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Show me what I should know! Active, contextual learning on the job — A review essay
Economics of Edrtcafion Review, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 267-270,1993. Printedin Great Britain.
0272-7757/93 $6.00 + 0.00 PergamonPressLtd
Show Me What I Should Know! Active, Contextual Learning on the Job - A Review Essay CRAIG
Department
RANDALL
of Biology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT 05753, U.S.A.
Training in America:
The Organization and Strategic Role of Training. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and JANICEVILLET. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542-203-9, 283 pp. U.S.$26.95 (cloth). Training the Technical Work Force. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ERIC SCHULZ. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN 1-55542201-2, 218 pp. U.S.$24.95 (cloth). Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills Employers Want. By ANTHONYP. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ANN S. MELTZER. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542-202-0, 505 pp. U.S.$34.95 (cloth). Workplace Basics Training Manual. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ANN S. MELTZER. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542204-7, 293 pp. U.S.$34.95 (spiral-bound paper). IT IS NOT easy to learn how to make mayonnaise, join two pipes of different proteins
LANDGREN
diameters,
to
or to separate
by reading books. It may be easy to memorize the words which describe these actions, it may even be easy to imagine what is being done, but even with the proper equipment and the materials, most of us would fail in our first (and perhaps in many subsequent) attempts at completing these tasks. In contrast, if we had the opportunity to watch each process being completed, to hold each of the pieces, and to get the feel of the materials, each of these jobs would become relatively simple. The simplicity of some apparently complex processes is illustrated in the practice of medicine, which is limited to a select few who have received many years of training. In describing surgical training, doctors often talk of “watching one, doing one, and teaching one” during their internships. This rapid progression
shows that there is nothing that can match active participation for learning process-oriented subjects. This is something that has not been lost on science educators. There are few published science texts that do not have their accompanying laboratory manuals. Language educators are also being pushed toward more and more active learning (Oxford, 1990). While language texts have traditionally included accompanying drills, today’s students are being asked to take initiative in a move toward student-centered learning and away from pattern memorization. Workshops and modelling are becoming more common in almost every educational endeavor and “hands-on” is a popular description of many in-service training programs. Even in the development of critical thinking, the importance of active, contextual learning and apprenticeship has been recognized (Dollase, 1989). Apprenticeship has often been viewed as an aspect of industry rather than of education. In 18th century America, the apprentice was .a low cost laborer ulitmately rewarded for years of menial service by being taught the skills of a trade (Rorabaugh, 1986). The vocabulary of these apprenticeships clearly indicates the nature of the relationships. The apprentice was “indentured”, referring to the cuts on the edges of the contract which served to eliminate attempts at alteration. The teacher was “master”, and only after the trade skills were acquired could the apprentice become a “journeyman”, free to travel. Since the only ties that bound the apprentice to his (or much less often her) menial tasks were the promised skills, many apprentices were only taught their trades as the end of the apprenticeship approached (Rorabaugh, 1986). This model of
268
Economics
of Education
training served industry well when much of the labor needed was unskilled. But today, as industry is moving toward requiring greater and greater skills, there is a greater need for workplace instruction that is effective and systematic. In Workplace Basics, subtitled The Essential Skills Employers Want, Anthony Carnevale and his coauthors describe the need in the modern workplace for basic competency skills, oral communication skills, adaptability skills, developmental skills, collaborative skills and leadership skills. Basic competencies are the stuff of a traditional education, reading, writing and computation. Carnevale et al. point out that industry’s role in supporting education in these basic competencies must increase as the work force shrinks and as immigration plays an expanding role in the maintenance of workforce size. But most of the volume is devoted to skills not normally associated with the most basic education. The collaborative skill (interpersonal relations, teamwork, and negotiation) coupled with the communications skills (listening and speaking) become increasingly important as the number of employees in each work unit grows. The developmental skills (building confidence, motivating, setting goals and planning) and the adaptability skills (resourcefulness and creative thinking) assure that the individual and the employer will survive in an evolving workplace. The leadership skills are required of every level except the lowest, with increasing demand on these skills as the level of authority increases. Workplace Basics proposes the development of these skills