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Silver nanoparticle-based biopesticides for phytopathogens: Scope and potential in agriculture
CHAPTER
Silver nanoparticlebased biopesticides for phytopathogens: Scope and potential in agriculture
13
Jeetu Narware, R.N. Yadav, Chetan Keswani, S.P. Singh, H.B. Singh Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
13.1 Introduction The Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) reported that, for the past decade, potential revolutionary changes have occurred in agricultural practices because of nanotechnology. The varied application of nanotechnology in agriculture may be beneficial for the overall growth and management of plant diseases. For example, nanoformulations of fertilizers as well as micro- and macronutrients help in increasing the crop yield and providing a better defense against pests and diseases in various crops (Keswani et al., 2016). Particulate systems such as the physical approach have been used to alter and improve the effectiveness of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology offers ecofriendly alternatives for plant disease management, which may play a crucial role in global food production, food security. and food safety (Fig. 13.1). Recently, several metallic NPs (such as Ag, Au, Zn, Ni, and Ti) have been used as antimicrobial agents for the management of phytopathogens. Nanopesticide formulations offer added advantages over conventional pesticides by increasing the solubility of poorly soluble active ingredients, the target-oriented slow release of active ingredients, and reduced premature degradation of active ingredients. Different types of nanomaterial products such as nanopesticides, nanofertilizers, and nanosensors have been developed for agricultural practices by different physical, chemical, and biological methods. Due to the use of numerous toxic compounds for the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles and the higher cost of production, the current research is strenuously focused on exploring ecofriendly and cost-effective methods for the green synthesis of nanoparticles (Dubey et al., 2010). The biological approach for nanoparticle synthesis employs bacteria (Mandal et al. 2006), fungi (Mukherjee et al., 2008), and plant extracts (Bar et al., 2009; Jagtap and Bapat, 2013; Mubarak et al., 2011). The relative advantages of using microorganisms over plant extracts are that microorganisms can tolerate high concentrations of metal nanoparticles in the medium, the management of microorganisms for the large-scale p roduction of Nano-Biopesticides Today and Future Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815829-6.00013-9 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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FIG. 13.1 Applications of nanotechnology in agriculture.
nanoparticles is relatively easy, dispersion is relatively better, and hydrolytic enzymes/secondary metabolites are included in the formulation. Certain bacteria and fungi have a comparatively higher innate affinity to remediate and reduce heavy metals to metal ions. Such microorganisms could act as potential nanofactories for the production of metal nanoparticles, for example, Aspergillus spp. (Bhainsa and D’Souza, 2006), Trichoderma asperellum (Mukherjee et al., 2008), Trichoderma reesei (Singh et al., 2018), etc. (Tables 13.1 and 13.2). Currently, Trichoderma spp. is the most popular biocontrol agent and the most potent fungal nanofactory for the production of metal nanopaticles. This is because it has a highly diverse functional secretome including various hydrolytic enzymes, namely chitinases, glucanases, proteases, cellulases xylanases, mannanases, lipases, etc. (Do Vale et al., 2012; Fraceto et al., 2018, Grondona et al., 1997; Mishra et al., 2015). Moreover, Trichoderma spp. also produces many chemically diverse secondary metabolites that have high reducing properties, namely naphthoquinones and anthraquinones (Keswani et al., 2014).
13.2 Factors Affecting Fungal Synthesis of Metallic NPs Continuous interactions between fungi and the environment influence the growth and development of the organism. The physical conditions in which fungi are cultivated affect the enzyme production (Keswani et al., 2014). Singh et al. (2013) demonstrated that optimum environmental conditions are a prerequisite to enhance the yield of nanoparticles. There are a few reports on the effects of culture conditions on the
Table 13.1 Role of Silver Nanoparticles in Plant Disease Management Pathogen
Application
Diseases
Crops
References
AgNPs AgNPs
Raffaelea sp. M. grisea
Antifungal Antifungal
Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Alternaria alternata Alternaria solani
Antifungal
Oak Rice and turfgrass Gramineous spp.
Kim et al. (2007) Jo et al. (2009)
AgNPs
Antifungal
Oak wilt disease Blast of rice and gray leaf spot on turfgrass Seedling blight, root rot, crown rot, and leaf spot blotch on various Alternaria leaf blight
Pepper, tomato
Kim et al. (2012)
Antifungal
Alternaria leaf spot
Kim et al. (2012)
AgNPs
Cladosporium cucumerinum
Antifungal
Scab
AgNPs
Fusarium oxysporum Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Antifungal
Fusarium wilt
Pepper, tomato, potato Cucumber, melon, pumpkin, eegplant Tomato
Antifungal
Anthracnose
Chilli
Aguilar-Mendez et al. (2010)
AgNPs AgNPs
AgNPs
Jo et al. (2009)
Kim et al. (2012)
Kim et al. (2012)
13.2 Factors affecting fungal synthesis of metallic NPs
NPs
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Table 13.2 Microorganisms Involved in the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Microbes
Nature of NPs
References
Antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Vegetable and fruit preservation Antifungal and antibacterial activity Antibacterial
Gajbhiye et al. (2009) Verma et al. (2010) Fateixa et al. (2009) Shaligram et al. (2009) Mukherjee et al. (2008) Fayaz et al. (2009)
Antibacterial Antibacterial
Singh et al. (2014) Nithya and Ragunathan (2009) Nayak et al. (2010)
Fungi Alternaria alternata Aspergillus clavatus Aspergillus niger Fusarium oxysporum Trichoderma asperellum Trichoderma viride Aspergillus niger Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Penicillium sp. Pleurotus sajorcaju Penicillium purpurogenum NPMF
Antibacterial
Jaidev and Narasimha (2010) Joshi et al. (2013)
Bacteria Bacillus sp. Serratia sp. Clostridium versicolor Pseudomonas stutzeri
Antifungal activity toward Fusarium oxysporum Antifungal activity toward Bipolaris sorokiniana Antifungal Antifungal
Gopinath and Velusamy (2013) Mishra et al. (2014a)
Antifungal
Dujardin et al. (2003)
Sanghi and Verma (2009) Slawson et al. (1992)
Virus Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
biosynthesis of metal NPs. It has been demonstrated that incubation conditions such as temperature, pH, incubation time, nature of the parent compound, and biomass concentration of the fungus species affect directly the mycosynthesis of nanoparticles (Ingle et al., 2008; Saravanan and Nanda, 2010; Vigneshwaran et al., 2006). The geometry of AgNPs is manipulated by temperature and pH. According to Raliya and Tarafdar (2014), larger nanoparticles are obtained at salt concentrations of 0.1 mmol/L salt when incubated at 28°C and pH 5.5 for 72 h (Fig. 13.2).
