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Similarities between self-reported road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their perceptions concerning road safety behavior of their parents
Transportation Research Part F 24 (2014) 8–16
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Transportation Research Part F journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trf
Similarities between self-reported road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their perceptions concerning road safety behavior of their parents Birute Strukcinskiene a,⇑, Vincentas Giedraitis b, Juozas Raistenskis c, Arvydas Martinkenas a, Vaiva Strukcinskaite a, Rimantas Stukas c, Serpil Ugur Baysal d a
Faculty of Health Sciences, Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lithuania Faculty of Economics, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania d Faculty of Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 10 September 2013 Received in revised form 18 February 2014 Accepted 19 February 2014
Keywords: Road safety Behavior Teenagers Parents Driving
a b s t r a c t The study investigated 401 19-year-olds, who were licensed car drivers in Lithuania. The focus of the survey was on the self-reported road safety behaviors of teenage drivers and their perceptions of their parents’ road safety behaviors, in order to assess behavioral similarities between teenagers and their parents. The survey also investigated whether parents and teenagers discuss issues of driving safely, and whether there is an association between these conversations and driving restrictions. According to teenagers’ reporting, road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their parents often is similar: most of them break the speed limit, drive when feeling fatigued, use a cell phone when driving, and do not fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The study indicated that there is a positive moderate correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and their parents, as reported by the teenagers. A majority of teenagers report that they discuss road safety factors, driving safely and driving behavior with their parents. Based on teenager reports, the parents, who discuss road safety issues with their children, are more likely to apply restrictions on teenagers’ driving. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Injuries inflicted by road traffic crashes remain a global public health problem, especially in middle and low-income countries. Although middle-income countries account for 38.7% of global registered vehicles, 49.6% of global road traffic deaths occur in these countries (WHO, 2009). Lithuania has been a middle-income country since 2004, when she joined the European Union. Fatal injuries due to road traffic crashes are a leading cause of death for young people aged 15–29 years. In terms of total crashes per million miles driven, 16–19-year-olds have a crash rate almost twice that of 20–24-year-olds, almost 3 times that of 25–29-year-olds, and more than 4 times that of 30–69-year-olds (Williams, 2003). In the European Union,
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Faculty of Health Sciences, Klaipeda University, H. Manto Str. 84, LT-92294 Klaipeda, Lithuania. Tel.: +370 46 398560. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Strukcinskiene). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2014.02.003 1369-8478/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Strukcinskiene et al. / Transportation Research Part F 24 (2014) 8–16
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automobiles are the main mode of transport for teenagers, and road traffic injuries account for 46% of all causes of fatal injuries in young adults between ages 15 and 24 (EuroSafe, 2013). The risk of a crash for young drivers is higher than for any other age group (Shope, 2006; Williams, 2003). Teenagers and young people are at a high risk to common road safety factors and at high risk for traffic crashes. Examples of risk factors include drinking and driving, speeding, not using seat belts, cell phone use, and fatigue (Eaton et al., 2012; Mohan, Tiwari, Khayesi, & Nafukho, 2006; NHTSA, 2005; Peden et al., 2004; Weiss & et al., 2006; WHO, 2012). Young people are often involved in fatal or non-fatal road traffic crashes. The most successful road safety strategies use a combination of education aimed at road user behavior improvements and skills training, legislation with vigorous enforcement, along with environmental or engineering changes (Bauer & Steiner, 2009; Elvik & Vaa, 2004; Lyons & Brophy, 2005; Pan et al., 2006; Pless, 2004; Towner, 2005). No research on young drivers had been performed in Lithuania or other Baltic countries prior to this research. Lithuania is the one of the worst performing countries in the European Union with regard to road traffic mortality. An important contribution of this research is to empirically examine the road safety habits of driving teenagers (19-year old young drivers) and to investigate similarities across generations regarding driving behavior. Divera and Stacey (2007) conducted a comprehensive study of driver risk in some European countries, but there was no discussion of Lithuania. Official statistics are available on traffic deaths of 15–24-year-olds, which include car occupants (drivers and passengers together). For instance, in Lithuania, in 2012, the rate of transport injury deaths per 100, 000 in the age group 15–24 years was 16.1 (27.1 for males and 4.5 for females) (Causes of deaths register, 2013). Data is also available about the distribution among types of road users: drivers and passengers together, pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. In Lithuania, in 2012, in young people aged 15–24 years, the mortality rate for pedestrians was 4.6 (for male 8.1 and for female 1.0), for cyclists – 1.0 (for male 1.9 and for female 0), for motorcyclists – 1.7 (for male 3.3 and for female 0), and for car occupants – 8.5 (for male 13.3 and for female 3.5) (Causes of deaths register, 2013). Data on causes of death for 19-year-old drivers are not available. Our study was focused on road behavior of driving teenagers and their communication with parents on road safety in a transitional period of life. This research fits into a rich model of parent-teen comparisons and discussions, and continues a long tradition of making suggestions to policy makers, which are theoretically grounded, empirically tested and have a practical use (Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012; Taubman-Ben-Ari, Mikulincer, & Gillath, 2005). Seminal research in this field, though using a somewhat different methodology, was conducted by Taubman-Ben-Ari et al. (2005), who indicated associations between the driving styles of parents and of their children. The effect the family has on the driving behavior of teenagers, the correlation between the driving style or risk perception of the teenager and a parent, and parenting skills, concepts, and learning methodologies have all received wide coverage in the scientific community (Brookland, Begg, Langley, & Ameratunga, 2010; Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010; Mirman & Kay, 2012; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012). According to Brookland, Begg, Langley, and Ameratunga (2008), there are associations between the driving behaviors of parents and their children. Observing a parent’s driving while drunk may increase the risk of a young person committing the same offence (Evans-Whipp et al., 2013). Thus, family and parents can influence driving behavior of their teenager. In Lithuania, a driving license can be obtained from the age of 18. For novice drivers, the license is issued for 2 years. A GDL (Graduated Driver’s License), which is issued in other countries, is not used in Lithuania. The role parents have in driving education is informal (it is not legally defined). Lithuanian parents use their own initiative to participate in their teens’ road safety education. The overarching research question of our study was to investigate the similarities in road safety behavior of driving teenagers and their parents, as reported by teenagers. Our hypotheses were: (1) We expect a positive correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and parents, as reported by teenagers. (2) We expect a significant association of discussions between parents and teenagers on road safety and restrictions for teenagers to drive, as reported by teenagers. The objectives of the study were to investigate firstly, the self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers (as a group and by gender); secondly, their perceptions of road safety behavior of their parents; and thirdly, correlations between young drivers’ behaviors and parents’ behaviors, as perceived by teenage drivers. Additionally, the self-reported road safety knowledge of teenagers, their discussions with parents on road safety, and teenagers’ perceptions concerning associations of driving restrictions and discussions on road safety between teenagers and parents were analyzed. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Participants and data collection The study investigated 19-year-old driving teenagers’ self-reported road safety behaviors and their perceptions of their parents’ road safety behaviors. The surveyed teenagers responded to the questions given to them. They also responded to the questions about their parents’ road safety behavior.
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The study investigated 19-year-old teenagers who were licensed car drivers. The time since acquiring the license was 1– 20 months. The decisions to have 19-year-old participants in our study was made because it is a transitional age when children finish school; some of them leave home, start studies, change their life style, and start living independently. We wanted to examine whether these young people communicate and retain their connection with parents, and discuss and interact with their parents on important issues of road safety. We used the number of licensed 19-year-old car drivers in the country and Yamane’s formula (Yamane, 1967) for calculating the number of respondents who needed to be surveyed. We calculated that the national sample size should be no less than 395. A random cluster sample was used. Sample distribution by sex matches the 19-year-olds population in Lithuania at the time when the study was conducted. From all of Lithuania we selected 19-year-olds from 3 higher university institutions, 2 higher non-university institutions, 2 vocational schools, and 3 small and middle enterprises (for example, hotels, and pizzerias), all randomly selected. In the educational institutions we randomly selected departments or units and groups. The survey was conducted in Lithuania, in September 2012. After explaining the purpose of the study, the questionnaires were handed out to the teenagers in the beginning or towards the end of lectures, and during breaks. The questionnaires were handed out only to 19-year-old licensed car drivers. Once completed, the questionnaires were collected. We analyzed those questionnaires in which more than half of the questions were answered. During our study, 401 answered and returned questionnaires were analyzed (the response rate was 81.84%). The survey was voluntary and anonymous. Before the survey, we received approval from the institutions to conduct the research. The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of Lithuania. 2.2. Measures For the survey, a structured questionnaire was developed specifically for this study by the authors. This questionnaire was designed to consist of a general part (data on gender and on the history of involvement in a traffic crash was collected) and the specific part of the questionnaire. The specific part consisted of five sections: I. II. III. IV. V.
Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers; Fathers’ road safety behavior, as reported by teenagers; Mothers’ road safety behavior, as reported by teenagers; Self-reported road safety promotion; Discussions between teenagers and parents on driving safely and road safety, as reported by teenagers.
Section I, Section II, and Section III had subsections on: (1) Safety restraints: Respondents were asked about the use of the seat belts (the questions: ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat?, ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat?’’, ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as the driver?’’). (2) Road safety behavior: Respondents were asked about speeding (the question: ‘‘Do you speed when driving?’’); alcohol and drug use (the questions: ‘‘Do you drive when you are a little drunk?, ‘‘Do you drive when very drunk’’, ’’Do you drive under the influence of illicit drugs?’’); the use of a cell phone while driving (the questions: ’’Do you use a cell phone when driving?’’, ‘‘Do you read or write text messages when driving?’’); driving when feeling fatigued (the question: ‘‘Do you drive when feeling fatigued?’’). (3) Road safety culture: Respondents were asked about road safety culture (the question: ‘‘Do you allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossings?’’). The options of answers in the Sections I, II, and III were: always, sometimes, never. In Section IV were questions for teenagers on road safety promotion. The question ‘‘From whom or where did you get most of your knowledge on road safety and on driver’s behavior?’’ had the answer options: parents; teachers/lecturers; friends, TV, radio, and print media; internet, other. The question ‘‘Do you think you have enough knowledge on road safety?’’ had the answer options: yes, not sure, no. In Section V, questions concerning communication and discussions between teenagers and parents (father and mother) were asked (the questions: ‘‘Do you discuss with your father and mother: driving safely, the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving, the influence of illicit drugs when driving, on the risk of using a cell phone when driving, and on the necessity of fastening seat belts when driving?’’; ‘‘Do you tell your father and mother, if you have been driving dangerously, or about violations while driving a car (if you were speeding, driving when drunk, etc.). In addition, a question on restrictions was asked (‘‘If you often fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, does your parent restrict your ability to drive?’’). In Section V, the answer options were often/always, sometimes, or never. The reliability of the five sections was examined with the internal consistency measure of Cronbach’s alpha and the mean inter-question correlation (MIIC) among the questions. The MIIC should not be less than 0.15. Estimating the variance in the sections, we found MIIC > 0.15. Cronbach’s alpha for each section was 0.65–0.76, suggesting that the questions have reasonable internal consistency. The questionnaire form was piloted, discussed, and corrected to produce its final version.
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2.3. Statistical analyses plan The Chi-square test and Fisher’s test were used to evaluate the significance of the association between the categorical variables, which were also presented as raw numbers and percentages. The comparison of proportions between groups was performed using a z-test. For paired correlations, we used Spearman’s correlation coefficient. The significance level p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 21 for Windows. 3. Results In the survey, 401 young licensed drivers, aged 19 years, participated: 173 (43.1%) men and 228 (56.9%) women. Almost twenty percent (19.9%) of young people reported that they had been injured in some type of road traffic crash, most of them only once (74.68%). Based on self-reports, the study showed that 15.1% of respondents had been involved in a traffic crash while driving a car. 3.1. Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers The survey revealed that most respondents self-reported that they almost always fasten the seat belts as a passenger in the front seat (93.5%) and the seat belt as the driver (98%). However, 32.6% respondents indicated that they never fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The majority of teenagers reported that they never drive when feeling a little drunk (76.6%), or when very drunk (98.5%), or under the influence of illicit drugs (96.2%). Almost every teenager stated that he or she has always or sometimes used a cell telephone when driving (95.7%) and read or wrote text messages when driving (93%) (always refers to every trip). Nearly all teenagers reported that they always or sometimes drove when feeling fatigued (97.2%), and a majority of them have broken the speed limit when driving (85.9%). About half of the teenagers declared that they always (52.7%) allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing (Table 1). According to self-reports, in most cases, young women behave significantly more safely when driving compared with young men. Female teenagers more often than male teenagers fasten their seat belt when they are driving (v2 = 6.525; df = 1; p = 0.011), and do not drive when feeling a little drunk (v2 = 9.832; df = 2; p = 0.007), when feel very drunk (v2 = 7.923; df = 2; p = 0.019), or under the influence of illicit drugs (v2 = 6.073; df = 2; p = 0.048). Female teenagers use cell phones (v2 = 18.704; df = 2; p < 0.001) and read or write text messages (v2 = 18.933; df = 2; p < 0.001) less than men when driving. Young women break the speed limit less frequently than young men (v2 = 30.780; df = 2; p < 0.001), and more rarely drive when feeling fatigued (v2 = 13.281; df = 2; p = 0.001). There are no significant differences by gender in the fastening of seat belts as front seat passengers (v2 = 2.4; df = 1; p = 0.121) or as passengers in the back seat (v2 = 2.677; df = 2; p = 0.262). Young men and women allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing in a similar ratio (v2 = 2.020; df = 2; p = 0.364). 3.2. Road safety behavior of parents, as reported by teenagers During the study, teenagers indicated their perceptions of the road safety behavior of their parents (Table 2). We investigated the teenagers’ perceptions of the road safety behavior of 369 fathers and 352 mothers. According to the survey, 17 (4.6%) fathers and 54 (15.3%) mothers do not drive. The majority of fathers (78.8%) and mothers (93.9%) always fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat; 88.0% of fathers and 97.9% of mothers always fasten their seat belts when they are driving. Only a quarter (25.1%) of fathers and half of mothers (49.6%) always fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The majority of parents (60.6% of fathers and 84% of mothers) do not drive when feeling a little drunk. Virtually
Table 1 Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers. Always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
375(93.5) 128(32.6) 383(98.0)
26(6.5) 186(47.3) 8(2.0)
0(0) 79(20.1) 0(0)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
305(76.6) 392(98.5) 376(96.2) 103(25.9) 96(24.1) 49(12.4) 93(23.4)
88(22.1) 5(1.2) 14(3.5) 278(69.8) 274(68.9) 291(73.5) 293(73.8)
5(1.3) 1(0.3) 1(0.3) 17(4.3) 28(7.0) 56(14.1) 11(2.8)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing
210(52.7)
187(47.0)
1(0.3)
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Table 2 Road safety behavior of parents, as reported by teenage drivers. Always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Behavior of fathers (n = 369) Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
287(78.8) 90(25.1) 309(88.0)
72(19.8) 160(44.5) 41(11.7)
5(1.4) 109(30.4) 1(0.3)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
215(60.6) 335(94.4) 350(99.2) 83(23.6) 269(76.6) 67(19.0) 64(18.2)
132(37.1) 18(5.0) 3(0.8) 239(67.9) 78(22.3) 255(72.2) 276(78.7)
8(2.3) 2(0.6) 0(0) 30(8.5) 4(1.1) 31(8.8) 11(3.1)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossing
175(49.6)
175(49.6)
3(0.8)
Behavior of mothers (n = 352) Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
323(93.9) 169(49.6) 279(97.9)
21(6.1) 112(32.8) 5(1.8)
0(0) 60(17.6) 1(0.3)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
246(84.0) 293(100.0) 286(99.7) 158(54.1) 240(81.9) 154(52.7) 155(53.3)
47(16.0) 0(0) 1(0.3) 117(40.1) 49(16.7) 132(45.2) 131(45.0)
0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 17(5.8) 4(1.4) 6(2.1) 5(1.7)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossing
185(64.2)
100(34.8)
3(1.0)
all fathers and mothers never drive when very drunk or under the influence of illicit drugs. Nearly a quarter (23.6%) of fathers and about a half of mothers (54.1%) do not use a cell phone, and a minority (19.0%) of fathers and about half (52.7%) of mothers sometimes or always break the speed limit when driving. Most fathers and half of mothers drive when feeling fatigued; 49.6% of fathers and 64.2% of mothers always allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossings. According to teenagers’ perceptions, teenagers and their parents behave in a similar manner as road users. 3.3. Correlations between the behaviors of teenage drivers and behaviors of parents, as reported by teenage drivers During the study, we investigated correlations between road safety behaviors of teenagers and their parents, as reported by teenagers. The survey revealed that there is a positive moderate correlation between self-reported teenagers’ and perceived fathers’ fastening the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat (R = 0.489, p < 0.001), allowing pedestrians to cross the street (R = 0.411, p < 0.001), and driving when feeling a little drunk (R = 0.322, p < 0.001). Similarly, we investigated correlations between road safety behaviors of driving teenagers and their mothers, as indicated by teenagers. The study showed that there is a positive moderate correlation between self-reported teenagers’ and perceived mothers’ fastening the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat (R = 0.440, p < 0.001), and allowing pedestrians to cross the street (R = 0.459, p < 0.001). Correlation on drunk driving between mothers and teenagers was not found, because 100% of mothers never drive when very drunk. 3.4. Self-reported road safety knowledge of teenagers Based on self-reports, the survey showed that 32.7% of young people receive basic knowledge regarding road safety and driving safely from their parents, 21.6% – from teachers or lecturers, and 18.1% – from media (TV, radio, press, and the internet). Most young drivers (87.8%) think they have enough knowledge on road safety. Young men report that they have significantly more knowledge regarding road safety and driving safely, when compared with female reports (v2 = 8.36; df = 2; p = 0.015).