through a structured plan of skillstraining, delivered systematically in the context of the workplace. Such on-the-job training is recognized as a part of the educational system when it is deliberate rather than accidental. The costs of this training are monumental and cannot be ignored in evaluating the economics of education in the U.S.A. In-school instruction costs totalled almost 7% of the U.S. gross national product in 1987 (The Statistical Abstract of the, United States, 1991). Job training accounted for another 210 billion dollars (Training in America, p. xi), bringing the total United States education and training budget to well over 10% of the gross national product. These figures ignore the costs of on-the-job learning which is not part of a systematic or deliberate training program. Yet only a few jobs require such limited skills that the performance of
Review
the job cannot in some ways be considered training. Production jobs where the limits of productivity are systemic, where the employee is literally part of the machinery, fall into this category, but such jobs are becoming increasingly rare as machines are developed which perform the tasks without tiring. All the rest of the jobs, where productivity and output and innovation are influenced by experience, have an educational- component. Wasted opportunity, lost productivity and diminished profit result when this accidental on-the-job education is ignored. Industries which recognize the role of on-the-job training the most are those with established apprenticeship programs. In some cases the apprenticeship is driven by the large number of complex moves which must be learned to complete a process. A local flute company in Bristol, Vermont, takes on apprentices who ultimately are expected to be able to create the finished product single-handedly. In other cases, apprenticeship programs are driven by a commitment to a hierarchy of status related to the performance of different aspects of the job. Building tradespeople, like plumbers and electricians, seem committed to this aspect of apprenticeships. The vast majority of on-the-job training programs falls somewhere between these two extremes. Japan (Duke, 1986) and Germany (Between Elite and Mass Education, 1983) are committed to formal skills training as a major component of their educational structure. This seems not to be based upon the cheap work force model of the 18th century apprenticeships, but instead is a concerted program of active learning designed to develop a variety of process skills in the workforce. Science education in the United States has also adopted an apprenticeship model, with undergraduate laboratory experiences followed by graduate research and postdoctoral laboratory training. These active learning experiences build skills that support the sophisticated scientific activities of the professional, but unfortunately do little to prepare the scientist for the teaching responsibilities he or she might face. Active, observational learning appears to be quite natural (John et al., 1968). The kitten watches as its parent catches a mouse; the kitten’s play then imitates the death-dealing actions of the adult. But, in fact, many of the hunting activities of cats are instinctive behaviors which are only reinforced by play and by success in practice hunting (Ewer, 1969) rather than learned behaviors. The transmission of new (non-instinctive) learned behaviors through
Active, Contextual Learning on the Job active learning seems to be essentially a primate characteristic. This exchange of information is strongest in close human relatives. Chimpanzees have been shown to quickly transmit information about tool use, even when the tool is entirely new to the individuals. But even here the initial use of the tool depends largely on instinctive behaviors (Jay, 1968; Beck, 1980). Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training and Training the Technical Work Force are tools created by the American Society for Training and Development to help the employer, and to a lesser extent the employee, understand the importance, the value, and the process of on-the-job training. Both books are illustrated with numerous examples of training programs from American industries. These specific examples make these books especially useful as reference sources. Both books focus on training devoted to the development of crucial workplace skills. Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training focuses on the importance of training to the maintenance of the industrial might of America. If the United States were not slipping from its leadership role in some industries, Training in America would seem to be little more than a sophisticated advertisement for the American Society for Training and Development. But recent trends in the American economic scene call for a more careful reading of Training in America. The portraits of training programs that are working can provide useful models for those involved in the planning of industrial training programs. Training the Technical Work Force deals specifically with the training of scientists (including doctors and engineers), technicians (including pilots, draftspeople, plant operators, and many health care providers), and skilled tradespeople (including mechanics, repair people, construction workers, and precision fabricators). The profiles of successful programs focus largely on those of large corporations (FMC, Merck, Motorola, Carrier, Niagara Mohawk, etc.). More than with Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force is a reference work. It is more easily read in part, with the reader’s greatest attention focusing on the more general chapters on the technical workers and technical training. Together these two books call attention to the significant role the employer plays in providing training in the United States. After reading the books, it is impossible not to wonder