13.3 Role of AgNPs for Plant Disease Management Huge economic losses are caused annually due to various pests and pathogens. The application of biosynthesized metal nanoparticles offers an ecofriendly a lternative for
13.4 Mechanism of nanoparticles in plant disease management
FIG. 13.2 General method of ecofriendly biosynthesis of nanoparticles.
the management of plant diseases. Silver ions and silver-based composites are highly toxic for microorganisms (Sondi and Sondi, 2004). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have excellent antimicrobial activity in low doses against various bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Singh et al., 2017). Some recent reports have established the fungicidal effects of nanosilver against several phytopathogenic fungi (Kim et al., 2012; Park et al., 2006), but the fungicidal mechanism has not been clearly elucidated. The inhibitory effect of AgNP suspension on the fungal growth and conidial germination of the ascomycetous phytopathogen Raffaelea sp. causing oak wilt disease has also been established (Kim et al., 2007) (Tables 13.1 and 13.2).
13.4 Mechanism of Nanoparticles in Plant Disease Management Nanoparticles act by different mechanisms that help in the suppression of plant pathogens (Fig. 13.3). NPs have been known for their strong bactericidal and inhibitory effects through altering the permeability of the cell membrane (Sondi and Sondi, 2004), causing the release of lipopolysaccharides and membrane proteins (Amro et al., 2000). Kim et al. (2007) reported that NPs generate free radicals responsible for damage to the cell membrane and dissipation of the proton motive
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FIG. 13.3 Mechanism of action of silver nanoparticles in plant disease management.
force, resulting in the collapse of the membrane potential (Chun-Nam et al., 2006). The metal NPs after directly interacting with fungal spores affect the formation of germ tubes thereby impacting their colony formation and ultimately lead to reduced disease progression. AgNPs damaged the bacteria cell membrane by accumulating in the interperinial spaces in Gram-negative bacteria (Hanna et al., 2013; Li et al., 2012; Soo-Hwan et al., 2001). Lok et al. (2006) reported that AgNPs cause exhaustion of the intracellular adenosine triphosphate. Previous studies revealed that the antimicrobial efficiency of AgNPs was shape and size dependent. Elgorban et al. (2015) and Shaban et al. (2015) reported that AgNPs in the size range of 1–10 nm attach to the cell membrane surface and significantly damage its permeability and respiratory function. In the study conducted by Min et al. (2009) and Mishra et al. (2016), the antifungal activity of AgNPs against sclerotium-forming phytopathogens R. solani, S. sclerotiorum, and S. minor was maximum when AgNPs were in the size range of 20–50 nm. It was also found that a lower concentration of NPs is sufficient for the management of pathogens because this penetrates the cells efficiently. At 100 ppm concentration of AgNPs, most fungi had a high inhibition effect. It happens because the density of the solution increases, causing coherence/clumping to fungal hyphae (Singh et al., 2016). AgNPs also disrupt transport systems, including ion efflux, and interrupt cellular processes such as metabolism and respiration by reacting with molecules (Morones et al., 2005). Similarly, silver ions react with oxygen and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, causes detrimental effects
13.5 Conclusion and future prospects
and damages the protein synthesis (Hwang et al., 2008). AgNPs also cause loss of DNA replication followed by ribosomal subunit inactivation, thereby hampering protein synthesis (Patel et al., 2014). However, AgNPs are known to primarily affect the function of membrane-bound enzymes such as those in the respiratory chain (Kim et al., 2012). In the field tests, the application of 100 ppm AgNPs showed the highest inhibition rate for both the pre- and postoutbreak of disease on cucumbers and pumpkins. AgNPs kill the unicellular microorganism by oligodynamic action, by inactivating the enzymes that are involved in the metabolic function. Moreover, the ionic state of silver shows higher antimicrobial activity (Thomas and McCubin, 2003). Ionic silver strongly inhibits the growth of Sclerotium rolfsii (Patel et al., 2014). Jo et al. (2009) reported a 50% reduction in disease incidence at 200 mg/L AgNPs against leaf spot in ryegrass (Lolium perenne). AgNPs do cause significant reduction in anthracnose induced by C. gloeosporioides in eggplants (Lamsal et al., 2011a, b; Mishra et al., 2015).
13.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects Currently, the industrial synthesis of high-quality metal nanoparticles is a major concern. Laser pyrolysis, ultrasonication, UV irradiation, photochemical, etc., are some of the most popular physical and chemical methods used for nanoparticle synthesis. But keeping in mind the biosafety risks associated with the hazardous and toxic chemicals used for the synthesis of nanoparticles is a growing concern. Alternative ecofriendly, biological methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles is a rapidly gaining trend. Many metal nanoparticles such as Au, Ag, Fe, Zn, Mg, Co, Mn, etc., have been successfully synthesized through biological methods. In the agricultural sector, biologically synthesized nanoparticles have given very effective results regarding plant growth promotion and disease management. However, it is worth highlighting that the long-term environmental impact of nanoparticles and their effects on human health are major concerns, even for biosynthesized nanoparticles. There is a lack of consensus on the issue and more studies on the biotoxicity and environmental risks associated with the same must be the focus of future research. (1) Providing only a few applications may not improve the acceptance of nanotechnology in agriculture, but scientists must pay major attention to overcome the risk factor regarding nanotechnology and provide a more realistic and acceptable approach. (2) The dose of nanoparticles must be seriously taken into account. Only by understanding the concentration dependency of the natural soil system can accurate dose measurements be determined. (3) For the application of nanoparticles, the physiochemical characteristics of the agricultural field must be taken into account for reducing the deleterious impact on plants and soil biota.
