine whether the inhabitants subsisted purely from hunting, or from a mixture hunting and animal management.

1. Introduction Throughout the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene in Southeast Asia (SEA), human subsistence economies underwent profound changes stimulated by climatic and environmental fluctuations and by the development of domesticated crops and animals. In hunter-gatherer assemblages from the Terminal Pleistocene to Mid Holocene, deer and bovids are the dominant mammalian taxa. During the Late Pleistocene there appears to have been a relatively strong focus on terrestrial vertebrate faunas in open woodland environments that existed across Southeast Asia. With the onset of the Holocene, there is an increase in arboreal taxa (felids, monkeys, viverrids) in faunal assemblages, which is argued to reflect the expansion of forested environments and a shift to specifically targeting arboreal taxa with projectile technologies (Piper et al., 2008; Barton et al., 2009; Piper and Rabett, 2009). In Island SEA (ISEA), a decline in large deer and bovids in favour of smaller arboreal taxa is perceivable in Niah Cave on Boreneo, and at Song Gupuh and Braholo Cave on Java (Morwood et al., 2008; Amano et al., 2015; Piper and Rabett, 2016). Conversely, at Lang Trang, Lang

Spean, and Hang Boi in Mainland SEA (MSEA) a decline in the hunting of large herbivores is not apparent (Vu The Long et al., 1996; Rabett et al., 2011; Forestier et al., 2015), and by the Mid Holocene they are still the predominant taxa in faunal assemblages at Con Co Ngua in North Vietnam and Dingsishan in South China (Lu, 2010; Zhang and Hung, 2012; Oxenham et al., 2018). By c. 4500–4000 BP, domesticated animals and crops were first introduced into the subsistence economy. Recent research indicates this can be seen in the shift to a dominance of domesticated or managed pigs in assemblages and the introduction of dogs (Jones, 2017; Piper, 2017). In northern Vietnam, most researchers believe this transition was initialised by a migration of agricultural groups that spread from the Yangtze into MSEA following rivers and the coastline (Bellwood and Oxenham, 2008; Matsumura et al., 2008, 2011; Piper et al., In press). This shift in subsistence economies from primarily hunting to an increased reliance on animal management can be seen in a comparison between the case study sites Con Co Ngua (CCN, hunter-gatherer) and Man Bac (MB, Neolithic, Jones, 2017). The practice of managing pigs and dogs is also visible in sites that are contemporaneous with MB: An

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R.K. Jones), [email protected] (P.J. Piper), [email protected] (C.P. Groves), [email protected] (T. Nguyễn Anh), [email protected] (M.H. Nguyễn Thi), [email protected] (H. Nguyễn Thị), [email protected] (T. Hiep Hoang), [email protected] (M.F. Oxenham). ∗

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.01.006 Received 17 September 2018; Received in revised form 29 November 2018; Accepted 4 January 2019 1040-6182/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Jones, R.K., Quaternary International, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.01.006

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Son and Rach Nui in South Vietnam (Bellwood et al., 2011; Oxenham et al., 2015), Ban Non Wat, Non Nok Tha, Ban Lum Khao, and Ban Chiang in Thailand (Higham 1975a, 2004; Higham and Kijngam, 1979; Kijngam, 2010), and Nagsabaran in the Philippines (Amano et al., 2013). Nevertheless, there seems to have been variable levels of social and economic integration of pigs and dogs across Southeast Asia with some communities, such as Rach Nui, maintaining a stronger reliance on hunting and gathering than those at MB, An Son, and Loc Giang (Bellwood et al., 2011; Oxenham, 2015; Oxenham et al., 2015; Piper, 2017; Piper et al., 2017). At Nagsabaran, in northern Luzon, it has been argued that domestic pigs were likely raised more for ritual purposes that for daily dietary needs (Amano et al., 2013). What is apparent at all these later Holocene sites, which is not evident in the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene, is the combination and relative abundance of pigs and dogs in the zooarchaeological record. This paper aims to determine the whether there are generalised regional trends in the taxonomic composition and structure of animal assemblages across SEA and to explore the degree and nature of variability in responses to the introduction of domestic animals. The primary goal is to determine whether the shift from hunting large terrestrial mammals and arboreal taxa to the management of pigs and dogs is an observable, and quantifiable pattern across faunal assemblages in SEA, spanning the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene. A further objective is to determine whether presumed hunter-gatherer sites and agricultural based sites can be clearly defined and separated based on differences in relative faunal composition. Finally, two sites are explored in detail, the Mid Holocene site Con Co Ngua and the Late Holocene site Man Bac in North Vietnam, in order to situate them within a wider regional and temporal context and help determine whether the perceivable shift in hunting (CCN) to animal management (MB) is reflective of a broader pattern. A regional database of faunal assemblages was compiled and principal component analysis (PCA) was used to assess any apparent patterns. This approach has yet to be used within the context of SEA, however, large-scale regional analyses have huge potential to contribute to our understanding of timing and nature of the transition from purely hunting to animal management across the region.