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3.5. Discussions of teenagers with their parents on road safety The study revealed how teenagers communicate with their parents and discuss road safety (Table 3). The majority of teenagers self-report that they discuss the main road safety factors with their parents; those being the importance of seat belts usage, and the harmful impact of alcohol and drugs on driving. The majority of young drivers report that they inform their parents if they were involved in unsafe driving, or if they have committed any violations while driving a car. Based on these reports, however, we found that 38.6% of fathers and 36.4% of mothers never discuss the influence of alcohol and its detrimental effects on driving, and in addition, 60.9% of fathers and 56.8% of mothers never talk about the harm illicit drugs have on driving. Nearly half of parents (43.7% of fathers and 42.9% of mothers) never discuss the danger of cell phone use on driving quality, and about one third of parents (28.9% of fathers and 32.9% of mothers) never talk about the importance of seat belts. If teenagers fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, according to their own reports, only 15.5% of fathers and 16.5% of mothers apply restrictions to their child’s ability to drive. 3.6. Perceptions of teenagers concerning associations of driving restrictions with discussions between teenagers and parents on road safety During the study, we analyzed the association of discussions between teenagers and parents with the restrictions to the teenagers’ permission to drive, as indicated by teenagers (Table 4). The results of the study revealed that based on teenagers’ perceptions, fathers and mothers, who often or always discuss road safety issues with their teenagers, significantly more often apply restrictions and preventative measures with regard to the teenagers’ permission to drive. If a teenager often or always tells the mother that he or she was driving dangerously, or was involved in a traffic crash, the mother applies significant restrictions on driving. However, there were no significant differences with regard to the fathers’ decisions to use or not to use restrictions in such a similar situation (when a teenager talks to the father about similar issues). 4. Discussion The study showed that the self-reported driving behavior of 19-year-old teenagers in Lithuania is much like their perceptions of the road safety behavior of their parents. According to teenagers’ reporting, both they and their parents act in similar ways with regard to road safety behavior: they do not fasten their seat belts as passengers in the back seat; they use cell phones, and read and write text messages when driving. In addition, they drive under the influence of alcohol, they speed, drive while tired, and do not always allow pedestrians to cross at crossings. This behavior of parents, serving as a role-models for unsafe behavior, is dangerous particularly for teenagers and for those traveling with them (usually other teenagers). Taubman-Ben-Ari et al. (2005), who used a different methodology, revealed similarities between the self-reports of young people and their parents’ road behavior. They collected data from families by interviewing both parents and their children in order to assess their driving styles. They found significant associations between the driving styles of parents and their offspring. Similarly, Miller and Taubman-Ben-Ari (2010) found evidence of an intergenerational transmission of driving styles from parents to young drivers. Bianchi and Summala (2004) confirm that parents’ driving behavior influences their children’s driving (even when the major background and exposure factors are being controlled). Most teenagers discuss road safety with their parents, suggesting trust and good rapport between them. According to Ginsburg, Durbin, García-España, Kalicka, and Winston (2009), young people whose parents are involved have more
Table 3 Discussions of teenagers with their parents on road safety, as reported by teenage drivers. Often/ always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Discussions with father On safe driving On the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving On the influence of illicit drugs when driving On the risk of using a cell phone when driving On the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving I tell my father if I have been driving dangerously, or about any violations while driving a car (if I was speeding, driving when drunk, etc.)
88(23.5) 84(22.3) 67(17.8) 59(15.7) 120(32.4) 84(22.6)
225(60.2) 147(39.1) 80(21.3) 152(40.6) 143(38.7) 151(40.6)
61(16.3) 145(38.6) 229(60.9) 164(43.7) 107(28.9) 137(36.8)
Discussions with mother On safe driving On the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving On the influence of illicit drugs when driving On the risk of using a cell phone when driving On the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving I tell my mother, if I have been driving dangerously, or about violations while driving a car (if I was speeding, driving when drunk, etc.)
113(30.5) 100(27.2) 76(20.7) 80(21.9) 126(34.5) 83(22.8)
177(47.9) 134(36.4) 83(22.5) 129(35.2) 119(32.6) 131(36.0)
80(21.6) 134(36.4) 209(56.8) 157(42.9) 120(32.9) 150(41.2)
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Table 4 Perceptions of teenagers concerning associations of driving restrictions with discussions between teenagers and parents on road safety. If you often fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, does your parent apply restrictions on your driving? Apply restrictions Father Do you discuss with your father safe driving practices?
Do you discuss with your father on the harm of driving when feeling drunk? Do you discuss with your father the harm of driving under the influence of illicit drugs? Do you discuss with your father the danger of using a cell phone when driving? Do you discuss with your father the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving? Do you tell your father, if you were driving dangerously, and about your traffic crashes? Mother Do you discuss with your mother safe driving practices?
Do you discuss with your mother on the harm of driving when feeling drunk? Do you discuss with your mother the harm of driving under the influence of illicit drugs? Do you discuss with your mother the danger of using a cell phone when driving? Do you discuss with your mother the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving? Do you tell your mother, if you were driving dangerously, and about your traffic crashes?