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Acknowledgments RNY and HBS are highly thankful to International Rice Research Institute India for providing financial support for this work.
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Mishra, S., Singh, A., Keswani, C., Saxena, A., Sarma, B.K., Singh, H.B., 2015. Harnessing plant-microbe interactions for enhanced protection against phytopathogens. In: Arora, N.K. (Ed.), Plant Microbes Symbiosis: Applied Facets. Springer, New Delhi, pp. 111–125. Mishra, S., Keswani, C., Singh, A., Singh, B.R., Singh, S.P., Singh, H.B., 2016. Microbial nanoformulation: exploring potential for coherent nano-farming. In: Gupta, V.K., Sharma, G.D., Tuohy, M.G., Gaur, R. (Eds.), The Handbook of Microbial Bioresourses. CABI, London, pp. 107–120. Min, J.S., Kim, K.S., Kim, S.W., Jung, J.H., Lamsal, K., Kim, S.B., Jung, M., Lee, Y.S., 2009. Effects of colloidal silver nanoparticles on sclerotium-forming phytopathogenic fungi. J. Plant Pathol. 25, 376–380. Morones, J.R., Elechiguerra, J.L., Camacho, A., Holt, K., Kouri, J.B., Ramirez, J.T., Yacaman, M.J., 2005. The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles. Nanobiotechnology 16, 2346–2353. Mubarak, D., Thajuddina, N., Jeganathan, K., Gunasekaran, M., 2011. Plant extract mediated synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles and its antibacterial activity against clinically isolated pathogens. Colloids Surf.: B 85, 360–365. Mukherjee, P., Roy, M., Mandal, B.P., Dey, G.K., Mukherjee, P.K., Ghatak, J., Tyagi, A.K., Kale, S.P., 2008. Green synthesis of highly stabilized nanocrystalline silver particles by a nonpathogenic nonpathogenic and agriculturally important fungus Trichoderma asperellum. Nanotechnolology 19, 075103. https://doi. org/10.1088/0957-4484/19/7/075103. Nayak, R.R., Pradhan, N., Behera, D., Pradhan, K.M., Mishra, S., Sukla, L.B., Mishra, B.K., 2010. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticle by Penicillium purpurogenum NPMF, the process and optimization. J. Nanopart. Res. 13, 3129–3137. Nithya, R., Ragunathan, R., 2009. Synthesis of silver nanoparticle using Pleurotus sajor caju and its antimicrobial study. Digest J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 4, 623–629. Patel, N., Desai, P., Patel, N., Jha, A., Gautam, H.K., 2014. Agronanotechnology for plant fungal disease management: a review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 3, 71–84. Park, H.J., Kim, S.H., Kim, H.J., Choi, S.H., 2006. A new composition of nanosized silicasilver for control of various plant diseases. J. Plant Pathol. 22, 295–302. Raliya, R., Tarafdar, J.C., 2014. Biosynthesis and characterization of zinc, magnesium and titanium nanoparticles: an eco-friendly approach. Int. Nano. Lett. 93, 3–10. Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering, 2004. Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties. Royal Society, London, England. Sanghi, R., Verma, P., 2009. Biomimetic synthesis and characterization of protein capped silver nanoparticles. Bio. Res. Technol. 100, 501–504. Emerging Trends in Agri-nanotechnology: Fundamental and Applied Aspects. In: Singh, H.B., Mishra, S., Fraceto, L.F., de Lima, R. (Eds.), 2018. CABI, Wallingford, UK, pp. 302. Sondi, I., Sondi, B.S., 2004. Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 275, 117–182. Saravanan, M., Nanda, A., 2010. Extracellular synthesis of silver bionanoparticles from Aspergillus clavatus and its antimicrobial activity against MRSA and MRSE. Colloids Surf. B. 77, 214–218. Shaban, R.S., Bahkali, A.H., Marwa, M.B., 2015. Antibacterial activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles produced by Aspergillus terreus. Int. J. Pharmacol. 11, 858–863. Shaligram, N.S., Bule, M., Bhambure, R., Singhal, R.S., Singh, S.K., Szakacs, G., Pandey, A., 2009. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract from the compactin producing fungal strain. Process Biochem. 44, 939–943.
Further reading
Kim, S.W., Jung, J.H., Lamsal, K., Kim, Y.S., Min, J.S., Lee, Y.S., 2012. Antifungal effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against various plant pathogenic fungi. Mycobiology 40, 53–58. Singh, D., Rathod, V., Ninganagouda, S., Herimath, J., Kulkarni, P., 2013. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle by endophytic fungi Penicillium sp. isolated from Curcuma longa (turmeric) and its antibacterial activity against pathogenic gram negative bacteria. J. Pharm. Res. 7, 448–453. Singh, D., Rathod, V., Ninganagouda, S., Hiremath, J., Singh, A.K., Mathew, J., 2014. Optimization and characterization of silver nanoparticle by endophytic fungi Penicillium sp. isolated from Curcuma longa (turmeric) and application studies against MDR E. coli and S. aureus. Bioinorg. Chem. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 408021. Singh, H.B., Sarma, B.K., Keswani, C., 2016. Agriculturally Important Microorganisms: Commercialization and Regulatory Requirements in Asia. Springer, Singapore. 336 pp.. Singh, H.B., Sarma, B.K., Keswani, C., 2017. Advances in PGPR. CABI, Wallingford, UK. 408 pp.. Slawson, R.M., Van Dyke, M.I., Lee, H., Trevor, J.T., 1992. Germanium and silver resistance, accumulation and toxicity in microorganisms. Plasmid 27, 73–79. Soo-Hwan, K., Hyeong-Seon, L., Deok-Seon, R., 2001. Antibacterial activity of silvernanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Korean J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 39, 77–85. Thomas, S., McCubin, P., 2003. A comparison of the antimicrobial effects of four silver containing dressings on three organisms. J. Wound Care 12, 101–107. Verma, V.C., Kharwar, R.N., Gange, A.C., 2010. Biosynthesis of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Aspergillus clavatus. Nanomedicine 5, 33–40. Do Vale, L.H., Gomez-Mendeza, D.P., Kim, M.S., Pandey, A., Ricart, C.A., Ximeries, F., Filho, E., Sousa, M.V., 2012. Secretome analysis of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum grown on cellulose. Proteomics (17)2716–2728. Vigneshwaran, N., Kathe, A.A., Varadarajan, P.V., Nachane, R.P., Balasubramanya, R.H., 2006. Biomimetics of silver nanoparticles by white rot fungus, Phaenerochaete chrysosporium. Colloids Surf. B 53, 55–59.
