Siwalik-age faunas from the Himalayan Foreland Basin of South Asia

Accepted Manuscript Full length article Siwalik-age faunas from the Himalayan Foreland Basin of South Asia A.C. Nanda, R.K. Sehgal, P.R. Chauhan PII: DOI: Reference:

S1367-9120(17)30603-X https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.10.035 JAES 3285

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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28 March 2017 26 October 2017 27 October 2017

Please cite this article as: Nanda, A.C., Sehgal, R.K., Chauhan, P.R., Siwalik-age faunas from the Himalayan Foreland Basin of South Asia, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2017), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes. 2017.10.035

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Siwalik-age faunas from the Himalayan Foreland Basin of South Asia A. C. Nandaa*, R. K. Sehgala and P.R. Chauhanb Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehra Dun 248 001 b Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali 140 306 a

ABSTRACT

The Himalayan foreland basin is characterized by three principal sedimentary successions. These are the Subathu Group (Palaeocene-Eocene), the Murree or Dharamsala Group (OligoceneMiocene) and the Siwalik Group (Miocene-Pleistocene). The basin was linked in the east to the Bay of Bengal through the Bengal Basin and its western part was connected to the Arabian Sea through Rajasthan and Kachchh, Gujarat. The Himalayan foothills have long been known for yielding rich mammalian fossil occurrences and significant localities in the Indian Siwaliks include Kalagarh, Ramnagar, Haritalyangar, Chandigarh and Jammu regions. The Bugti Basin and Zinda Pir area of Sulaiman Range of Pakistan were also part of the foreland basin, as Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils are known from the Vihowa and Litra formations, respectively. The Marwat Formation of Bhittani and Marwat Ranges, Pakistan have also yielded Pinjor-age vertebrate fossils. The Middle and Upper Siwalik-age fossils are also known from the Irrawaddy Formation of Myanmar, where older Pegu beds have also yielded scanty Lower Siwalik-age fossils. This faunal succession in the Irrawaddy Valley may have geologically and biogeographically belonged to the Himalayan foreland basin in the past. Additional mammalian fossils having an affinity with the Lower and Middle Siwaliks are known from the Khari Nadi Formation of Kachchh. The Bokabil Formation of Tripura also yielded scanty Lower to Middle Siwalik fossils. A younger Siwalik late Miocene assemblage _________________ *Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.C.Nanda) is known from Piram Island of Gujarat. These areas are also part of the foreland basin. Most recently, a late Miocene suid species was discovered and reported from near Baripada, Odisha. The paper discusses the respective faunal lists of the various successions mentioned above. Finally, the paper

discusses the implications of the foreland faunas.

The faunas of Lower and Middle Siwaliks of

foreland basin have links with Europe, Turkey, Africa and Central Asia and throw light on the uplift of the Himalaya. The post-Siwalik faunas of central and Peninsular India and Indo-Gangetic Plains have also yielded remnant Siwalik taxa, including Stegodon insignis, Elephas hysudricus and Potamochoerus theobaldi. The Kurnool Cave Fauna and Recent Fauna of India