Fig. 1. Map of Southeast Asia and China showing sites used in meta-analysis and mentioned in text. Refer to Table 1 for site names. Map adapted from base map created by user Tonii∼commonswiki under a Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain license.

2. Archaeological context 2.1. Paleoenvironmental conditions

reflected in faunal diversity. Terrestrial and aquatic fauna in Southeast Asia are characteristic of subtropical and tropical zones. The diversity of fauna in Vietnam is reflective of its diverse environment and vegetation. Sterling et al. (2006, 128) detail more than 270 mammalian species and 850 bird species for Vietnam (Table S1),1 of which only a fraction is recovered in the archaeological record.

CCN and MB are situated within the karst limestone region of the Bac Bo plain in north Vietnam, approximately 25–30 km from the present coastline (Fig. 1). During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) the sea level was c. 120 m below present, which widely exposed the Sunda continental shelf of SEA (Tanabe et al., 2003, 2006; Hanebuth et al., 2009). Between c. 19,000–14,000 BP, the sea level rose profoundly impacting the biogeography as vast areas of land were inundated or exposed over the course of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene (Hanebuth et al., 2009). Following Walker et al. (2012), the Early/Mid Holocene divide is 8200 BP, and the Mid/Late Holocene divide is 4200 BP. In general, the Mid Holocene sea level highstand occurred between 7900 and 4500 BP along most equatorial coastlines (Long, 2001; Stattegger et al., 2013, 214). In North Vietnam, geological studies clearly show that the coastline during this period was located near modern day Hanoi (Masanari, 2005, 99). This is reflected in settlement patterns along the Red River delta, as Early Neolithic sites are generally located on higher land while later Neolithic sites are closer to the current shoreline (Funabiki et al., 2012). During the occupation of CCN and MB the sea would have been considerably closer to the sites, and paleoenvironmental studies indicate estuary environmental conditions (Sawada et al., 2011; Toizumi et al., 2011; Jones, 2017). The overall environmental picture from the Holocene is one of a great diversity in pollen taxa (Li et al., 2006a, 2006b) and this is

2.2. Con Co Ngua CCN was originally excavated in 1979/1980 by the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology in Hanoi and was recently re-excavated in March 2013 by a joint team from the Australian National University and the Institute in Hanoi. Radiocarbon (14C) dates on tooth enamel from human burials and faunal remains produced a minimum age range of between c. 6700 and 6200 cal. BP (Oxenham et al., 2018).2 This time frame aligns to the Da But period which saw an emergence of complex open-air hunter-gatherer sites across northern Vietnam, with close connections to the Dingsishan culture in southern China. A total of 272 human burials were excavated, the majority of which were placed in circular pits and positioned in a squatting or seated position, while 1 For a thorough summary of SEA fauna there are several useful manuals including: Lekagul and McNeely (1977) and Sterling et al. (2006). 2 Note, radiocarbon dates on tooth enamel should be treated as minimum dates, see Zazzo (2014) and Wood et al. (2016) for further details.

2

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others were buried flexed on the side. Material culture includes coarse grain pottery, stone adzes, and bone artefacts similar to contemporary Da But sites in Ha Nam and Thanh Hoa Provinces (see Oxenham et al., 2018 for a detailed overview of CCN). An early report of the faunal material by Vu The Long (1980) described water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), other bovids (Bovinae spp.), Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), and boar (Sus scrofa) as the mammalian taxa identified. Vu The Long (1980) tentatively suggested the water buffalo and pigs were of similar size to domesticated animals, which led Bui Vinh (1991) and Nguyen Viet (2005) to argue that CCN represents the first evidence for domesticated water buffalo, pig, and dog. However, these conclusions have been contested and recent zooarchaeological studies have brought into question the domestic status of these taxa (Jones, 2017; Oxenham et al., 2018). Rather, the site is clearly hunter-gatherer, with evidence for complex wild bovid-human interactions. The faunal assemblage is characterised by high proportions of water buffalo and deer as well as a diverse range of fauna from offshore, estuarine, wetland, and forested environments indicative of access to a wide variety of habitats (Oxenham et al., 2018). Notably, the presence of both hard-shell (Geoemydidae spp.) and soft-shell (Trionychidae spp.) turtles indicates still or slow-moving shallow fresh water and monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) and oriental small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinererus) imply nearby access to mangroves, swamps, or wetlands. Likewise, water buffalo require close proximity to fresh water (Hedges et al., 2008), and the dominance of this taxa in the assemblage signifies a particular exploitation and close proximity to aquatic resources.