Further Reading Bisen, K., Keswani, C., Mishra, S., Saxena, A., Rakshit, A., Singh, H.B., 2015. Unrealized potential of seed biopriming for versatile agriculture. In: Rakshit, A., Singh, H.B., Sen, A. (Eds.), Nutrient Use Efficiency: From Basics to Advances. Springer, Berlin, pp. 193–206. Choi, O., Deng, K.K., Kim, N.J., Ross Jr., L., Surampalli, R.Y., Hu, Z., 2008. Inhibitory effects of silver nanoparticles, silver ions, and silver chloride colloids on microbial growth. Water Res. 42, 3066–3074. Elchiguerra, J.L., Burt, J.L., Morones, J.R., Camacho-Bragado, A., Gao, X., Lara, H.H., Yacaman, M.J., 2005. Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1. J. Nanobiotechnol. 3, 1–10. Garg, J., Poudel, B., Chiesa, M., 2008. Enhanced thermal conductivity and viscosity of copper nanoparticles in ethylene glycol nanofluid. J. Appl. Phys. 103, 074301. https://doi. org/10.1063/1.2902483. Hegner, M., 2005. Micromechanical cantilever array sensors for selective fungal immobilization and fast growth detection. Biosens. Bioelectron. 21, 849–856.
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Jain, P.K., Huang, X., El-Sayed, I.H., El-Sayed, M.A., 2008. Noble metals on the nanoscale: optical and photothermal properties and some applications in imaging, sensing, biology, and medicine. Acc. Chem. Res. 41, 1578e1586. Jeong, S.H., Yeo, S.Y., Yi, S.C., 2005. The effect of filler particle size on the antibacterial properties of compounded polymer/silver fibers. J. Mater. Sci. 40, 5407–5411. Kukowska-Latallo, J.F., Candido, K.A., Cao, Z., Nigavekar, S.S., Majoros, I.J., Thomas, T.P., Balogh, L.P., Khan, M.K., Baker Jr., J.R., 2005. Nanoparticle targeting of anticancer drug improves therapeutic response in animal model of human epithelial cancer. Cancer Res. 65, 5317–5324. Krishnaraj, C., Ramachandran, R., Mohan, K., Kalaichelvan, P.T., 2012. Optimization for rapid synthesis of silver nanoparticles and its effect on phytopathogenic fungi. Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectros. 93, 95–99. Lee, Y.S., Kalpana, D., 2013. Synthesis and characterization of bactericidal silver nanoparticles using cultural filtrate of simulated microgravity grown Klebsiella pneumonia. Enz. Microb. Technol. 52, 151–156. Kasprowicz, M.J., Kozioł, M., Gorczycam, A., 2010. The effect of silver nanoparticles on phytopathogenic spores of Fusarium culmorum. Can. J. Microbiol. 56, 247–253. Mishra, S., Singh, A., Keswani, C., Singh, H.B., 2014b. Nanotechnology: exploring potential application in agriculture and its opportunities and constraints. Biotech Today 4, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.5958/2322-0996.2014.00011.8. Mishra, S., Singh, H.B., 2015. Silver nanoparticles mediated altered gene expression of melanin biosynthesis gene in Bipolaris sorokiniana. Microbiol. Res. 172, 16–18. Mishra, S., Keswani, C., Abhilash, P.C., Fraceto, L.F., Singh, H.B., 2017. Integrated approach of agri-nanotechnology: challenges and future trends. Front. Plant Sci.. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00471. McNeil, S.E., Nugaeva, N., Gfeller, K.Y., Backmann, N., Lang, H.P., Meng, Y., Li, Y., Galvani, C.D., Hao, G., Turner, J.N., Burr, T.J., Hoch, H.C., 2005. Upstream migration of Xylella fastidiosa via Pilus-Driven twitching motility. J. Bacteriol. 187, 5560–5567. Paul, A., Jha, A., Bhardwaj, S., Singh, S., Shankar, R., Kumar, S., 2014. RNA-seq-mediated transcriptome analysis of actively growing and winter dormant shoots identifies non- deciduous habit of evergreen tree tea during winters. Sci. Rep. 4, 5932. https://doi. org/10.1038/srep05932. Ping, G., Huimin, L., Xiaoxiao, H., Kemin, W., Jianbing, H., Weihong, T., Shouchun, Z., Xiaohai, Y., 2007. Preparation and antibacterial activity of Fe3O4@Ag nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 18, 28–35. Rai, M., Yadav, A., Gade, A., 2009. Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnol. Adv. 27, 76–83. Ram, R.M., Keswani, C., Bisen, K., Tripathi, R., Singh, S.P., Singh, H.B., 2018. Biocontrol technology: eco-friendly approaches for sustainable agriculture. In: Barh, D., Azevedo, V. (Eds.), Omics Technologies and Bio-Engineering: Towards Improving Quality of Life. 2. Academic Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 177–190. Sharon, M., Choudhary, A.K., Kumar, R., 2010. Nanotechnology in agricultural diseases and food safety. J. Phytol. 2, 83–92. Shrestha, S., Yeung, C.M.Y., Nunnerley, C., Tsang, S.C., 2007. Comparison of morphology and electrical conductivity of various thin films containing nano-crystalline praseodymium oxide particles. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 136, 191–198. Yeo, S.Y., Lee, H.J., Jeong, S.H., 2013. Preparation of nanocomposite fibers for permanent antibacterial effect. J. Mater. Sci. 38, 2143–2147.