*
Do not apply restrictions
v2, p-value
Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never
20 (35.1)* 34 (59.6) 3 (5.3)* 22 (38.6)* 20 (35.1) 15 (26.3)* 18 (31.6)* 16 (28.0) 23 (40.4)* 13 (23.2) 27 (48.2) 16 (28.6)* 25 (43.9)* 24 (42.1) 8 (14.0)* 18 (31.6) 28 (49.1) 11 (19.3)*
64 (20.8)* 18 (60.4)6 58 (18.8)* 61 (19.7)* 120 (38.7) 129 (41.6)* 48 (15.5)* 60 (19.3) 202 (65.2)* 43 (13.9) 120 (38.7) 147 (47.4)* 91 (29.9)* 114 (37.5) 99 (32.6)* 63 (20.4) 120 (38.8) 126 (40.8)*
v2 = 9.58, p = 0.008
Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never
27 (45.0)* 27 (45.0) 6 (10.0)* 25 (41.7)* 22 (36.6) 13 (21.7)* 21 (35.0)* 19 (31.7) 20 (33.3)* 24 (40.0)* 24 (40.0) 12 (20.0)* 31 (51.7)* 18 (30.0) 11 (18.3)* 21 (35.0)* 24 (40.0) 15 (25.0)*
83 (27.4)* 148 (48.8) 72 (23.8)* 73 (24.3)* 110 (36.5) 118 (39.2)* 53 (17.6)* 63 (20.9) 185 (61.5)* 54 (18.1)* 102 (34.1) 143 (47.8)* 93 (31.2)* 98 (32.9) 107 (35.9)* 59 (19.8)* 107 (35.9) 132 (44.3)*
v2 = 9.70, p = 0.008
v2 = 10.66, p = 0.002 v2 = 13.54, p = 0.001 v2 = 7.56, p = 0.023 v2 = 8.72, p = 0.013 v2 = 9.91, p = 0.007
v2 = 9.83, p = 0.007 v2 = 16.90, p < 0.001 v2 = 20.53, p < 0.001 v2 = 10.84, p = 0.004 v2 = 9.92, p = 0.007
p < 0.05 – column proportions significantly differ (z-test) from each other at the 0.05 level.
desirable attitudes and behaviors regarding driving safety than do those with uninvolved parents. Parental monitoring, nurturing, and family connectedness can decrease crash rates (Shope, Waller, Raghunathan, & Patil, 2001). International research shows that there is an opportunity to influence teenagers through mentoring and educating parents. This could be a valuable application of family therapy (Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010), and a new concept of ‘‘family climate for road safety’’ (Taubman-Ben-Ari and Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012). This study revealed that based on reports of teenagers, those parents, who often or always talk to their children about important road safety factors, more often apply driving restrictions and preventative measures for poor driving. Generally, only a small percentage of parents do so, perhaps because they do not have the information or knowledge that limits the application of preventative measures. The suggestions based on research from the United States, such as ‘‘rules of the road’’ for new drivers (CDC, 2012), the Checkpoints Program on parent-teen driving agreement (PTDA) (Zakrajsek, Shope, Ouimet, Wang, & Simons-Morton, 2009), teenager-parent written contract (Weiss & et al., 2006) or other practices and evidencebased strategies could be adapted and evaluated for middle-income countries. Parental involvement is vital for road safety promotion in young drivers. It should be emphasized that parents play an important example well before their children begin driving. This research suggests that children are cognizant of their parents’ driving manners, and learn from them. The study demonstrates the importance of parents showing a good example to their teenagers through their driving habits. The results could be used to guide new safe driving programs in Lithuania and other middle-income countries that are fostering safe driving practices. Our empirical observations highlight the new model of the ‘‘family climate for road safety’’ approach, and suggest it could be used for moderating teenager road safety promotion through parent-teenager interactions in the studied region.
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A strength of the study is that we examined whether teenagers discuss with their parents the relative safety aspects of the specific risk and safety factors related to driving. Around 19 years of age is the time when children finish school and start a new life. They feel freedom, and want to ‘‘relax’’. We wanted to find out whether they retain their connection to their parents at this age. The study revealed a close relationship between parents and their teens, which negates the prevailing attitudes that modern children are very isolated from their parents, and there is a communication barrier between them. This research adds some new information about parent-teenager discussions that might be relevant for future prevention efforts. All research has its limitations. An aspect of the validity of the self-reported data that could be questioned is how intoxicated a teenager may feel, since this is a very subjective assessment. Although there are objective measures to measure units of alcohol consumed, some respondents may have had more to drink and yet not felt drunk, while others may have had little to drink but felt very drunk. Thus, we cannot objectively be sure of how intoxicated respondents actually were. In addition, biases are possible in the validity and reliability of the study questionnaire and due to these factors: the survey data of driving behaviors was self-reported by the teenagers themselves, and the perceptions of parents’ safety behaviors are the observations of their teenagers. The surveyed teenagers responded to the questions given to them, and responded to the questions about their parents’ road safety behavior. On the one hand, this could be considered as a limitation for possible bias, because the teenagers do not have much driving experience, and because there may be differences concerning the relationships between the teenagers and their parents, causing differences in accuracy in reporting on their parents. On the other hand, in the survey the young adults aged 19 years participated, who, by the law, are adults, and can responsibly answer the questionnaires. One advantage could be in consistency of judgment, in that one person was answering for both sides of the comparison, therefore giving a single perspective in assessing driving styles. In addition, most of the teenagers live in other cities than their parents, so to conduct surveys of their parents would be technically difficult. However, parents self-reporting would be less biased for the study, since self-reporting is usually held to be more accurate. This paper illustrates the needs for further research, possibly with a cross country comparison. 5. Conclusions The study results support our first hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and parents, as reported by teenagers. This survey revealed that according to teenagers self-reports, fathers and mothers, who discuss road safety issues with their teenagers, significantly more often apply restrictions to drive. It supports our second hypothesis. This study indicates that family education needs to be promoted for the enhancement of road safety behavior of teenagers. Acknowledgment Sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Susan Robbins for her assistance with the English language. References Bauer, R., & Steiner, M. (2009). Injuries in the European Union: Statistics summary 2005–2007. Vienna: KfV, EuroSafe.. Bianchi, A., & Summala, H. (2004). The ‘‘genetics’’ of driving behavior: Parents’ driving style predicts their children’s driving style. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 36, 655–659. Brookland, R., Begg, D., Langley, J., & Ameratunga, S. (2010). Risk perception and risky driving behaviors of teenagers and their parents: New Zealand drivers study. Injury Prevention, 16, A170. Brookland, R., Begg, D., Langley, J., & Ameratunga, S. (2008). Parent and teenager risky driving behaviors: New Zealand Drivers Study. Australasian Road Safety Research, Policing and Education Conference, November 2008, Adelaide, South Australia, 441–450. . Causes of deaths register (2013). Causes of death 2012. Vilnius: Health Information Centre of Institute of Hygiene, 2013. . CDC (2012). Teen Drinking and Driving. Vital Signs, October 2012. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. . Divera, A. M., & Stacey, C. (2007). Trends in young driver risk and countermeasures in European countries. Journal of Safety Research, 38, 245–257. Eaton, D. K., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Shanklin, S., Flint, K. H., Hawkins, J., et al (2012). Youth risk behavior surveillance – United States, 2012. MMWR Surveillance Summary, 61(4), 1–162. Elvik, R., & Vaa, T. (2004). The handbook of road safety measures. Elsevier Science & Technology. . EuroSafe (2013). Injuries in the European Union: Summary of injury statistics for the years 2008–2010. Amsterdam: European Association for Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion. . Evans-Whipp, T. J., Plenty, S. M., Toumbourou, J. W., Olsson, C., Rowland, B., & Hemphill, S. A. (2013). Teenager exposure to drink driving as a predictor of young adults drink driving. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 51, 185–191. Ginsburg, K. R., Durbin, D. R., García-España, J. F., Kalicka, E. A., & Winston, F. K. (2009). Associations between parenting styles and teen driving, safetyrelated behaviors and attitudes. Pediatrics, 124, 1040–1051. Lyons, R. A., & Brophy, S. (2005). The epidemiology of childhood mortality in the European Union. Current Paediatrics, 15(2), 151–162. Miller, G., & Taubman-Ben-Ari, O. (2010). Driving styles among young novice drivers – the contribution of parental driving styles and personal characteristics. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(2), 558–570. Mirman, J. H., & Kay, J. (2012). From passengers to drivers: Parent perceptions about how teenagers learn to drive. Journal of Teenager Research, 27(3), 401–424. Mohan, D., Tiwari, G., Khayesi, M., & Nafukho, F. M. (2006). Road traffic injury prevention training manual. Geneva: World Health Organization. .