used from published and some unpublished sources (Table S2). Following Lyman (2008, 6), a specimen is considered ‘identified’ if it was identified to a biological taxon and/or skeletal element. 3.2. Selection of data and maintaining data-quality We selected NISP values as the sole quantification method, as NISP is less affected by aggregation or interpretation than MNI or MNE (Lyman, 2008). It is also the main quantitative unit reported in the majority of published faunal assemblages. The main potential problem with NISP values is that specimens may suffer from interdependence; a NISP of 50 may actually represent one individual (Grayson, 1984; Lyman, 2008, 36–7). Other problems can be dealt with through careful consideration of recovery techniques and methodology. For instance, NISP varies inter-taxonomically because different taxa have different frequencies of skeletal elements. To help address these issues, only mammals were selected to maintain comparability between taxa. Although turtles are common taxa to SEA assemblages, their carapace and plastron are frequently highly fragmented, which greatly inflates the NISP count and makes MNI (minimum number of individuals) or MNE (minimum number of elements) counts difficult to interpret. Further, the majority of detailed published faunal reports focus on mammalian remains or dentition, which makes this taxonomic class the most appropriate and useful for comparative analyses. A total of eight mammalian families were selected to keep the NISP comparable between taxa: Bovinae, Suidae, Canidae, Cervidae, Cercopithecidae, Felidae, Viverridae and Mustelidae. These families are also the most common mammalian taxa that appear in SEA assemblages. Small mammals, such as murids, were excluded from analysis because excavation recovery techniques have likely greatly influence NISP values of these taxa. Once NISP values were collated, the squareroot of each NISP value was used in order to help eliminate differences in sample size (Table S3, see section 3.3 below and supplementary sections S2 and S3 for detailed discussion of methods). Although samples size is known to have a direct correlation with NISP and the number of taxa identified (NTAXA; Grayson, 1984; Lyman, 2008), this problem is avoided because the NTAXA has been controlled by selecting eight taxonomic families. Lastly, sites with < 100 total NISP were eliminated due to small sample size, to help maintain data quality. Finally, this data-set largely relies on the taxonomic identification and quantifications of numerous assemblages excavated from the late 1970s onwards. Therefore, some discrepancies in quality of analysis between assemblages is possible. One of the problems while creating the database that has restricted the number of assemblages used in this analysis is that older zooarchaeological studies often give basic descriptions or lists of taxa, rather than quantification. There is also a slight bias towards sites in the Mainland as opposed to Island Southeast Asia, as a result of more zooarchaeological studies and available data.

2.3. Man Bac MB is believed to be associated with the later Phung Nguyen period and is dated to c. 4000–3500 cal. BP, based on material culture and 14C dates of charcoal (Matsumura and Oxenham, 2011). Throughout the six years of excavations at MB, 99 human burials were excavated making it the largest burial site of this period in Southeast Asia (Matsumura and Oxenham, 2011, 2). The excavators presume that horticulture or agriculture was practiced to some extent, as substantial amounts of long grain rice phytoliths were found during the excavation (Willis and Oxenham, 2013). Oxenham and Matsumura (2011) argue MB represented a population undergoing major changes following the migration of agricultural groups of people from southern China into northern Vietnam. Preliminary faunal analyses by Sawada et al. (2011) and Toizumi et al. (2011) indicate that people were exploiting a diverse variety of faunal niches, including; forests, grasslands, watered lowlands, and marine sources. Sawada et al. (2011) tentatively concluded that it was ‘not improbable’ the MB pigs and dogs were in an early stage of domestication, but there was also continued hunting and fishing. There is clear biomorphometric evidence dogs were domesticated, and the age profiles of the pigs strongly suggest a managed population (Jones, 2017; see forthcoming). Thus, the faunal assemblage pattern from CCN to MB clearly indicates a subsistence shift between c. 6000–4000 BCE from hunter-gathering to a reliance on domesticated animals, supplemented by hunting and fishing. The current analysis comparing CCN and MB to other sites in SEA seeks to gain a greater understanding of how they fit within their wider regional and temporal context by assessing whether these patterns are visible on a broader scale.

3.3. Principal component analysis A total of 32 sites across SEA and China were selected for principal component analysis (Table 1, Table S2). Most of the zooarchaeological sites were treated as one assemblage, to avoid issues with interpreting dates or chronologies. The quality of the zooarchaeological analysis on the Braholo Cave assemblages means they could be separated into phases spanning the Late Pleistocene to the Early Holocene (Amano et al., 2015, 6–7). For the purposes of this study, Pacung and Sembiran were combined as one site, as they are contemporary and sit adjacent to one another (Fenner et al., 2017). The NISP for Ban Chiang only relates to one square as this is all the data that was published. Prior to PCA, the raw NISP values were transformed into squareroot values (Table S3). The use of log or square-root transformations prior to further analysis is common in PCA (Maadooliat et al., 2015), and Baxter (1994, 65) recommends square-roots or percentages for

3. Methods 3.1. The data-set A database of SEA sites was collected spanning the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene (Fig. 1; Table 1). Sites were selected to cover the proposed period of adoption and introduction of domesticated animals in SEA, and to provide faunal data that CCN and MB could be compared with. NISP values (number of identified specimens) were 3