269
about the potential benefits of a resurgence in fullfledged apprenticeship programs in the United States. As I watch my year-old son, apprentice attentiongetter, imitating his sister in attention-getting behavior, I have little doubt about the excellence of apprenticeship as a training technique. He, at 1 year, is imitating behaviors it took her almost 3 years to develop in the absence of a “master”. But the literature on apprenticeship learning raises issues about two important limits of this system. The first issue deals with the role of reward in learning. This type of learning is most effective when the reward for the learned action is substantial. Yet the reward for most training programs early on is limited. The second issue is that of the age of the learner. The young learner, as my son has illustrated so well, is the most easily taught. Yet training programs in the United States follow an introduction to “standard education”. Their students are older and have learned the basic competency skills out of context. Perhaps there was unrecognized wisdom in the 18th century pattern wherein adolescents entered apprenticeships. The language in Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force, Workplace Basics, and the Workplace Basics Training Manual shows too great a dependence on the “cut and paste” capacities of the word processor. Familiar phrases ring out again and again throughout the four volumes. Yet the writing is clear and the messages are useful. The examples from real work situations are invaluable. The graphical representations and the tables are full of information and generally easy to follow. As I studied Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force, and Workplace Basics, I became aware of an irony and a tragedy; from these two grew hope. The irony is that the books serve a crucial educational role, yet since they are books, they cannot involve the reader in the active, contextual learning they are espousing. (The workbook is more a guide to developing a system of active learning than it is a tool to engage is such learning.) Within the set of books there are lessons which would serve every student, every teacher, every parent and every child. There are lessons in these books which would be useful to every business owner and to every employee. The tragedy is that these books were hardly written for such general audiences, and that these important lessons will not be as widely disseminated as they ought to be. My
270
Economics of Education Review
hope is that others concerned with the individual learner will draw upon these resources to craft works which bring the lessons to each of the many audiences which could use them. Workplace Basics should be in the hands of any employer of more than 10 employees. It provides a clear description of each of the requisite skills, outlines the theories supporting current training models, and makes recommendations for a training curriculum. The Workplace Basics Training Manual provides step-by-step instructions for the implementation of a training program in each of the basic workplace skills. The theoretical content of Workplace Basics would make it a useful tool for potential employees seeking a job or seeking a path to advancement. As this series so aptly argues, there is much that is better learned by experience, but in the absence of experiences, this b&ok would have great value.
Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training, Training the Technical Work Force, Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills Employers Want, and the Workplace Basics Training Manual belong in every academic library, including those of schools without education programs. They are useful resources for all educators, including those who teach in medical schools and law schoolb, but they will be especially useful to those who teach in business schools. Individual volumes belong in the personal libraries of most educators and students of education, and they are resources of which every elementary, grade school, and college teacher should be aware. Within these four volumes there is much placer gold. Panning them for the nuggets which have value in your field will certainly prove rewarding.
REFERENCES (1980) Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals. New York: STPM Press. DOLLASE, R.A. (ed.) (1989) Continuing Dialogue. Middlebury, VT: Middlebury College. DUKE, B.C. (1986) The Japanese School: Lessons for Industrial America. New York: Praeger. EWER, R.F. (1969) The ‘instinct to teach’. Nature 222, 698. JOHN, E.R., CHESLER, P., BARTLETT, F and VICTOR, I. (1968) Observing learning in cats. Science 159, 1489-1491. JAY, P.C. (1968) Primates: Studies in Adaptation and Variability. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION (1983) Between Elite and Mass Education: Education in the Federal Republic of Germany. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. OXFORD, R.L. (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers. RORABAUGH, W.J. (1986) The Craft Apprentice: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America. New York: Oxford University Press. The Statistical Abstract of the United States, 111th Edition (1991) U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC: the U.S. Government Printing Office. BECK, B.B.