Silver nanoparticlebased biopesticides for phytopathogens: Scope and potential in agriculture
13
Jeetu Narware, R.N. Yadav, Chetan Keswani, S.P. Singh, H.B. Singh Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
13.1 Introduction The Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering (2004) reported that, for the past decade, potential revolutionary changes have occurred in agricultural practices because of nanotechnology. The varied application of nanotechnology in agriculture may be beneficial for the overall growth and management of plant diseases. For example, nanoformulations of fertilizers as well as micro- and macronutrients help in increasing the crop yield and providing a better defense against pests and diseases in various crops (Keswani et al., 2016). Particulate systems such as the physical approach have been used to alter and improve the effectiveness of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology offers ecofriendly alternatives for plant disease management, which may play a crucial role in global food production, food security. and food safety (Fig. 13.1). Recently, several metallic NPs (such as Ag, Au, Zn, Ni, and Ti) have been used as antimicrobial agents for the management of phytopathogens. Nanopesticide formulations offer added advantages over conventional pesticides by increasing the solubility of poorly soluble active ingredients, the target-oriented slow release of active ingredients, and reduced premature degradation of active ingredients. Different types of nanomaterial products such as nanopesticides, nanofertilizers, and nanosensors have been developed for agricultural practices by different physical, chemical, and biological methods. Due to the use of numerous toxic compounds for the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles and the higher cost of production, the current research is strenuously focused on exploring ecofriendly and cost-effective methods for the green synthesis of nanoparticles (Dubey et al., 2010). The biological approach for nanoparticle synthesis employs bacteria (Mandal et al. 2006), fungi (Mukherjee et al., 2008), and plant extracts (Bar et al., 2009; Jagtap and Bapat, 2013; Mubarak et al., 2011). The relative advantages of using microorganisms over plant extracts are that microorganisms can tolerate high concentrations of metal nanoparticles in the medium, the management of microorganisms for the large-scale p roduction of Nano-Biopesticides Today and Future Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815829-6.00013-9 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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FIG. 13.1 Applications of nanotechnology in agriculture.
nanoparticles is relatively easy, dispersion is relatively better, and hydrolytic enzymes/secondary metabolites are included in the formulation. Certain bacteria and fungi have a comparatively higher innate affinity to remediate and reduce heavy metals to metal ions. Such microorganisms could act as potential nanofactories for the production of metal nanoparticles, for example, Aspergillus spp. (Bhainsa and D’Souza, 2006), Trichoderma asperellum (Mukherjee et al., 2008), Trichoderma reesei (Singh et al., 2018), etc. (Tables 13.1 and 13.2). Currently, Trichoderma spp. is the most popular biocontrol agent and the most potent fungal nanofactory for the production of metal nanopaticles. This is because it has a highly diverse functional secretome including various hydrolytic enzymes, namely chitinases, glucanases, proteases, cellulases xylanases, mannanases, lipases, etc. (Do Vale et al., 2012; Fraceto et al., 2018, Grondona et al., 1997; Mishra et al., 2015). Moreover, Trichoderma spp. also produces many chemically diverse secondary metabolites that have high reducing properties, namely naphthoquinones and anthraquinones (Keswani et al., 2014).
13.2 Factors Affecting Fungal Synthesis of Metallic NPs Continuous interactions between fungi and the environment influence the growth and development of the organism. The physical conditions in which fungi are cultivated affect the enzyme production (Keswani et al., 2014). Singh et al. (2013) demonstrated that optimum environmental conditions are a prerequisite to enhance the yield of nanoparticles. There are a few reports on the effects of culture conditions on the
Table 13.1 Role of Silver Nanoparticles in Plant Disease Management Pathogen
Application
Diseases
Crops
References
AgNPs AgNPs
Raffaelea sp. M. grisea
Antifungal Antifungal
Bipolaris sorokiniana (Sacc.) Alternaria alternata Alternaria solani
Antifungal
Oak Rice and turfgrass Gramineous spp.
Kim et al. (2007) Jo et al. (2009)
AgNPs
Antifungal
Oak wilt disease Blast of rice and gray leaf spot on turfgrass Seedling blight, root rot, crown rot, and leaf spot blotch on various Alternaria leaf blight
Pepper, tomato
Kim et al. (2012)
Antifungal
Alternaria leaf spot
Kim et al. (2012)
AgNPs
Cladosporium cucumerinum
Antifungal
Scab
AgNPs
Fusarium oxysporum Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Antifungal
Fusarium wilt
Pepper, tomato, potato Cucumber, melon, pumpkin, eegplant Tomato
Antifungal
Anthracnose
Chilli
Aguilar-Mendez et al. (2010)
AgNPs AgNPs
AgNPs
Jo et al. (2009)
Kim et al. (2012)
Kim et al. (2012)
13.2 Factors affecting fungal synthesis of metallic NPs
NPs
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Table 13.2 Microorganisms Involved in the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Microbes
Nature of NPs
References
Antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Antibacterial Antifungal Vegetable and fruit preservation Antifungal and antibacterial activity Antibacterial
Gajbhiye et al. (2009) Verma et al. (2010) Fateixa et al. (2009) Shaligram et al. (2009) Mukherjee et al. (2008) Fayaz et al. (2009)
Antibacterial Antibacterial
Singh et al. (2014) Nithya and Ragunathan (2009) Nayak et al. (2010)
Fungi Alternaria alternata Aspergillus clavatus Aspergillus niger Fusarium oxysporum Trichoderma asperellum Trichoderma viride Aspergillus niger Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Penicillium sp. Pleurotus sajorcaju Penicillium purpurogenum NPMF
Antibacterial
Jaidev and Narasimha (2010) Joshi et al. (2013)
Bacteria Bacillus sp. Serratia sp. Clostridium versicolor Pseudomonas stutzeri
Antifungal activity toward Fusarium oxysporum Antifungal activity toward Bipolaris sorokiniana Antifungal Antifungal
Gopinath and Velusamy (2013) Mishra et al. (2014a)
Antifungal
Dujardin et al. (2003)
Sanghi and Verma (2009) Slawson et al. (1992)
Virus Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
biosynthesis of metal NPs. It has been demonstrated that incubation conditions such as temperature, pH, incubation time, nature of the parent compound, and biomass concentration of the fungus species affect directly the mycosynthesis of nanoparticles (Ingle et al., 2008; Saravanan and Nanda, 2010; Vigneshwaran et al., 2006). The geometry of AgNPs is manipulated by temperature and pH. According to Raliya and Tarafdar (2014), larger nanoparticles are obtained at salt concentrations of 0.1 mmol/L salt when incubated at 28°C and pH 5.5 for 72 h (Fig. 13.2).