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NHTSA (2005). Traffic Safety Facts: 2004 Data – Speeding. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. US Department of Transportation publication HS, 809-915.. Pan, S. Y., Ugnat, A. M., Semenciw, R., Desmeules, M., Mao, Y., & Mac Leod, M. (2006). Trends in childhood injury mortality in Canada, 1979–2002. Injury Prevention, 12, 155–160. Peden, M., Scurfield, R., Sleet, D., Mohan, D., Hyder, A. A., Jarawan, E., & Methers, C. (Eds) (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention. Geneva: WHO. . Pless, B. (2004). Road traffic injury prevention. British Medical Journal, 328, 846. Shope, J. T. (2006). Influences of youthful driving behavior and their potential for guiding interventions to reduce crashes. Injury Prevention, 12(Suppl. 1), i9–14. Shope, J. T., Waller, P. F., Raghunathan, T. E., & Patil, S. M. (2001). Teenager antecedents of high-risk driving behavior into young adulthood: Substance use and parental influences. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 33(5), 649–658. Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., & Katz-Ben-Ami, L. (2012). The contribution of family climate for road safety and social environment to the reported driving behavior of young drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 47, 1–10. Taubman-Ben-Ari, O., Mikulincer, M., & Gillath, O. (2005). From parents to children – Similarity in parents and offspring driving styles. Transportation Research Part F, 8, 19–29. Towner, E. (2005). Injury and inequalities: Bridging the gap. International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 12(2), 79–84. Weiss, J. C. (lead author), et al (2006). The teen driver. Pediatrics, 118, 2570–2581. WHO (2009). Global status report on road safety. Geneva: World Health Organization. . WHO (2012). Decade of action for road safety 2011-2020: Saving millions of lives. Geneva: World Health Organization. . Williams, A. F. (2003). Teenage drivers: Patterns of risk. Journal of Safety Research, 34, 5–15. Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis. New York: Harper and Row. . Zakrajsek, J. S., Shope, J. T., Ouimet, M. C., Wang, J., & Simons-Morton, B. G. (2009). Efficacy of a brief group parent–teen intervention in driver education to reduce teenage driver injury risk: A pilot study. Family & Community Health, 32(2), 175–188.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Transportation Research Part F journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trf
Similarities between self-reported road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their perceptions concerning road safety behavior of their parents Birute Strukcinskiene a,⇑, Vincentas Giedraitis b, Juozas Raistenskis c, Arvydas Martinkenas a, Vaiva Strukcinskaite a, Rimantas Stukas c, Serpil Ugur Baysal d a
Faculty of Health Sciences, Klaipeda University, Klaipeda, Lithuania Faculty of Economics, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania d Faculty of Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey b c
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 10 September 2013 Received in revised form 18 February 2014 Accepted 19 February 2014
Keywords: Road safety Behavior Teenagers Parents Driving
a b s t r a c t The study investigated 401 19-year-olds, who were licensed car drivers in Lithuania. The focus of the survey was on the self-reported road safety behaviors of teenage drivers and their perceptions of their parents’ road safety behaviors, in order to assess behavioral similarities between teenagers and their parents. The survey also investigated whether parents and teenagers discuss issues of driving safely, and whether there is an association between these conversations and driving restrictions. According to teenagers’ reporting, road safety behavior of teenage drivers and their parents often is similar: most of them break the speed limit, drive when feeling fatigued, use a cell phone when driving, and do not fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The study indicated that there is a positive moderate correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and their parents, as reported by the teenagers. A majority of teenagers report that they discuss road safety factors, driving safely and driving behavior with their parents. Based on teenager reports, the parents, who discuss road safety issues with their children, are more likely to apply restrictions on teenagers’ driving. Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Injuries inflicted by road traffic crashes remain a global public health problem, especially in middle and low-income countries. Although middle-income countries account for 38.7% of global registered vehicles, 49.6% of global road traffic deaths occur in these countries (WHO, 2009). Lithuania has been a middle-income country since 2004, when she joined the European Union. Fatal injuries due to road traffic crashes are a leading cause of death for young people aged 15–29 years. In terms of total crashes per million miles driven, 16–19-year-olds have a crash rate almost twice that of 20–24-year-olds, almost 3 times that of 25–29-year-olds, and more than 4 times that of 30–69-year-olds (Williams, 2003). In the European Union,
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Faculty of Health Sciences, Klaipeda University, H. Manto Str. 84, LT-92294 Klaipeda, Lithuania. Tel.: +370 46 398560. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Strukcinskiene). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2014.02.003 1369-8478/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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automobiles are the main mode of transport for teenagers, and road traffic injuries account for 46% of all causes of fatal injuries in young adults between ages 15 and 24 (EuroSafe, 2013). The risk of a crash for young drivers is higher than for any other age group (Shope, 2006; Williams, 2003). Teenagers and young people are at a high risk to common road safety factors and at high risk for traffic crashes. Examples of risk factors include drinking and driving, speeding, not using seat belts, cell phone use, and fatigue (Eaton et al., 2012; Mohan, Tiwari, Khayesi, & Nafukho, 2006; NHTSA, 2005; Peden et al., 2004; Weiss & et al., 2006; WHO, 2012). Young people are often involved in fatal or non-fatal road traffic crashes. The most successful road safety strategies use a combination of education aimed at road user behavior improvements and skills training, legislation with vigorous enforcement, along with environmental or engineering changes (Bauer & Steiner, 2009; Elvik & Vaa, 2004; Lyons & Brophy, 2005; Pan et al., 2006; Pless, 2004; Towner, 2005). No research on young drivers had been performed in Lithuania or other Baltic countries prior to this research. Lithuania is the one of the worst performing countries in the European Union with regard to road traffic mortality. An important contribution of this research is to empirically examine the road safety habits of driving teenagers (19-year old young drivers) and to investigate similarities across generations regarding driving behavior. Divera and Stacey (2007) conducted a comprehensive study of driver risk in some European countries, but there was no discussion of Lithuania. Official statistics are available on traffic deaths of 15–24-year-olds, which include car occupants (drivers and passengers together). For instance, in Lithuania, in 2012, the rate of transport injury deaths per 100, 000 in the age group 15–24 years was 16.1 (27.1 for males and 4.5 for females) (Causes of deaths register, 2013). Data is also available about the distribution among types of road users: drivers and passengers together, pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. In Lithuania, in 2012, in young people aged 15–24 years, the mortality rate for pedestrians was 4.6 (for male 8.1 and for female 1.0), for cyclists – 1.0 (for male 1.9 and for female 0), for motorcyclists – 1.7 (for male 3.3 and for female 0), and for car occupants – 8.5 (for male 13.3 and for female 3.5) (Causes of deaths register, 2013). Data on causes of death for 19-year-old drivers are not available. Our study was focused on road behavior of driving teenagers and their communication with parents on road safety in a transitional period of life. This research fits into a rich model of parent-teen comparisons and discussions, and continues a long tradition of making suggestions to policy makers, which are theoretically grounded, empirically tested and have a practical use (Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012; Taubman-Ben-Ari, Mikulincer, & Gillath, 2005). Seminal research in this field, though using a somewhat different methodology, was conducted by Taubman-Ben-Ari et al. (2005), who indicated associations between the driving styles of parents and of their children. The effect the family has on the driving behavior of teenagers, the correlation between the driving style or risk perception of the teenager and a parent, and parenting skills, concepts, and learning methodologies have all received wide coverage in the scientific community (Brookland, Begg, Langley, & Ameratunga, 2010; Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010; Mirman & Kay, 2012; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012). According to Brookland, Begg, Langley, and Ameratunga (2008), there are associations between the driving behaviors of parents and their children. Observing a parent’s driving while drunk may increase the risk of a young person committing the same offence (Evans-Whipp et al., 2013). Thus, family and parents can influence driving behavior of their teenager. In Lithuania, a driving license can be obtained from the age of 18. For novice drivers, the license is issued for 2 years. A GDL (Graduated Driver’s License), which is issued in other countries, is not used in Lithuania. The role parents have in driving education is informal (it is not legally defined). Lithuanian parents use their own initiative to participate in their teens’ road safety education. The overarching research question of our study was to investigate the similarities in road safety behavior of driving teenagers and their parents, as reported by teenagers. Our hypotheses were: (1) We expect a positive correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and parents, as reported by teenagers. (2) We expect a significant association of discussions between parents and teenagers on road safety and restrictions for teenagers to drive, as reported by teenagers. The objectives of the study were to investigate firstly, the self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers (as a group and by gender); secondly, their perceptions of road safety behavior of their parents; and thirdly, correlations between young drivers’ behaviors and parents’ behaviors, as perceived by teenage drivers. Additionally, the self-reported road safety knowledge of teenagers, their discussions with parents on road safety, and teenagers’ perceptions concerning associations of driving restrictions and discussions on road safety between teenagers and parents were analyzed. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Participants and data collection The study investigated 19-year-old driving teenagers’ self-reported road safety behaviors and their perceptions of their parents’ road safety behaviors. The surveyed teenagers responded to the questions given to them. They also responded to the questions about their parents’ road safety behavior.