Garland
0272-7757/93 $6.00 + 0.00 PergamonPressLtd
Show Me What I Should Know! Active, Contextual Learning on the Job - A Review Essay CRAIG
Department
RANDALL
of Biology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT 05753, U.S.A.
Training in America:
The Organization and Strategic Role of Training. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and JANICEVILLET. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542-203-9, 283 pp. U.S.$26.95 (cloth). Training the Technical Work Force. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ERIC SCHULZ. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN 1-55542201-2, 218 pp. U.S.$24.95 (cloth). Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills Employers Want. By ANTHONYP. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ANN S. MELTZER. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542-202-0, 505 pp. U.S.$34.95 (cloth). Workplace Basics Training Manual. By ANTHONY P. CARNEVALE, LEILA J. GAINER and ANN S. MELTZER. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1990. ISBN l-55542204-7, 293 pp. U.S.$34.95 (spiral-bound paper). IT IS NOT easy to learn how to make mayonnaise, join two pipes of different proteins
LANDGREN
diameters,
to
or to separate
by reading books. It may be easy to memorize the words which describe these actions, it may even be easy to imagine what is being done, but even with the proper equipment and the materials, most of us would fail in our first (and perhaps in many subsequent) attempts at completing these tasks. In contrast, if we had the opportunity to watch each process being completed, to hold each of the pieces, and to get the feel of the materials, each of these jobs would become relatively simple. The simplicity of some apparently complex processes is illustrated in the practice of medicine, which is limited to a select few who have received many years of training. In describing surgical training, doctors often talk of “watching one, doing one, and teaching one” during their internships. This rapid progression
shows that there is nothing that can match active participation for learning process-oriented subjects. This is something that has not been lost on science educators. There are few published science texts that do not have their accompanying laboratory manuals. Language educators are also being pushed toward more and more active learning (Oxford, 1990). While language texts have traditionally included accompanying drills, today’s students are being asked to take initiative in a move toward student-centered learning and away from pattern memorization. Workshops and modelling are becoming more common in almost every educational endeavor and “hands-on” is a popular description of many in-service training programs. Even in the development of critical thinking, the importance of active, contextual learning and apprenticeship has been recognized (Dollase, 1989). Apprenticeship has often been viewed as an aspect of industry rather than of education. In 18th century America, the apprentice was .a low cost laborer ulitmately rewarded for years of menial service by being taught the skills of a trade (Rorabaugh, 1986). The vocabulary of these apprenticeships clearly indicates the nature of the relationships. The apprentice was “indentured”, referring to the cuts on the edges of the contract which served to eliminate attempts at alteration. The teacher was “master”, and only after the trade skills were acquired could the apprentice become a “journeyman”, free to travel. Since the only ties that bound the apprentice to his (or much less often her) menial tasks were the promised skills, many apprentices were only taught their trades as the end of the apprenticeship approached (Rorabaugh, 1986). This model of
268
Economics
of Education
training served industry well when much of the labor needed was unskilled. But today, as industry is moving toward requiring greater and greater skills, there is a greater need for workplace instruction that is effective and systematic. In Workplace Basics, subtitled The Essential Skills Employers Want, Anthony Carnevale and his coauthors describe the need in the modern workplace for basic competency skills, oral communication skills, adaptability skills, developmental skills, collaborative skills and leadership skills. Basic competencies are the stuff of a traditional education, reading, writing and computation. Carnevale et al. point out that industry’s role in supporting education in these basic competencies must increase as the work force shrinks and as immigration plays an expanding role in the maintenance of workforce size. But most of the volume is devoted to skills not normally associated with the most basic education. The collaborative skill (interpersonal relations, teamwork, and negotiation) coupled with the communications skills (listening and speaking) become increasingly important as the number of employees in each work unit grows. The developmental skills (building confidence, motivating, setting goals and planning) and the adaptability skills (resourcefulness and creative thinking) assure that the individual and the employer will survive in an evolving workplace. The leadership skills are required of every level except the lowest, with increasing demand on these skills as the level of authority increases. Workplace Basics proposes the development of these skills through a structured plan of skillstraining, delivered systematically in the context of the workplace. Such on-the-job training is recognized as a part of the educational system when it is deliberate rather than accidental. The costs of this training are monumental and cannot be ignored in evaluating the economics of education in the U.S.A. In-school instruction costs totalled almost 7% of the U.S. gross national product in 1987 (The Statistical Abstract of the, United States, 1991). Job training accounted for another 210 billion dollars (Training in America, p. xi), bringing the total United States education and training budget to well over 10% of the gross national product. These figures ignore the costs of on-the-job learning which is not part of a systematic or deliberate training program. Yet only a few jobs require such limited skills that the performance of