13.3 Role of AgNPs for Plant Disease Management Huge economic losses are caused annually due to various pests and pathogens. The application of biosynthesized metal nanoparticles offers an ecofriendly a lternative for
13.4 Mechanism of nanoparticles in plant disease management
FIG. 13.2 General method of ecofriendly biosynthesis of nanoparticles.
the management of plant diseases. Silver ions and silver-based composites are highly toxic for microorganisms (Sondi and Sondi, 2004). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have excellent antimicrobial activity in low doses against various bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Singh et al., 2017). Some recent reports have established the fungicidal effects of nanosilver against several phytopathogenic fungi (Kim et al., 2012; Park et al., 2006), but the fungicidal mechanism has not been clearly elucidated. The inhibitory effect of AgNP suspension on the fungal growth and conidial germination of the ascomycetous phytopathogen Raffaelea sp. causing oak wilt disease has also been established (Kim et al., 2007) (Tables 13.1 and 13.2).
13.4 Mechanism of Nanoparticles in Plant Disease Management Nanoparticles act by different mechanisms that help in the suppression of plant pathogens (Fig. 13.3). NPs have been known for their strong bactericidal and inhibitory effects through altering the permeability of the cell membrane (Sondi and Sondi, 2004), causing the release of lipopolysaccharides and membrane proteins (Amro et al., 2000). Kim et al. (2007) reported that NPs generate free radicals responsible for damage to the cell membrane and dissipation of the proton motive
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FIG. 13.3 Mechanism of action of silver nanoparticles in plant disease management.
force, resulting in the collapse of the membrane potential (Chun-Nam et al., 2006). The metal NPs after directly interacting with fungal spores affect the formation of germ tubes thereby impacting their colony formation and ultimately lead to reduced disease progression. AgNPs damaged the bacteria cell membrane by accumulating in the interperinial spaces in Gram-negative bacteria (Hanna et al., 2013; Li et al., 2012; Soo-Hwan et al., 2001). Lok et al. (2006) reported that AgNPs cause exhaustion of the intracellular adenosine triphosphate. Previous studies revealed that the antimicrobial efficiency of AgNPs was shape and size dependent. Elgorban et al. (2015) and Shaban et al. (2015) reported that AgNPs in the size range of 1–10 nm attach to the cell membrane surface and significantly damage its permeability and respiratory function. In the study conducted by Min et al. (2009) and Mishra et al. (2016), the antifungal activity of AgNPs against sclerotium-forming phytopathogens R. solani, S. sclerotiorum, and S. minor was maximum when AgNPs were in the size range of 20–50 nm. It was also found that a lower concentration of NPs is sufficient for the management of pathogens because this penetrates the cells efficiently. At 100 ppm concentration of AgNPs, most fungi had a high inhibition effect. It happens because the density of the solution increases, causing coherence/clumping to fungal hyphae (Singh et al., 2016). AgNPs also disrupt transport systems, including ion efflux, and interrupt cellular processes such as metabolism and respiration by reacting with molecules (Morones et al., 2005). Similarly, silver ions react with oxygen and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which, in turn, causes detrimental effects
13.5 Conclusion and future prospects
and damages the protein synthesis (Hwang et al., 2008). AgNPs also cause loss of DNA replication followed by ribosomal subunit inactivation, thereby hampering protein synthesis (Patel et al., 2014). However, AgNPs are known to primarily affect the function of membrane-bound enzymes such as those in the respiratory chain (Kim et al., 2012). In the field tests, the application of 100 ppm AgNPs showed the highest inhibition rate for both the pre- and postoutbreak of disease on cucumbers and pumpkins. AgNPs kill the unicellular microorganism by oligodynamic action, by inactivating the enzymes that are involved in the metabolic function. Moreover, the ionic state of silver shows higher antimicrobial activity (Thomas and McCubin, 2003). Ionic silver strongly inhibits the growth of Sclerotium rolfsii (Patel et al., 2014). Jo et al. (2009) reported a 50% reduction in disease incidence at 200 mg/L AgNPs against leaf spot in ryegrass (Lolium perenne). AgNPs do cause significant reduction in anthracnose induced by C. gloeosporioides in eggplants (Lamsal et al., 2011a, b; Mishra et al., 2015).
13.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects Currently, the industrial synthesis of high-quality metal nanoparticles is a major concern. Laser pyrolysis, ultrasonication, UV irradiation, photochemical, etc., are some of the most popular physical and chemical methods used for nanoparticle synthesis. But keeping in mind the biosafety risks associated with the hazardous and toxic chemicals used for the synthesis of nanoparticles is a growing concern. Alternative ecofriendly, biological methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles is a rapidly gaining trend. Many metal nanoparticles such as Au, Ag, Fe, Zn, Mg, Co, Mn, etc., have been successfully synthesized through biological methods. In the agricultural sector, biologically synthesized nanoparticles have given very effective results regarding plant growth promotion and disease management. However, it is worth highlighting that the long-term environmental impact of nanoparticles and their effects on human health are major concerns, even for biosynthesized nanoparticles. There is a lack of consensus on the issue and more studies on the biotoxicity and environmental risks associated with the same must be the focus of future research. (1) Providing only a few applications may not improve the acceptance of nanotechnology in agriculture, but scientists must pay major attention to overcome the risk factor regarding nanotechnology and provide a more realistic and acceptable approach. (2) The dose of nanoparticles must be seriously taken into account. Only by understanding the concentration dependency of the natural soil system can accurate dose measurements be determined. (3) For the application of nanoparticles, the physiochemical characteristics of the agricultural field must be taken into account for reducing the deleterious impact on plants and soil biota.
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Acknowledgments RNY and HBS are highly thankful to International Rice Research Institute India for providing financial support for this work.