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The study investigated 19-year-old teenagers who were licensed car drivers. The time since acquiring the license was 1– 20 months. The decisions to have 19-year-old participants in our study was made because it is a transitional age when children finish school; some of them leave home, start studies, change their life style, and start living independently. We wanted to examine whether these young people communicate and retain their connection with parents, and discuss and interact with their parents on important issues of road safety. We used the number of licensed 19-year-old car drivers in the country and Yamane’s formula (Yamane, 1967) for calculating the number of respondents who needed to be surveyed. We calculated that the national sample size should be no less than 395. A random cluster sample was used. Sample distribution by sex matches the 19-year-olds population in Lithuania at the time when the study was conducted. From all of Lithuania we selected 19-year-olds from 3 higher university institutions, 2 higher non-university institutions, 2 vocational schools, and 3 small and middle enterprises (for example, hotels, and pizzerias), all randomly selected. In the educational institutions we randomly selected departments or units and groups. The survey was conducted in Lithuania, in September 2012. After explaining the purpose of the study, the questionnaires were handed out to the teenagers in the beginning or towards the end of lectures, and during breaks. The questionnaires were handed out only to 19-year-old licensed car drivers. Once completed, the questionnaires were collected. We analyzed those questionnaires in which more than half of the questions were answered. During our study, 401 answered and returned questionnaires were analyzed (the response rate was 81.84%). The survey was voluntary and anonymous. Before the survey, we received approval from the institutions to conduct the research. The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of Lithuania. 2.2. Measures For the survey, a structured questionnaire was developed specifically for this study by the authors. This questionnaire was designed to consist of a general part (data on gender and on the history of involvement in a traffic crash was collected) and the specific part of the questionnaire. The specific part consisted of five sections: I. II. III. IV. V.
Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers; Fathers’ road safety behavior, as reported by teenagers; Mothers’ road safety behavior, as reported by teenagers; Self-reported road safety promotion; Discussions between teenagers and parents on driving safely and road safety, as reported by teenagers.
Section I, Section II, and Section III had subsections on: (1) Safety restraints: Respondents were asked about the use of the seat belts (the questions: ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat?, ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat?’’, ‘‘Do you fasten the seat belt as the driver?’’). (2) Road safety behavior: Respondents were asked about speeding (the question: ‘‘Do you speed when driving?’’); alcohol and drug use (the questions: ‘‘Do you drive when you are a little drunk?, ‘‘Do you drive when very drunk’’, ’’Do you drive under the influence of illicit drugs?’’); the use of a cell phone while driving (the questions: ’’Do you use a cell phone when driving?’’, ‘‘Do you read or write text messages when driving?’’); driving when feeling fatigued (the question: ‘‘Do you drive when feeling fatigued?’’). (3) Road safety culture: Respondents were asked about road safety culture (the question: ‘‘Do you allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossings?’’). The options of answers in the Sections I, II, and III were: always, sometimes, never. In Section IV were questions for teenagers on road safety promotion. The question ‘‘From whom or where did you get most of your knowledge on road safety and on driver’s behavior?’’ had the answer options: parents; teachers/lecturers; friends, TV, radio, and print media; internet, other. The question ‘‘Do you think you have enough knowledge on road safety?’’ had the answer options: yes, not sure, no. In Section V, questions concerning communication and discussions between teenagers and parents (father and mother) were asked (the questions: ‘‘Do you discuss with your father and mother: driving safely, the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving, the influence of illicit drugs when driving, on the risk of using a cell phone when driving, and on the necessity of fastening seat belts when driving?’’; ‘‘Do you tell your father and mother, if you have been driving dangerously, or about violations while driving a car (if you were speeding, driving when drunk, etc.). In addition, a question on restrictions was asked (‘‘If you often fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, does your parent restrict your ability to drive?’’). In Section V, the answer options were often/always, sometimes, or never. The reliability of the five sections was examined with the internal consistency measure of Cronbach’s alpha and the mean inter-question correlation (MIIC) among the questions. The MIIC should not be less than 0.15. Estimating the variance in the sections, we found MIIC > 0.15. Cronbach’s alpha for each section was 0.65–0.76, suggesting that the questions have reasonable internal consistency. The questionnaire form was piloted, discussed, and corrected to produce its final version.
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2.3. Statistical analyses plan The Chi-square test and Fisher’s test were used to evaluate the significance of the association between the categorical variables, which were also presented as raw numbers and percentages. The comparison of proportions between groups was performed using a z-test. For paired correlations, we used Spearman’s correlation coefficient. The significance level p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 21 for Windows. 3. Results In the survey, 401 young licensed drivers, aged 19 years, participated: 173 (43.1%) men and 228 (56.9%) women. Almost twenty percent (19.9%) of young people reported that they had been injured in some type of road traffic crash, most of them only once (74.68%). Based on self-reports, the study showed that 15.1% of respondents had been involved in a traffic crash while driving a car. 3.1. Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers The survey revealed that most respondents self-reported that they almost always fasten the seat belts as a passenger in the front seat (93.5%) and the seat belt as the driver (98%). However, 32.6% respondents indicated that they never fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The majority of teenagers reported that they never drive when feeling a little drunk (76.6%), or when very drunk (98.5%), or under the influence of illicit drugs (96.2%). Almost every teenager stated that he or she has always or sometimes used a cell telephone when driving (95.7%) and read or wrote text messages when driving (93%) (always refers to every trip). Nearly all teenagers reported that they always or sometimes drove when feeling fatigued (97.2%), and a majority of them have broken the speed limit when driving (85.9%). About half of the teenagers declared that they always (52.7%) allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing (Table 1). According to self-reports, in most cases, young women behave significantly more safely when driving compared with young men. Female teenagers more often than male teenagers fasten their seat belt when they are driving (v2 = 6.525; df = 1; p = 0.011), and do not drive when feeling a little drunk (v2 = 9.832; df = 2; p = 0.007), when feel very drunk (v2 = 7.923; df = 2; p = 0.019), or under the influence of illicit drugs (v2 = 6.073; df = 2; p = 0.048). Female teenagers use cell phones (v2 = 18.704; df = 2; p < 0.001) and read or write text messages (v2 = 18.933; df = 2; p < 0.001) less than men when driving. Young women break the speed limit less frequently than young men (v2 = 30.780; df = 2; p < 0.001), and more rarely drive when feeling fatigued (v2 = 13.281; df = 2; p = 0.001). There are no significant differences by gender in the fastening of seat belts as front seat passengers (v2 = 2.4; df = 1; p = 0.121) or as passengers in the back seat (v2 = 2.677; df = 2; p = 0.262). Young men and women allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing in a similar ratio (v2 = 2.020; df = 2; p = 0.364). 3.2. Road safety behavior of parents, as reported by teenagers During the study, teenagers indicated their perceptions of the road safety behavior of their parents (Table 2). We investigated the teenagers’ perceptions of the road safety behavior of 369 fathers and 352 mothers. According to the survey, 17 (4.6%) fathers and 54 (15.3%) mothers do not drive. The majority of fathers (78.8%) and mothers (93.9%) always fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat; 88.0% of fathers and 97.9% of mothers always fasten their seat belts when they are driving. Only a quarter (25.1%) of fathers and half of mothers (49.6%) always fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat. The majority of parents (60.6% of fathers and 84% of mothers) do not drive when feeling a little drunk. Virtually