have also generic

resemblance with the foreland faunas. Keywords: Siwaliks, Khari Nadi, Piram, Baripada, Vihowa, Litra, Manchar, Irrawaddy, post-Siwalik, Kurnool Cave, mammalian faunas 1. Introduction The Himalayan foreland basin lies south of the Indus Suture Zone and is parallel to the Himalayan arc. It extends all along the Himalayan southern foothills from the Irrawaddy Valley (Myanmar) in the east to the Indus Valley (Pakistan) in the west. It extends southward to Gujarat (India) and Trans-Indus, Sind and Baluchistan regions of Pakistan as shown in Figure 1. In the Himalayan ranges, three sedimentary belts are exposed and from north to south these belong to Subathu Group (Palaeocene-Eocene), Murree/Dharamsala Group (Oligo-Miocene) and Siwalik Group (Miocene-Pleistocene). In the present contribution, the observations are confined to the Siwalik Group and its equivalent horizons. The Siwalik Group of Himalayan foothills is very rich and the Potwar Plateau of Pakistan contains the type areas of almost all the Siwalik formations; these are Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan and Tatrot. The type sections of the Pinjor and Boulder Conglomerate formations lie in India. The Pinjor Formation, its type area near Chandigarh, is very rich in vertebrate fossils, whereas the Boulder Conglomerate Formation is virtually barren of fossils. The recent significant studies dealing with stratigraphy including magnetostratigraphy and mammalian faunas were carried out in the Pakistan Siwaliks (e.g. Hussain, 1971; Hussain et al., 1977, 1992; Keller et al., 1977; Opdyke et al., 1979; Barry et al., 1982-2013; Raza 1997). As compared to the Pakistan Siwaliks, the Indian Siwaliks are not as richly fossiliferous. In the present contribution, rich Pakistan and Indian

Siwalik localities have been discussed briefly, and emphasis is on the localities lying south of the Potwar Plateau in Pakistan and south of the Himalayan range in India. In Pakistan, the Vihowa and Litra formations of Sind-Baluchistan region, the Manchar beds of Sind, the Marwat and Bhittani ranges and the Daud Khel area of Trans Indus have yielded Siwalik-age fossils. In India, Khari Nadi beds, Piram Island (both in Gujarat), and the Bokabil Formation of Tripura have yielded Siwalik-age fossils. The Irrawaddy valley of Myanmar has also yielded rich Siwalik-age fossil assemblages. The history of Siwalik faunas of Nepal is not very old and in 1977, the first vertebrate fossil was reported and Nepal faunas are discussed. The various localities yielding Siwalik fossils are listed in Table 1. In the present contribution, our observations are based only on the mammalian faunas. 2. Fossiliferous areas of Indian Siwaliks Several areas of the Himalayan foothills have yielded rich mammalian fossil assemblages and these are briefly discussed below. Various fossiliferous localities of the northwest Himalaya of India and Potwar Plateau are shown in Figure 2. 2.1. Kalagarh The township of Kalagarh lies east of River Ganga in Uttarakhand. The succession here is referred to Lower Siwalik Subgroup by Karunakaran and Ranga Rao (1979). However, Nanda and Sehgal (1993; 2005a,b) showed that collections made by Sahni and Tiwari (1979), Sahni et al. (1980, 1983) and Tiwari (1983, 1991) belong both to the Lower and Middle Siwalik subgroups. Typical Chinji (Lower Siwalik) taxa are ?Viverra chinjiensis and Sivameryx minor, whereas the Middle Siwalik

elements

include

Kanisamys sivalensis,

Hipparion antelopinum,

Cormohipparion

(Sivalhippus) theobaldi, Hydaspitherium sp. and Dorcadoxa porrecticornis. The Middle Siwalik taxa (except Hydaspitherium) range both in the Nagri and Dhok Pathan formations. Thus, the Kalagarh succession has yielded fossils belonging to both Chinji and Nagri formations. 2.2. Ramnagar (Jammu region)

The Ramnagar area is dominated by red mudstones and well-known for primate fossils, which include Sivapithecus sivalensis, S. indicus, S. simonsi, Pongo (= Sivasimia) chinjiensis, Sivaladapis palaeindicus and Ramadapis sahnii. This locality recorded significant Lower Siwalik fossils, although scanty Middle Siwalik fossils are also known. A number of researchers, including Pilgrim (1927), Dutta et al. (1976), Vasishat et al. (1978a), Gaur and Chopra (1983), Nanda and Sehgal (1993, 2005ab), Basu (2004), Parmar and Prasad (2006), Sehgal and Patnaik (2012), Patnaik (2013), Sehgal (2013), Gilbert et al. (2014, 2017) and Parmar et al. (2016) made investigations in this area. Nanda (2015) referred the fossil yielding beds to Ramnagar Formation and this formation is considered equivalent to the Chinji Formation of Potwar. He compiled the faunal list and tabulated about 54 taxa of which 17 were considered characteristic for the Chinji fauna. The characteristic taxa are: Pongo (=Sivasimia) chinjiensis, Antemus chinjiensis, Eomellivora necrophila, Vishnuonyx chinjiensis,