Review
the job cannot in some ways be considered training. Production jobs where the limits of productivity are systemic, where the employee is literally part of the machinery, fall into this category, but such jobs are becoming increasingly rare as machines are developed which perform the tasks without tiring. All the rest of the jobs, where productivity and output and innovation are influenced by experience, have an educational- component. Wasted opportunity, lost productivity and diminished profit result when this accidental on-the-job education is ignored. Industries which recognize the role of on-the-job training the most are those with established apprenticeship programs. In some cases the apprenticeship is driven by the large number of complex moves which must be learned to complete a process. A local flute company in Bristol, Vermont, takes on apprentices who ultimately are expected to be able to create the finished product single-handedly. In other cases, apprenticeship programs are driven by a commitment to a hierarchy of status related to the performance of different aspects of the job. Building tradespeople, like plumbers and electricians, seem committed to this aspect of apprenticeships. The vast majority of on-the-job training programs falls somewhere between these two extremes. Japan (Duke, 1986) and Germany (Between Elite and Mass Education, 1983) are committed to formal skills training as a major component of their educational structure. This seems not to be based upon the cheap work force model of the 18th century apprenticeships, but instead is a concerted program of active learning designed to develop a variety of process skills in the workforce. Science education in the United States has also adopted an apprenticeship model, with undergraduate laboratory experiences followed by graduate research and postdoctoral laboratory training. These active learning experiences build skills that support the sophisticated scientific activities of the professional, but unfortunately do little to prepare the scientist for the teaching responsibilities he or she might face. Active, observational learning appears to be quite natural (John et al., 1968). The kitten watches as its parent catches a mouse; the kitten’s play then imitates the death-dealing actions of the adult. But, in fact, many of the hunting activities of cats are instinctive behaviors which are only reinforced by play and by success in practice hunting (Ewer, 1969) rather than learned behaviors. The transmission of new (non-instinctive) learned behaviors through
Active, Contextual Learning on the Job active learning seems to be essentially a primate characteristic. This exchange of information is strongest in close human relatives. Chimpanzees have been shown to quickly transmit information about tool use, even when the tool is entirely new to the individuals. But even here the initial use of the tool depends largely on instinctive behaviors (Jay, 1968; Beck, 1980). Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training and Training the Technical Work Force are tools created by the American Society for Training and Development to help the employer, and to a lesser extent the employee, understand the importance, the value, and the process of on-the-job training. Both books are illustrated with numerous examples of training programs from American industries. These specific examples make these books especially useful as reference sources. Both books focus on training devoted to the development of crucial workplace skills. Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training focuses on the importance of training to the maintenance of the industrial might of America. If the United States were not slipping from its leadership role in some industries, Training in America would seem to be little more than a sophisticated advertisement for the American Society for Training and Development. But recent trends in the American economic scene call for a more careful reading of Training in America. The portraits of training programs that are working can provide useful models for those involved in the planning of industrial training programs. Training the Technical Work Force deals specifically with the training of scientists (including doctors and engineers), technicians (including pilots, draftspeople, plant operators, and many health care providers), and skilled tradespeople (including mechanics, repair people, construction workers, and precision fabricators). The profiles of successful programs focus largely on those of large corporations (FMC, Merck, Motorola, Carrier, Niagara Mohawk, etc.). More than with Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force is a reference work. It is more easily read in part, with the reader’s greatest attention focusing on the more general chapters on the technical workers and technical training. Together these two books call attention to the significant role the employer plays in providing training in the United States. After reading the books, it is impossible not to wonder