Table 1 Self-reported road safety behavior of teenagers. Always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
375(93.5) 128(32.6) 383(98.0)
26(6.5) 186(47.3) 8(2.0)
0(0) 79(20.1) 0(0)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
305(76.6) 392(98.5) 376(96.2) 103(25.9) 96(24.1) 49(12.4) 93(23.4)
88(22.1) 5(1.2) 14(3.5) 278(69.8) 274(68.9) 291(73.5) 293(73.8)
5(1.3) 1(0.3) 1(0.3) 17(4.3) 28(7.0) 56(14.1) 11(2.8)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at a crossing
210(52.7)
187(47.0)
1(0.3)
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Table 2 Road safety behavior of parents, as reported by teenage drivers. Always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Behavior of fathers (n = 369) Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
287(78.8) 90(25.1) 309(88.0)
72(19.8) 160(44.5) 41(11.7)
5(1.4) 109(30.4) 1(0.3)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
215(60.6) 335(94.4) 350(99.2) 83(23.6) 269(76.6) 67(19.0) 64(18.2)
132(37.1) 18(5.0) 3(0.8) 239(67.9) 78(22.3) 255(72.2) 276(78.7)
8(2.3) 2(0.6) 0(0) 30(8.5) 4(1.1) 31(8.8) 11(3.1)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossing
175(49.6)
175(49.6)
3(0.8)
Behavior of mothers (n = 352) Safety restraints Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the front seat Fasten the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat Fasten the seat belt as the driver
323(93.9) 169(49.6) 279(97.9)
21(6.1) 112(32.8) 5(1.8)
0(0) 60(17.6) 1(0.3)
Road safety behavior Do not drive when feeling a little drunk Do not drive when very drunk Do not drive under the influence of illicit drugs Do not use a cell phone when driving Do not read or write text messages when driving Do not speed when driving Do not drive when feeling fatigued
246(84.0) 293(100.0) 286(99.7) 158(54.1) 240(81.9) 154(52.7) 155(53.3)
47(16.0) 0(0) 1(0.3) 117(40.1) 49(16.7) 132(45.2) 131(45.0)
0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 17(5.8) 4(1.4) 6(2.1) 5(1.7)
Road safety culture Allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossing
185(64.2)
100(34.8)
3(1.0)
all fathers and mothers never drive when very drunk or under the influence of illicit drugs. Nearly a quarter (23.6%) of fathers and about a half of mothers (54.1%) do not use a cell phone, and a minority (19.0%) of fathers and about half (52.7%) of mothers sometimes or always break the speed limit when driving. Most fathers and half of mothers drive when feeling fatigued; 49.6% of fathers and 64.2% of mothers always allow pedestrians to cross the street at crossings. According to teenagers’ perceptions, teenagers and their parents behave in a similar manner as road users. 3.3. Correlations between the behaviors of teenage drivers and behaviors of parents, as reported by teenage drivers During the study, we investigated correlations between road safety behaviors of teenagers and their parents, as reported by teenagers. The survey revealed that there is a positive moderate correlation between self-reported teenagers’ and perceived fathers’ fastening the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat (R = 0.489, p < 0.001), allowing pedestrians to cross the street (R = 0.411, p < 0.001), and driving when feeling a little drunk (R = 0.322, p < 0.001). Similarly, we investigated correlations between road safety behaviors of driving teenagers and their mothers, as indicated by teenagers. The study showed that there is a positive moderate correlation between self-reported teenagers’ and perceived mothers’ fastening the seat belt as a passenger in the back seat (R = 0.440, p < 0.001), and allowing pedestrians to cross the street (R = 0.459, p < 0.001). Correlation on drunk driving between mothers and teenagers was not found, because 100% of mothers never drive when very drunk. 3.4. Self-reported road safety knowledge of teenagers Based on self-reports, the survey showed that 32.7% of young people receive basic knowledge regarding road safety and driving safely from their parents, 21.6% – from teachers or lecturers, and 18.1% – from media (TV, radio, press, and the internet). Most young drivers (87.8%) think they have enough knowledge on road safety. Young men report that they have significantly more knowledge regarding road safety and driving safely, when compared with female reports (v2 = 8.36; df = 2; p = 0.015).
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3.5. Discussions of teenagers with their parents on road safety The study revealed how teenagers communicate with their parents and discuss road safety (Table 3). The majority of teenagers self-report that they discuss the main road safety factors with their parents; those being the importance of seat belts usage, and the harmful impact of alcohol and drugs on driving. The majority of young drivers report that they inform their parents if they were involved in unsafe driving, or if they have committed any violations while driving a car. Based on these reports, however, we found that 38.6% of fathers and 36.4% of mothers never discuss the influence of alcohol and its detrimental effects on driving, and in addition, 60.9% of fathers and 56.8% of mothers never talk about the harm illicit drugs have on driving. Nearly half of parents (43.7% of fathers and 42.9% of mothers) never discuss the danger of cell phone use on driving quality, and about one third of parents (28.9% of fathers and 32.9% of mothers) never talk about the importance of seat belts. If teenagers fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, according to their own reports, only 15.5% of fathers and 16.5% of mothers apply restrictions to their child’s ability to drive. 3.6. Perceptions of teenagers concerning associations of driving restrictions with discussions between teenagers and parents on road safety During the study, we analyzed the association of discussions between teenagers and parents with the restrictions to the teenagers’ permission to drive, as indicated by teenagers (Table 4). The results of the study revealed that based on teenagers’ perceptions, fathers and mothers, who often or always discuss road safety issues with their teenagers, significantly more often apply restrictions and preventative measures with regard to the teenagers’ permission to drive. If a teenager often or always tells the mother that he or she was driving dangerously, or was involved in a traffic crash, the mother applies significant restrictions on driving. However, there were no significant differences with regard to the fathers’ decisions to use or not to use restrictions in such a similar situation (when a teenager talks to the father about similar issues). 4. Discussion The study showed that the self-reported driving behavior of 19-year-old teenagers in Lithuania is much like their perceptions of the road safety behavior of their parents. According to teenagers’ reporting, both they and their parents act in similar ways with regard to road safety behavior: they do not fasten their seat belts as passengers in the back seat; they use cell phones, and read and write text messages when driving. In addition, they drive under the influence of alcohol, they speed, drive while tired, and do not always allow pedestrians to cross at crossings. This behavior of parents, serving as a role-models for unsafe behavior, is dangerous particularly for teenagers and for those traveling with them (usually other teenagers). Taubman-Ben-Ari et al. (2005), who used a different methodology, revealed similarities between the self-reports of young people and their parents’ road behavior. They collected data from families by interviewing both parents and their children in order to assess their driving styles. They found significant associations between the driving styles of parents and their offspring. Similarly, Miller and Taubman-Ben-Ari (2010) found evidence of an intergenerational transmission of driving styles from parents to young drivers. Bianchi and Summala (2004) confirm that parents’ driving behavior influences their children’s driving (even when the major background and exposure factors are being controlled). Most teenagers discuss road safety with their parents, suggesting trust and good rapport between them. According to Ginsburg, Durbin, García-España, Kalicka, and Winston (2009), young people whose parents are involved have more
Table 3 Discussions of teenagers with their parents on road safety, as reported by teenage drivers. Often/ always
Sometimes n (%)
Never
Discussions with father On safe driving On the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving On the influence of illicit drugs when driving On the risk of using a cell phone when driving On the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving I tell my father if I have been driving dangerously, or about any violations while driving a car (if I was speeding, driving when drunk, etc.)