China, Arid north

China, Arid north Tibet China, Henan China, Wei River Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam, Mekong delta Vietnam, Mekong delta Thailand, Gulf of Thailand Thailand, Khorat Plateau Thailand, Khorat Plateau Thailand, Khorat Plateau Thailand, Khorat Plateau Cambodia Philippines Indonesia, Bali

Miaozigou; Shihushan; Dabagou

Zhukaigou Karuo Xipo Wayaogou Con Co Ngua Man Bac An Son Rach Nui Khok Phanom Di

4

Phum Snay Nagsabaran Pacung & Sembiran

Ban Chiang

Ban Non Wat

Non Nok Tha

Ban Lum Khao

Wei River

Upper Yellow

Jiangzhai; Kangjia; Baijiacun

Qinweijia; Dahezhuang

Guangxi Upper Yellow

China, China, River China, River China,

7 18 21

3

5

4

5

16 11 15 14 1 1 9 9 6

17

14

13

10 12

20 8

Indonesia, Java Cambodia

Dingsishan Zhongri

2 2 19

Vietnam, Ninh Binh Vietnam, Thanh Hoa Malaysia, Borneo

Hang Boi Lang Trang Niah Cave sites: Lobang Hangus; West Mouth Braholo Cave Laang Spean

Map no

Location

Site

R CO CO

R

R

R

R

R R R R R/E R/E R/E R/E CO

R

R

R

R R

C C

C C C

Site type

Late Holocene: c. 500 BCE – 500 AD Late Holocene: c. 2200–1000 cal. BC and c. 500 cal. BCE–400 AD Late Holocene, Late Prehistoric Period: 2118–1968 to 2039–2023 cal. BP

Late Holocene: c. 1600 BCE to 505 BCE

Late Holocene: c. 1500 BCE to 600 BCE

Late Holocene: 3146 ± 30 to 2564 ± 30 cal. BP

Late Holocene: 3120 ± 50 to 3080 ± 50 cal. BP

Mid–Late Holocene: Jiangzhai c. 6800–4000 BP; Kangjia c. 4500–4000 BP; Mid Holocene: Baijiacun c. 7500–6250 BP Mid Holocene; Miaozigou c. 5800–5000 BP; Shihushan c. 6500–6400 BP; Dabagou c. 5800–5000 BP Mid–Late Holocene: c. 5000–3400 BP Mid–Late Holocene: c. 6000–3100 BP Mid Holocene: Middle Yangshao period c. 6000–5500 BCE Mid Holocene: 6500–6000 BP Mid Holocene: 6700–6200 cal. BP (minimum dates) Late Holocene: 4000–3500 cal. BP Late Holocene: c. 4410–3010 cal. BP Late Holocene: c. 3555–3265 cal. BP Late Holocene: c. 4000–2500 BP

Late Holocene: c. 4100–3900 BP

Late Pleistocene – Early Holocene: 25,798 ± 536 to 13,765 ± 156 cal. BP Terminal Pleistocene to Mid Holocene: 11,000 ± 1ka, 10,042 ± 43 to 5018 ± 29 cal. BP Mid Holocene: c. 7000–3000 BP Mid–Late Holocene: c. 5600–4000 BP

Terminal Pleistocene: 12,362 ± 97 to 10,631 ± 58 cal. BP Late Pleistocene Terminal Pleistocene: c. 13,500–12,500 BP, 13,745 ± 55 cal. BP

Period/Date

AG AG AG

AG

AG

AG

AG

Unknown Unknown AG AG HG AG AG AG/HG AG/HG

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

HG Unknown

HG HG

HG HG HG

Subsistence

Higham and Kijngam (1979, Table 1, NB this NISP is only for square 5); Higham et al. (2015, 9) Voeun (2008, 8, 22, and appendices) Amano (2013, 55) RKJ data; Fenner et al. (2017)

Kijngam (2010, 189); Higham et al. (2015, 10–11)

Higham (1975, 121, 135); Higham et al. (2014, 64)

Higham (2004, 160)

Flad et al. (2007, Table 1) Flad et al. (2007, Table 1) Ma (2005) Wang (2011) Jones (2017); Oxenham et al. (2018, 944) Jones (2017); Matsumura and Oxenham (2011) Bellwood et al. (2011) Oxenham et al. (2015) Grant and Higham (1991); West (1991)

Flad et al. (2007, Table 1)

Flad et al. (2007, Table 1)

Flad et al. (2007, Table 1)

Zhang and Hung (2012, 20) and Lu (2010, 98) Flad et al. (2007, Table 1)

Amano et al. (2015) Forestier et al. (2015, 198)

Rabett et al. (2011, 158) Vu The Long et al. (1996) Piper et al. (2008, 89)

Reference

Table 1 Summary of sites used in meta-analysis and mentioned in text. Site type: C = cave; R = riverine; E = estuary; CO = coastal. Subsistence base was allocated according to what excavators/authors have argued or left unknown: HG = hunter-gatherer; AG = agricultural/domesticated. NB, these categories are not strict and are part of the expectations being tested by the PCA. Published calibrated dates (cal. BP or cal. BC) have been noted.