269
about the potential benefits of a resurgence in fullfledged apprenticeship programs in the United States. As I watch my year-old son, apprentice attentiongetter, imitating his sister in attention-getting behavior, I have little doubt about the excellence of apprenticeship as a training technique. He, at 1 year, is imitating behaviors it took her almost 3 years to develop in the absence of a “master”. But the literature on apprenticeship learning raises issues about two important limits of this system. The first issue deals with the role of reward in learning. This type of learning is most effective when the reward for the learned action is substantial. Yet the reward for most training programs early on is limited. The second issue is that of the age of the learner. The young learner, as my son has illustrated so well, is the most easily taught. Yet training programs in the United States follow an introduction to “standard education”. Their students are older and have learned the basic competency skills out of context. Perhaps there was unrecognized wisdom in the 18th century pattern wherein adolescents entered apprenticeships. The language in Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force, Workplace Basics, and the Workplace Basics Training Manual shows too great a dependence on the “cut and paste” capacities of the word processor. Familiar phrases ring out again and again throughout the four volumes. Yet the writing is clear and the messages are useful. The examples from real work situations are invaluable. The graphical representations and the tables are full of information and generally easy to follow. As I studied Training in America, Training the Technical Work Force, and Workplace Basics, I became aware of an irony and a tragedy; from these two grew hope. The irony is that the books serve a crucial educational role, yet since they are books, they cannot involve the reader in the active, contextual learning they are espousing. (The workbook is more a guide to developing a system of active learning than it is a tool to engage is such learning.) Within the set of books there are lessons which would serve every student, every teacher, every parent and every child. There are lessons in these books which would be useful to every business owner and to every employee. The tragedy is that these books were hardly written for such general audiences, and that these important lessons will not be as widely disseminated as they ought to be. My
270
Economics of Education Review
hope is that others concerned with the individual learner will draw upon these resources to craft works which bring the lessons to each of the many audiences which could use them. Workplace Basics should be in the hands of any employer of more than 10 employees. It provides a clear description of each of the requisite skills, outlines the theories supporting current training models, and makes recommendations for a training curriculum. The Workplace Basics Training Manual provides step-by-step instructions for the implementation of a training program in each of the basic workplace skills. The theoretical content of Workplace Basics would make it a useful tool for potential employees seeking a job or seeking a path to advancement. As this series so aptly argues, there is much that is better learned by experience, but in the absence of experiences, this b&ok would have great value.
Training in America: The Organization and Strategic Role of Training, Training the Technical Work Force, Workplace Basics: The Essential Skills Employers Want, and the Workplace Basics Training Manual belong in every academic library, including those of schools without education programs. They are useful resources for all educators, including those who teach in medical schools and law schoolb, but they will be especially useful to those who teach in business schools. Individual volumes belong in the personal libraries of most educators and students of education, and they are resources of which every elementary, grade school, and college teacher should be aware. Within these four volumes there is much placer gold. Panning them for the nuggets which have value in your field will certainly prove rewarding.
REFERENCES (1980) Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals. New York: STPM Press. DOLLASE, R.A. (ed.) (1989) Continuing Dialogue. Middlebury, VT: Middlebury College. DUKE, B.C. (1986) The Japanese School: Lessons for Industrial America. New York: Praeger. EWER, R.F. (1969) The ‘instinct to teach’. Nature 222, 698. JOHN, E.R., CHESLER, P., BARTLETT, F and VICTOR, I. (1968) Observing learning in cats. Science 159, 1489-1491. JAY, P.C. (1968) Primates: Studies in Adaptation and Variability. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. MAX PLANCK INSTITUTE FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION (1983) Between Elite and Mass Education: Education in the Federal Republic of Germany. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. OXFORD, R.L. (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers. RORABAUGH, W.J. (1986) The Craft Apprentice: From Franklin to the Machine Age in America. New York: Oxford University Press. The Statistical Abstract of the United States, 111th Edition (1991) U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC: the U.S. Government Printing Office. BECK, B.B.
Garland