Viverra

chinjiensis, Prodeinotherium sp., Zygolophodon metachinjiensis, Gomphotherium angustidens, Pecharichoerus orientalis, Sivameryx minor, Dorcabune anthracotherioides, D. hyaemoschoides, Giraffa priscilla, Propalaeoeomeryx exigua, Protragocerus gluten, Miotragocerus (=Sivaceros) gradiens and Kubanotragus sokolovi. Parmar et al. (2016) described two cricetid rodents Punjabemys downsi and P. mikros, which were not earlier reported from this area.

Gilbert et al. (2017) recently

recognized a new sivaladapid and named it Ramadapis sahnii. 2.3. Nurpur (Kangra) Nurpur area, like Ramnagar, contains prominent red mudstones. However, this red bed succession yielded Middle Siwalik fossils. The succession is about 1370 m thick and ranges from 8.14 to 5.26 Ma in age (Ranga Rao, 1993). Recently, Venkateshwarlu (2015) palaeomagnetically dated both Middle and Upper Siwaliks of this area and assigned an age between 8.2 to 2.6 Ma. The main fossiliferous horizons lie up to 270 m above the exposed base and its average age is 7.5 Ma. Nanda (2015) compiled the faunal list, based on the works of Vasishat et al. (1983), Gaur et al. (1985), Nanda and Sehgal, (1993, 2005a-b) and Sehgal and Nanda (2002). The area is profusely characterised by

Hipparion antelopinum and Cormohipparion (Sivalhippus) theobaldi and indicates that the succession correlates with Dhok Pathan age assemblages. The first chronological appearance of hipparioninaes is at 10.7 Ma on the Potwar Plateau, in the Nagri Formation (Pilbeam et al. 1996; Barry et al., 2002; Raza et al., 2002). However, keeping the magnetostratigraphic range of the succession and presence of Propotamochoerus hysudricus, Merycopotamus dissimilis, Bramatherium megacephalum and Hydaspitherium, all indicate a probable Dhok Pathan age. 2.4 Haritalyangar (Himachal Pradesh) This locality is also well-known for its Middle Siwalik fossils, particularly primates, which include Indraloris himalayensis (= I. lulli, =Sivanasua himalayaensis), Sivapithecus sivalensis, S. indicus, S. simonsi, Pliopithecus krishnaii (= Krishnapithecus krishnaii), Indopithecus giganteus (= Gigantopithecus giganteus, = G. bilaspurensis), Sivaladapis nagrii (=Indoadapis shivaii) and Sivaladapis palaeindicus. Nanda (2015) divided the Middle Siwalik succession into two formations. The older one is referred to Haritalyangar Formation and younger to Ladhyani Formation. Present investigators equate Haritalyangar local fauna tentatively to the Nagri fauna and Ladhyani local fauna tentatively to the Dhok Pathan fauna. However, there is a confusion regarding the Nagri fauna and this problem is discussed by Pilbeam et al. (1977), Moonen et al. (1978) and Barry et al. (1980, 1982). Barry et al. (1982) have provided an excellent summary of the concept concerning the Nagri fauna. Moonen et al. (1978) have considered the older fauna of a single locality, Sethi Nagri of Potwar, as Nagri fauna. Pilgrim (1913) included the fauna of Haritalyangar in the Nagri fauna. Pilbeam et al. (1977) used Nagri fauna in chronostratigraphic sense. Thus, there is a real problem concerning the concept of the Nagri fauna and to find a suitable solution. In Haritalyangar area, faunal elements are scanty as compared to the ones from Potwar. Only two magnetostratigraphic studies, Johnson et al. (1983) and Pillans et al. (2005), are available and these investigators provided the range of primate fossils only. Thus, there are limitations for present investigators to provide the range of other taxa in Haritalyangar area. However, Barry et al. (2002) provided the range of various mammalian taxa for