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counted data. Square-root and log transformation prior to PCA helps standardise the data and decrease standard deviation. However, a recent paper by O'Hara and Kotze (2010) argued that log transformations should not be applied to count data, as it may produce more bias than using the raw data. They argued square-root transformation has a lower bias than any log-transformation, unless the mean is low (O'Hara and Kotze, 2010, 120). In order to test whether transformation of the data prior to PCA was affecting the results, three different PCA scenarios were run using raw NISP, log 10, and square-root values (see supplement sections S2 and S3). The overall pattern was very similar between scenarios, which implies transformation of the NISP data would not affect interpretations or conclusions (Tables S6–8). Ultimately, the most statistically robust and appropriate scenario was obtained by using square-root values, thus, the PCA results presented below are based on square-root values. Families of mammalian taxa were grouped together with no distinction between wild or domestic taxa within the family. For example, within Canidae there are several taxa that are common to SEA assemblages; Dhole, Grey Wolf, Golden Jackal, and domestic dog. The grouping of taxa into their families allowed for easier comparison between sites, but also eliminated some subjective interpretation of whether taxa could be considered ‘wild’ or ‘domestic’. This is similarly the case for Suidae, as there are several species and subspecies of endemic wild suids throughout SEA as well as introduced domestic pigs (Groves, 2007, 21). The combination of suids into Suidae in this study removes possible erroneous interpretations of wild or domestic pigs, especially for Early–Mid Holocene sites. Further, an important aim of this study to was test whether the data and methodological approach could work without preassigning the ‘wild’ or ‘domestic’ status of certain taxa. Based on previous archaeological research on the timing of the development of domesticated (or a mixture of managed and wild) taxa than in earlier phases of occupation (Jones, 2017; Piper, 2017). The methodology of PCA followed standard procedure outlined by Norman and Streiner (2014). Rotation was performed using varimax (Norman and Streiner, 2014, 217). SPSS and JMP were used for the initial explorative phase, and final statistical results were created using SPSS (Table S9). To create the plots PAST was used. Finally, it should be emphasised for clarity that only site names and NISP values (transformed into square-root values) were input into the PCA. Allocations of site type, period/date, or subsistence base (Table 1) were only used on an interpretive basis after the results were computed.

groups were assigned based on time period (i.e. Pleistocene, Early Holocene, Mid Holocene, Late Holocene), site type (i.e. cave, riverine, estuary, coastal), and subsistence base (hunter-gatherer, agricultural/ domestic, unknown) (Table 1). There is a clear distinction between sites with a large abundance of viverrids, monkeys and felids (C1), compared to sites with higher proportions of pigs and canids (C3) (Table 2). Comparing components 1 and 3 based on site type, time period/date, and subsistence base produces overall similar results (Figures 2A–C). Generally, there is a positive correlation with Pleistocene sites, cave environments, and hunter-gatherer subsistence, versus Mid to Late Holocene sites, riverine/estuary environments, and agricultural/domestic economies. However, time period and site type generate more overlap between groups, while subsistence produces the clearest separation and minimal overlap (Figure 2B). This suggests that subsistence base is the most useful criteria for modelling faunal patterns. In all cases, Dingsishan is a clear outlier, due to the extremely high proportion of deer in the assemblage. Lobang Hangus (Niah Cave) is also a slight outlier due to the high proportion of monkeys. When comparing subsistence (Figure 2B), CCN falls within the hunter-gatherer group while MB comfortably sits within the agricultural group. Interestingly, the only Holocene site that falls within this Pleistocene group of cave sites is Khok Phanom Di, a site that Higham and Thosarat (2004) argued was primarily based on hunter-gatherer subsistence (see discussion below). When comparing components 2 (deer, bovids) and 3 (pigs, canids) the overall pattern and distinction between groups is not as clear in all examples (Figs. S1A–C). This shows that the hunting or exploitation of deer and bovids compared to pigs and canids is generally not a useful method of distinction between site types, time periods, or subsistence bases. One of the probable reasons for this is because both wild deer and bovids continue to be exploited well into the Holocene (see discussion below). Comparison of components 1 (viverrids, monkeys, felids) and 2 (deer, bovids) produces largely unclear results, except again highlighting sites that are either particularly abundant in deer (Dingsishan, Wayogou) or monkeys (Lobang Hangus, Khok Phanom Di) (Figs. S2A–C). This suggests that the presence and relative abundance of pigs and canids (C3) is often the most discriminating factor between Pleistocene and Mid–Late Holocene sites and/or between hunter-gatherer and agricultural based economic strategies.