88(23.5) 84(22.3) 67(17.8) 59(15.7) 120(32.4) 84(22.6)
225(60.2) 147(39.1) 80(21.3) 152(40.6) 143(38.7) 151(40.6)
61(16.3) 145(38.6) 229(60.9) 164(43.7) 107(28.9) 137(36.8)
Discussions with mother On safe driving On the influence of alcohol and its harm when driving On the influence of illicit drugs when driving On the risk of using a cell phone when driving On the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving I tell my mother, if I have been driving dangerously, or about violations while driving a car (if I was speeding, driving when drunk, etc.)
113(30.5) 100(27.2) 76(20.7) 80(21.9) 126(34.5) 83(22.8)
177(47.9) 134(36.4) 83(22.5) 129(35.2) 119(32.6) 131(36.0)
80(21.6) 134(36.4) 209(56.8) 157(42.9) 120(32.9) 150(41.2)
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Table 4 Perceptions of teenagers concerning associations of driving restrictions with discussions between teenagers and parents on road safety. If you often fail to comply with traffic safety requirements, does your parent apply restrictions on your driving? Apply restrictions Father Do you discuss with your father safe driving practices?
Do you discuss with your father on the harm of driving when feeling drunk? Do you discuss with your father the harm of driving under the influence of illicit drugs? Do you discuss with your father the danger of using a cell phone when driving? Do you discuss with your father the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving? Do you tell your father, if you were driving dangerously, and about your traffic crashes? Mother Do you discuss with your mother safe driving practices?
Do you discuss with your mother on the harm of driving when feeling drunk? Do you discuss with your mother the harm of driving under the influence of illicit drugs? Do you discuss with your mother the danger of using a cell phone when driving? Do you discuss with your mother the necessity of fastening the seat belt when driving? Do you tell your mother, if you were driving dangerously, and about your traffic crashes?
*
Do not apply restrictions
v2, p-value
Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never
20 (35.1)* 34 (59.6) 3 (5.3)* 22 (38.6)* 20 (35.1) 15 (26.3)* 18 (31.6)* 16 (28.0) 23 (40.4)* 13 (23.2) 27 (48.2) 16 (28.6)* 25 (43.9)* 24 (42.1) 8 (14.0)* 18 (31.6) 28 (49.1) 11 (19.3)*
64 (20.8)* 18 (60.4)6 58 (18.8)* 61 (19.7)* 120 (38.7) 129 (41.6)* 48 (15.5)* 60 (19.3) 202 (65.2)* 43 (13.9) 120 (38.7) 147 (47.4)* 91 (29.9)* 114 (37.5) 99 (32.6)* 63 (20.4) 120 (38.8) 126 (40.8)*
v2 = 9.58, p = 0.008
Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never Often/always Sometimes Never
27 (45.0)* 27 (45.0) 6 (10.0)* 25 (41.7)* 22 (36.6) 13 (21.7)* 21 (35.0)* 19 (31.7) 20 (33.3)* 24 (40.0)* 24 (40.0) 12 (20.0)* 31 (51.7)* 18 (30.0) 11 (18.3)* 21 (35.0)* 24 (40.0) 15 (25.0)*
83 (27.4)* 148 (48.8) 72 (23.8)* 73 (24.3)* 110 (36.5) 118 (39.2)* 53 (17.6)* 63 (20.9) 185 (61.5)* 54 (18.1)* 102 (34.1) 143 (47.8)* 93 (31.2)* 98 (32.9) 107 (35.9)* 59 (19.8)* 107 (35.9) 132 (44.3)*
v2 = 9.70, p = 0.008
v2 = 10.66, p = 0.002 v2 = 13.54, p = 0.001 v2 = 7.56, p = 0.023 v2 = 8.72, p = 0.013 v2 = 9.91, p = 0.007
v2 = 9.83, p = 0.007 v2 = 16.90, p < 0.001 v2 = 20.53, p < 0.001 v2 = 10.84, p = 0.004 v2 = 9.92, p = 0.007
p < 0.05 – column proportions significantly differ (z-test) from each other at the 0.05 level.
desirable attitudes and behaviors regarding driving safety than do those with uninvolved parents. Parental monitoring, nurturing, and family connectedness can decrease crash rates (Shope, Waller, Raghunathan, & Patil, 2001). International research shows that there is an opportunity to influence teenagers through mentoring and educating parents. This could be a valuable application of family therapy (Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2010), and a new concept of ‘‘family climate for road safety’’ (Taubman-Ben-Ari and Katz-Ben-Ami, 2012). This study revealed that based on reports of teenagers, those parents, who often or always talk to their children about important road safety factors, more often apply driving restrictions and preventative measures for poor driving. Generally, only a small percentage of parents do so, perhaps because they do not have the information or knowledge that limits the application of preventative measures. The suggestions based on research from the United States, such as ‘‘rules of the road’’ for new drivers (CDC, 2012), the Checkpoints Program on parent-teen driving agreement (PTDA) (Zakrajsek, Shope, Ouimet, Wang, & Simons-Morton, 2009), teenager-parent written contract (Weiss & et al., 2006) or other practices and evidencebased strategies could be adapted and evaluated for middle-income countries. Parental involvement is vital for road safety promotion in young drivers. It should be emphasized that parents play an important example well before their children begin driving. This research suggests that children are cognizant of their parents’ driving manners, and learn from them. The study demonstrates the importance of parents showing a good example to their teenagers through their driving habits. The results could be used to guide new safe driving programs in Lithuania and other middle-income countries that are fostering safe driving practices. Our empirical observations highlight the new model of the ‘‘family climate for road safety’’ approach, and suggest it could be used for moderating teenager road safety promotion through parent-teenager interactions in the studied region.
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A strength of the study is that we examined whether teenagers discuss with their parents the relative safety aspects of the specific risk and safety factors related to driving. Around 19 years of age is the time when children finish school and start a new life. They feel freedom, and want to ‘‘relax’’. We wanted to find out whether they retain their connection to their parents at this age. The study revealed a close relationship between parents and their teens, which negates the prevailing attitudes that modern children are very isolated from their parents, and there is a communication barrier between them. This research adds some new information about parent-teenager discussions that might be relevant for future prevention efforts. All research has its limitations. An aspect of the validity of the self-reported data that could be questioned is how intoxicated a teenager may feel, since this is a very subjective assessment. Although there are objective measures to measure units of alcohol consumed, some respondents may have had more to drink and yet not felt drunk, while others may have had little to drink but felt very drunk. Thus, we cannot objectively be sure of how intoxicated respondents actually were. In addition, biases are possible in the validity and reliability of the study questionnaire and due to these factors: the survey data of driving behaviors was self-reported by the teenagers themselves, and the perceptions of parents’ safety behaviors are the observations of their teenagers. The surveyed teenagers responded to the questions given to them, and responded to the questions about their parents’ road safety behavior. On the one hand, this could be considered as a limitation for possible bias, because the teenagers do not have much driving experience, and because there may be differences concerning the relationships between the teenagers and their parents, causing differences in accuracy in reporting on their parents. On the other hand, in the survey the young adults aged 19 years participated, who, by the law, are adults, and can responsibly answer the questionnaires. One advantage could be in consistency of judgment, in that one person was answering for both sides of the comparison, therefore giving a single perspective in assessing driving styles. In addition, most of the teenagers live in other cities than their parents, so to conduct surveys of their parents would be technically difficult. However, parents self-reporting would be less biased for the study, since self-reporting is usually held to be more accurate. This paper illustrates the needs for further research, possibly with a cross country comparison. 5. Conclusions The study results support our first hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between road safety behaviors of teenagers and parents, as reported by teenagers. This survey revealed that according to teenagers self-reports, fathers and mothers, who discuss road safety issues with their teenagers, significantly more often apply restrictions to drive. It supports our second hypothesis. This study indicates that family education needs to be promoted for the enhancement of road safety behavior of teenagers. Acknowledgment Sincere thanks to Prof. Dr. Susan Robbins for her assistance with the English language. References Bauer, R., & Steiner, M. (2009). Injuries in the European Union: Statistics summary 2005–2007. Vienna: KfV, EuroSafe.
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NHTSA (2005). Traffic Safety Facts: 2004 Data – Speeding. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. US Department of Transportation publication HS, 809-915.