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Mishra, S., Singh, A., Keswani, C., Saxena, A., Sarma, B.K., Singh, H.B., 2015. Harnessing plant-microbe interactions for enhanced protection against phytopathogens. In: Arora, N.K. (Ed.), Plant Microbes Symbiosis: Applied Facets. Springer, New Delhi, pp. 111–125. Mishra, S., Keswani, C., Singh, A., Singh, B.R., Singh, S.P., Singh, H.B., 2016. Microbial nanoformulation: exploring potential for coherent nano-farming. In: Gupta, V.K., Sharma, G.D., Tuohy, M.G., Gaur, R. (Eds.), The Handbook of Microbial Bioresourses. CABI, London, pp. 107–120. Min, J.S., Kim, K.S., Kim, S.W., Jung, J.H., Lamsal, K., Kim, S.B., Jung, M., Lee, Y.S., 2009. Effects of colloidal silver nanoparticles on sclerotium-forming phytopathogenic fungi. J. Plant Pathol. 25, 376–380. Morones, J.R., Elechiguerra, J.L., Camacho, A., Holt, K., Kouri, J.B., Ramirez, J.T., Yacaman, M.J., 2005. The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles. Nanobiotechnology 16, 2346–2353. Mubarak, D., Thajuddina, N., Jeganathan, K., Gunasekaran, M., 2011. Plant extract mediated synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles and its antibacterial activity against clinically isolated pathogens. Colloids Surf.: B 85, 360–365. Mukherjee, P., Roy, M., Mandal, B.P., Dey, G.K., Mukherjee, P.K., Ghatak, J., Tyagi, A.K., Kale, S.P., 2008. Green synthesis of highly stabilized nanocrystalline silver particles by a nonpathogenic nonpathogenic and agriculturally important fungus Trichoderma asperellum. Nanotechnolology 19, 075103. https://doi. org/10.1088/0957-4484/19/7/075103. Nayak, R.R., Pradhan, N., Behera, D., Pradhan, K.M., Mishra, S., Sukla, L.B., Mishra, B.K., 2010. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticle by Penicillium purpurogenum NPMF, the process and optimization. J. Nanopart. Res. 13, 3129–3137. Nithya, R., Ragunathan, R., 2009. Synthesis of silver nanoparticle using Pleurotus sajor caju and its antimicrobial study. Digest J. Nanomater. Biostruct. 4, 623–629. Patel, N., Desai, P., Patel, N., Jha, A., Gautam, H.K., 2014. Agronanotechnology for plant fungal disease management: a review. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 3, 71–84. Park, H.J., Kim, S.H., Kim, H.J., Choi, S.H., 2006. A new composition of nanosized silicasilver for control of various plant diseases. J. Plant Pathol. 22, 295–302. Raliya, R., Tarafdar, J.C., 2014. Biosynthesis and characterization of zinc, magnesium and titanium nanoparticles: an eco-friendly approach. Int. Nano. Lett. 93, 3–10. Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering, 2004. Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties. Royal Society, London, England. Sanghi, R., Verma, P., 2009. Biomimetic synthesis and characterization of protein capped silver nanoparticles. Bio. Res. Technol. 100, 501–504. Emerging Trends in Agri-nanotechnology: Fundamental and Applied Aspects. In: Singh, H.B., Mishra, S., Fraceto, L.F., de Lima, R. (Eds.), 2018. CABI, Wallingford, UK, pp. 302. Sondi, I., Sondi, B.S., 2004. Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 275, 117–182. Saravanan, M., Nanda, A., 2010. Extracellular synthesis of silver bionanoparticles from Aspergillus clavatus and its antimicrobial activity against MRSA and MRSE. Colloids Surf. B. 77, 214–218. Shaban, R.S., Bahkali, A.H., Marwa, M.B., 2015. Antibacterial activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles produced by Aspergillus terreus. Int. J. Pharmacol. 11, 858–863. Shaligram, N.S., Bule, M., Bhambure, R., Singhal, R.S., Singh, S.K., Szakacs, G., Pandey, A., 2009. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract from the compactin producing fungal strain. Process Biochem. 44, 939–943.
Further reading
Kim, S.W., Jung, J.H., Lamsal, K., Kim, Y.S., Min, J.S., Lee, Y.S., 2012. Antifungal effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against various plant pathogenic fungi. Mycobiology 40, 53–58. Singh, D., Rathod, V., Ninganagouda, S., Herimath, J., Kulkarni, P., 2013. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticle by endophytic fungi Penicillium sp. isolated from Curcuma longa (turmeric) and its antibacterial activity against pathogenic gram negative bacteria. J. Pharm. Res. 7, 448–453. Singh, D., Rathod, V., Ninganagouda, S., Hiremath, J., Singh, A.K., Mathew, J., 2014. Optimization and characterization of silver nanoparticle by endophytic fungi Penicillium sp. isolated from Curcuma longa (turmeric) and application studies against MDR E. coli and S. aureus. Bioinorg. Chem. Appl. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/ 408021. Singh, H.B., Sarma, B.K., Keswani, C., 2016. Agriculturally Important Microorganisms: Commercialization and Regulatory Requirements in Asia. Springer, Singapore. 336 pp.. Singh, H.B., Sarma, B.K., Keswani, C., 2017. Advances in PGPR. CABI, Wallingford, UK. 408 pp.. Slawson, R.M., Van Dyke, M.I., Lee, H., Trevor, J.T., 1992. Germanium and silver resistance, accumulation and toxicity in microorganisms. Plasmid 27, 73–79. Soo-Hwan, K., Hyeong-Seon, L., Deok-Seon, R., 2001. Antibacterial activity of silvernanoparticles against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Korean J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 39, 77–85. Thomas, S., McCubin, P., 2003. A comparison of the antimicrobial effects of four silver containing dressings on three organisms. J. Wound Care 12, 101–107. Verma, V.C., Kharwar, R.N., Gange, A.C., 2010. Biosynthesis of antimicrobial silver nanoparticles by the endophytic fungus Aspergillus clavatus. Nanomedicine 5, 33–40. Do Vale, L.H., Gomez-Mendeza, D.P., Kim, M.S., Pandey, A., Ricart, C.A., Ximeries, F., Filho, E., Sousa, M.V., 2012. Secretome analysis of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum grown on cellulose. Proteomics (17)2716–2728. Vigneshwaran, N., Kathe, A.A., Varadarajan, P.V., Nachane, R.P., Balasubramanya, R.H., 2006. Biomimetics of silver nanoparticles by white rot fungus, Phaenerochaete chrysosporium. Colloids Surf. B 53, 55–59.