4. Results

5.1. Regional patterns

PCA suggested there were three significant components within the data accounting for 80.7% of the variability (Table 2). Component one (C1) positively correlated with viverrids, monkeys, and felids, and negatively correlated with canids. Component two (C2) positively correlated with deer, Bovinae (subfamily, cattle and buffalo), and mustelids. Component three (C3) positively correlated with pigs, canids, and to a lesser extent mustelids and felids. To help determine whether there were any patterns within the data,

This analysis highlights some distinctive patterns occurring from the Late Pleistocene to Late Holocene. Firstly, there is a clear separation of hunter-gatherer and agricultural/domestic subsistence economies. The relative abundance of viverrids, monkeys, and felids (C1) are always important factors for sites based on hunter-gatherer economies. Conversely, the relative abundance of pigs and canids (C3) tend to be more important factors in agricultural/domesticated based sites. These correlations suggest that there is less hunting of viverrids, monkeys, and felids within farming communities that have domestic animals. There is a strong correlation between hunter-gatherers living in rainforest and the hunting of arboreal taxa, seen in both archaeological and ethnographic evidence. The Niah Caves have provided a long-term record of specialised hunting of arboreal taxa from c. 45 ka into the Holocene (Barton et al., 2009; Piper and Rabett, 2009; Rabett and Piper, 2012). The importance of arboreal taxa is also reflected in modern ethnographic accounts of the Punan hunter-gatherers in Borneo, who use a range of technologies but almost exclusively use blow-pipes to hunt monkeys and birds (Sellato, 1994, 126). Further, Rival's (1996) ethnographic study of the Huaorani people in the Amazonian rainforests documents their almost exclusive hunting of arboreal taxa, with the exception of peccaries. However, Rival (1996)

5. Discussion

Table 2 PCA results showing three significant components. Component Family Viverridae (viverrids, civet cats) Cercopithecidae (macaques, leaf monkeys) Felidae (felids) Cervidae (deer) Bovinae (cattle, buffalo) Mustelidae (otters, weasels) Suidae (pigs, boars) Canidae (canids)

1 0.891 0.83 0.783 0.37 −0.563

2

0.92 0.877 0.687

3 0.441 0.512 0.838 0.658

5

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Fig 2A. Comparing C1 and 3 with site type groupings: green = rockshelters/caves; black = riverine/estuary; red = riverine; blue = coastal.

Fig 2B. Comparing C1 and 3 with subsistence base groupings: green = hunter-gatherer; red = agricultural /domestic; black = unknown.

emphasises that monkeys are by far the favoured game as they are seen as socially interesting, and this preference is mirrored in the use of specially developed blow-pipe hunting technologies. Although domesticated and wild animals were intentionally not separated in this analysis it is interesting there was a positive correlation between canids and pigs (Table 2, C3). The positive correlation makes ‘sense’ as it suggests within the context of agricultural/

domesticated based sites, domesticated dogs and pigs are likely to be found together. Further, the negative correlation between viverrids, monkeys, and felids (C1) versus specifically canids (Table 2) implies that sites that are geared towards exploiting arboreal and forest taxa tend not to be associated with dogs. This is one of the factors that helps in clearly distinguishing between hunter-gather and domestic economies. 6

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Fig 2C. Comparing C1 and 3 with time period / date: green = Pleistocene–Early Holocene; red = Mid Holocene; yellow = Mid–Late Holocene; blue = Late Holocene.

The positive correlation between canids and pigs (C3) and the negative correlation between arboreal taxa and dogs (C1) is supported by archaeological evidence that suggests domesticated pigs and dogs were introduced into MSEA contemporaneously with the migrations of agricultural communities, as seen in the Mid Holocene assemblages of MB (Jones, 2017), An Son (Piper et al., 2012), Ban Non Wat (Kijngam, 2010), and Ban Chiang (Higham et al., 1980). This concurrent pattern of introduced domesticated dogs and pigs is also seen in ISEA during the Late Holocene at Nagsabaran (Amano et al., 2013) and Pacung and Sembiran (Fenner et al., 2017). The reduction of hunting arboreal taxa during the Late Holocene may relate to a shifting reliance on domesticated pigs and wild deer and to forest clearance resulting in less availability of arboreal taxa. Likewise, the positive correlation between deer and bovids (C2) may relate to their biogeographic similarities, as the habitats of both taxa overlap in many areas in Asia, and they are large mammals that provide considerable protein. This could indicate that people hunting or exploiting deer are also likely to exploit bovids. Correlations between hunting deer and bovid has yet to be explored in detail in ethnographic or archaeological literature in Asia. In Fijn's (2011, 154) ethnography of herders in the Khangai Mountains of Central Mongolia she emphasised the continuity between the Bronze Age herders and the people today who continue to hunt deer while keeping domesticated horses and bovids. Tending to their herds gives them the opportunity to experience the surrounding landscape at a leisurely pace, choosing when to engage in foraging or hunting (Fijn, 2011, 204). The continued exploitation of deer is an interesting point of comparison between sites in the PCA results, regardless of time period, site type, or subsistence base. The abundance of deer in Mid to Late Holocene sites is probably partly related to their use in bone artefact production, as their long bones (especially metapodials) and antlers are particularly suitable material, as can be seen in the ossesous artefact assemblage from Nagsabaran in the Philippines (Amano et al., 2013). This study confirms the notion that deer were often a useful staple in many SEA sites, irregardless of context. Finally, the regional and temporal pattern for bovids is complex.

There is a dominance of large bovids in Terminal Pleistocene to Mid Holocene sites (CCN, Lang Spean, Dingsishan, Tangzigou), which indicates the region between northern MSEA and southern China was a landscape suitable for herds of large grazing animals. However, during the Late Holocene there appears to be a regional difference in bovids abundance between Vietnamese and Thai sites. MB, An Son, and Rach Nui all have lower abundance of bovids than their contemporary Thai sites (Non Nok Tha, Ban Non Wat, Ban Chiang, Ban Lum Khao), where Bovinae (cattle and water buffalo) have been argued to be domesticated (Higham and Leach, 1971; Higham, 1975b; Higham et al., 1981). This indicates the domestication of bovids followed a different trajectory than the introduction of pigs and dogs into MSEA. The domestication of water buffalo and cattle in SEA was seemingly localised in geographically distinct locations, and it appears to have been temporally later in Vietnam than the introduction of pigs and dogs. More research is needed to determine an explanation for this regional difference. 5.2. Con Co Ngua and Man Bac CCN and MB remained clearly separated within the groupings of hunter-gatherer and agricultural/domesticated site, as hypothesised. The high proportion of pigs and the presence of dogs (C3) at MB were important factors influencing this attribution. For CCN, the relatively higher proportion of felids, viverrids, and monkeys (C1) place this site within the grouping of hunter-gatherer sites. Intriguingly, the high proportion of bovids (particularly water buffalo, Bubalus cf. arnee) at CCN does not separate the site from other hunter-gatherer sites. This is because the presence of bovids in hunter-gatherer assemblages is not uncommon. For instance, Laang Spean, a Hoabinhian site in Cambodia, has a high proportion of Bos sp. (NISP 996; 77.3% of mammals). For CCN, this correlates with other paleoenvironmental evidence that suggests the area surrounding the site was rich in a variety of aquatic resources as well as forested environments. For MB, the hunting of deer and fishing was an important economic and perhaps social strategy in addition to the maintenance of domestic pig populations, but there is 7

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also a distinct lack of arboreal taxa.3 This shift towards more of a reliance on hunting deer instead of arboreal taxa contrasts to the Early Holocene shift towards arboreal taxa seen in ISEA sites and may relate to forested habitat loss during the Late Holocene.

6. Conclusions This study found clearly distinguishable subsistence patterns in SEA sites from the Terminal Pleistocene to Late Holocene. In particular, the PCA strongly indicated a significant distinction between hunter-gatherer sites with high relative abundances of monkeys, viverrids, and felids compared to domesticated economies with canids and pigs. When compared to other contextual patterns (time period and site type) subsistence base generally produces the clearest separation between sites and was successful in distinguishing between sites based on hunter-gatherer versus domesticated subsistence economies. Overall these results validate PCA as a useful methodology in SEA archaeology for querying large-scale human mediated processes.

5.3. Interesting outliers This analysis highlights important patterns that occurred in SEA, and this study also helps to showcase the diversity of subsistence strategies during the Mid to Late Holocene in SEA. Comparative analysis allows for greater understanding of the character of each site. Aside from CCN and MB, some sites that produced noteworthy results include Dingsishan, Khok Phanom Di, and Rach Nui. Dingsishan was always the most extreme outlier regardless of the grouping (i.e. time period, site type, subsistence base) or component selected. This is related to the extremely high proportion of deer within the assemblage (28,071 NISP, 92% of total NISP). However, the relatively low proportion of monkeys, viverrids, and felids (C1) compared to other Terminal Pleistocene to Mid Holocene sites is another factor contributing to Dingsishan's irregularity. Khok Phanom Di (KPD) has long been argued by Higham and Thosarat (2004) to represent a community largely engaged in a huntergatherer lifestyle. This suggestion is supported by this PCA analysis, as although KPD has an abundance of pigs (587 = NISP), this is relatively low compared to the deer (810 = NISP). Further, the high abundance of monkeys (418 = NISP) is more in line with other Pleistocene and/or hunter-gatherer sites than sites that are mostly reliant on domesticated animals. It is worth noting that domesticated dogs only appear in the upper layers and are relatively low in numbers (13 = NISP). Further, although evidence of domesticated rice was present throughout most of the occupation, the excavators argued rice was probably imported during the initial and late stages but may have been locally cultivated between c. 1750–1650 cal. BC (Higham and Thosarat, 2004; Bentley et al., 2007). For this analysis, the faunal assemblage of KPD was combined together (see Table S2), if KPD could be objectively separated into phases based on clear dates, a faunal transition showing the appearance of domesticated animals may be perceivable in the archaeological record. Similarly, the Mid Holocene site of Rach Nui falls closer to the hunter-gatherer group in Fig. 2A–C, which is largely related to the high proportion of monkeys identified (255 = NISP) in the assemblage. However, it is also interesting to note that despite the presence of domesticated dog and abundance of pig (222 = NISP), Oxenham et al. (2015) suggest that the subsistence seems to have been strongly geared towards fishing and hunting. For the pigs, there was no indication of a selective kill-off pattern, which led Oxenham et al. (2015, 21, 24) to conclude that it is unclear whether the pigs represent domesticated/ managed stock. Further, rice and millet appear to have been imported to the site rather than locally grown (Oxenham et al., 2015; Barron, 2016; Castillo et al., 2017). Thus, it is interesting the PCA gave an ambiguous result for Rach Nui as the excavators have previously argued for a mixed subsistence strategy. Although medium-large sized mammals were specifically selected for this analysis for purposes of solid and clear methodological comparability, in the future it would be interesting to standardise a methodological approach to allow for the inclusion of different fauna. For instance, the inclusion of fish in this type of analysis would allow for more sites in ISEA to be compared to MSEA. Undoubtedly, including a wider variety of fauna and sites will enrich the picture and demonstrate the complexity that underlies subsistence practices in SEA.