Further Reading Bisen, K., Keswani, C., Mishra, S., Saxena, A., Rakshit, A., Singh, H.B., 2015. Unrealized potential of seed biopriming for versatile agriculture. In: Rakshit, A., Singh, H.B., Sen, A. (Eds.), Nutrient Use Efficiency: From Basics to Advances. Springer, Berlin, pp. 193–206. Choi, O., Deng, K.K., Kim, N.J., Ross Jr., L., Surampalli, R.Y., Hu, Z., 2008. Inhibitory effects of silver nanoparticles, silver ions, and silver chloride colloids on microbial growth. Water Res. 42, 3066–3074. Elchiguerra, J.L., Burt, J.L., Morones, J.R., Camacho-Bragado, A., Gao, X., Lara, H.H., Yacaman, M.J., 2005. Interaction of silver nanoparticles with HIV-1. J. Nanobiotechnol. 3, 1–10. Garg, J., Poudel, B., Chiesa, M., 2008. Enhanced thermal conductivity and viscosity of copper nanoparticles in ethylene glycol nanofluid. J. Appl. Phys. 103, 074301. https://doi. org/10.1063/1.2902483. Hegner, M., 2005. Micromechanical cantilever array sensors for selective fungal immobilization and fast growth detection. Biosens. Bioelectron. 21, 849–856.
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Jain, P.K., Huang, X., El-Sayed, I.H., El-Sayed, M.A., 2008. Noble metals on the nanoscale: optical and photothermal properties and some applications in imaging, sensing, biology, and medicine. Acc. Chem. Res. 41, 1578e1586. Jeong, S.H., Yeo, S.Y., Yi, S.C., 2005. The effect of filler particle size on the antibacterial properties of compounded polymer/silver fibers. J. Mater. Sci. 40, 5407–5411. Kukowska-Latallo, J.F., Candido, K.A., Cao, Z., Nigavekar, S.S., Majoros, I.J., Thomas, T.P., Balogh, L.P., Khan, M.K., Baker Jr., J.R., 2005. Nanoparticle targeting of anticancer drug improves therapeutic response in animal model of human epithelial cancer. Cancer Res. 65, 5317–5324. Krishnaraj, C., Ramachandran, R., Mohan, K., Kalaichelvan, P.T., 2012. Optimization for rapid synthesis of silver nanoparticles and its effect on phytopathogenic fungi. Spectrochim. Acta A: Mol. Biomol. Spectros. 93, 95–99. Lee, Y.S., Kalpana, D., 2013. Synthesis and characterization of bactericidal silver nanoparticles using cultural filtrate of simulated microgravity grown Klebsiella pneumonia. Enz. Microb. Technol. 52, 151–156. Kasprowicz, M.J., Kozioł, M., Gorczycam, A., 2010. The effect of silver nanoparticles on phytopathogenic spores of Fusarium culmorum. Can. J. Microbiol. 56, 247–253. Mishra, S., Singh, A., Keswani, C., Singh, H.B., 2014b. Nanotechnology: exploring potential application in agriculture and its opportunities and constraints. Biotech Today 4, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.5958/2322-0996.2014.00011.8. Mishra, S., Singh, H.B., 2015. Silver nanoparticles mediated altered gene expression of melanin biosynthesis gene in Bipolaris sorokiniana. Microbiol. Res. 172, 16–18. Mishra, S., Keswani, C., Abhilash, P.C., Fraceto, L.F., Singh, H.B., 2017. Integrated approach of agri-nanotechnology: challenges and future trends. Front. Plant Sci.. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00471. McNeil, S.E., Nugaeva, N., Gfeller, K.Y., Backmann, N., Lang, H.P., Meng, Y., Li, Y., Galvani, C.D., Hao, G., Turner, J.N., Burr, T.J., Hoch, H.C., 2005. Upstream migration of Xylella fastidiosa via Pilus-Driven twitching motility. J. Bacteriol. 187, 5560–5567. Paul, A., Jha, A., Bhardwaj, S., Singh, S., Shankar, R., Kumar, S., 2014. RNA-seq-mediated transcriptome analysis of actively growing and winter dormant shoots identifies non- deciduous habit of evergreen tree tea during winters. Sci. Rep. 4, 5932. https://doi. org/10.1038/srep05932. Ping, G., Huimin, L., Xiaoxiao, H., Kemin, W., Jianbing, H., Weihong, T., Shouchun, Z., Xiaohai, Y., 2007. Preparation and antibacterial activity of Fe3O4@Ag nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 18, 28–35. Rai, M., Yadav, A., Gade, A., 2009. Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnol. Adv. 27, 76–83. Ram, R.M., Keswani, C., Bisen, K., Tripathi, R., Singh, S.P., Singh, H.B., 2018. Biocontrol technology: eco-friendly approaches for sustainable agriculture. In: Barh, D., Azevedo, V. (Eds.), Omics Technologies and Bio-Engineering: Towards Improving Quality of Life. 2. Academic Press, Oxford, UK, pp. 177–190. Sharon, M., Choudhary, A.K., Kumar, R., 2010. Nanotechnology in agricultural diseases and food safety. J. Phytol. 2, 83–92. Shrestha, S., Yeung, C.M.Y., Nunnerley, C., Tsang, S.C., 2007. Comparison of morphology and electrical conductivity of various thin films containing nano-crystalline praseodymium oxide particles. Sens. Actuators A: Phys. 136, 191–198. Yeo, S.Y., Lee, H.J., Jeong, S.H., 2013. Preparation of nanocomposite fibers for permanent antibacterial effect. J. Mater. Sci. 38, 2143–2147.