Data availability Datasets relating to the analyses in this article can be found in the supplementary section. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Archaeological Institute of Hanoi for access to faunal material from CCN and MB. This research was supported in part by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) scholarship and the ANU Vice-Chancellor’s HDR Travel Grant (RKJ), and Australian Research Council Grants: DP110101097 and FT 120100299 (MFO), and DP140100384 (PJP). The authors declare no competing interests. The authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for contributing to the improvement of this paper. Finally, special thanks to the late and greatly missed Prof. Colin Groves for comments on an early version of this draft, which appeared in RKJ PhD thesis. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.01.006. References Amano, N., Piper, P.J., Hung, H.-C., Bellwood, P., 2013. Introduced Domestic Animals in the Neolithic and Metal Age of the Philippines: Evidence From Nagsabaran, Northern Luzon. J. I. Coast Archaeol. 8, 317–335. http://doi.org/10.1080/15564894.2013. 781084. Amano, N., Moigne, A.-M., Ingicco, T., Sémah, F., Awe, R.D., Simanjuntak, T., 2015. Subsistence strategies and environment in Late Pleistocene–Early Holocene Eastern Java: Evidence from Braholo Cave. Quat. Int. 416, 46–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. quaint.2015.09.072. Barron, A., 2016. A mixed method, multi-scalar approach to analysing rice temper in Southeast Asian ceramics. MA Thesis, Archaeology and Anthropology. Australian National University. Barton, H., Piper, P.J., Rabett, R.J., Reeds, I., 2009. Composite hunting technologies from the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene, Niah Cave, Borneo. J. Archaeol. Sci. 36, 1708–1714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.03.027. Baxter, M.J., 1994. Exploratory multivariate analysis in archaeology. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Bellwood, P., Oxenham, M.F., 2008. The expansions of farming societies and the role of the Neolithic demographic transition. In: Bocquet-Appel, J.-P., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), The Neolithic Demographic Transition and its Consequences. Springer, New York, pp. 13–34. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8539-0_2. Bellwood, P., Oxenham, M.F., Hoang, B.C., Dzung, N.K., Willis, A., Sarjeant, C., Piper, P.J., Matsumura, H., Tanaka, K., Beavan-Athfield, N., Higham, T.F.G., Manh, N.Q., Kinh, D.N., Kien, N.K.T., Huong, V.T., Bich, V.N., Quy, T.T.K., Thao, N.P., Campos, F.Z., Sato, Y.-I., Cuong, N.L., Amano, N., 2011. An Son and the Neolithic of Southern Vietnam. Asian Perspect. 50, 144–175. http://doi.org/10.1353/asi.2011.0007. Bentley, R.A., Tayles, N., Higham, C.F.W., Macpherson, C., Atkinson, T.C., 2007. Shifting Gender Relations at Khok Phanom Di, Thailand : Isotopic Evidence from the Skeletons Shifting Gender Relations at Khok. Curr. Anthropol. 48, 301–314. Bui, Vinh, 1991. The Da But Culture in the Stone Age of Vietnam. Indo-Pacific Prehistoric Assoc. 10, 127–131. Castillo, C.C., Fuller, D.Q., Piper, P.J., Bellwood, P., Oxenham, M., 2017. Hunter-gatherer specialization in the late Neolithic of southern Vietnam - The case of Rach Nui. Quat. Int. 1–17. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.11.034.

3 A total NISP of 1 monkey, 3 viverrids, 3 mustelids, no felids, = 0.7% of total NISP. Compared to CCN which had a total NISP of 33 arboreal taxa, 4.3% of total NISP.

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