the interval between 10.7 and 5.7 Ma for Pakistan Siwaliks, but such study is not available for Haritalyangar area. Most of the Siwalik magnetostratigraphic studies were done in 1970's and 1980's and investigators used magnetic scales of LaBreque et al. (1977). For Gradstein et al. (2004) magnetic scale, calibrations are required and it is advisable to name the scale used for magnetostratigraphic studies. It may create confusion. For example, “Hipparion s.l.” Interval-Zone ranges from 9.5 to 7.4 Ma. However, now we know that first appearance of Hipparion is 10.7 Ma (Pilbeam et al., 1996; Barry et al., 2002; Raza et al., 2002). Thus for the ranges of various taxa, whether stated in intervalzones, range-zones or faunal-zones (Barry et al., 2002; Hussain et al., 1992; Dennell et al., 2006), calibrations are required for Gradstein et al. (2004) scale to overcome confusion. We know that litho boundaries are time transgressive and for biostratigraphic work, fossils are required. Various investigators reported or discussed the mammalian faunas and these include Prasad (1962, 1964a, 1970), Chopra et al. (1977), Sahni and Khare (1977), Vasishat et al. (1978b), Chopra et al. (1979), Gingerich and Sahni (1979), Flynn (1982a-b, 2009), Johnson et al. (1983), Vasishat (1985), Tiwari (1996), Pillans et al. (2005), Gaur and Vasishat (2007), Patnaik (2013), Nanda (2015) and Sankhyan et al. (2017).

About sixty-one and twenty-four taxa represent the Haritalyangar and Ladhyani local

faunas, respectively (Nanda, 2015). There are 20 characteristic Nagri taxa for this area and these are Tupaia sivalicus, Indraloris himalayensis, Pliopithecus krishnaii, Sivaladapis nagrii, Miorhizomys nagrii,

Dakkamys nagrii,

Parapodemus hariensis,

Progonomys choprii, Sivalikomys nagrii,

Viverra nagrii, Vishnuicitis hariensis, Ictitherium nagrii, Megantereon praecox, Vinayakia intermedia, Lophochoerus nagrii, Conohyus prasadii, ?Propotamochoerus sp. (=Sus advena), Anthracodon hariensis, Anthraconema dangari and Pachyportax nagrii. The Ladhyani local fauna is scanty as compared to the Haritalyangar local fauna: only five marker taxa are known and these are Siwalikosorex prasadi, Indopithecus giganteus, Sayimys badauni, ?Percrocuta talyangari and Vishnutherium iravaticum. 2.5 Jammu

In Jammu, the Upper Siwalik succession is divided into three formations and these in stratigraphic order are Parmandal Sandstone, Nagrota and Boulder Conglomerate formations. The Nagrota Formation has yielded both Tatrot and Pinjor faunas. It is about 1680m thick in the Parmandal-Utterbeni section and contains bentonitized tuff beds in central part and succession below tuff beds yielded Tatrot fauna. The prominent investigators include de Terra and Teilhard (1936), Gaur and Vasishat (1986), Yakoyama et al. (1987), Gupta and Verma (1988), Ranga Rao et al. (1988), Agarwal et al. (1993), Nanda and Kumar (1999), Basu (2004), Nanda and Sehgal (2005a-b) and Nanda (2015). The Tatrot fauna is represented in this area by the presence of Dilatomys pilgrimi, Millardia sp., Abudhabia cf. A. kabulense, Stegodon bombifrons, Hipparion antelopinum, Cormohipparion (Sivalhippus) theobaldi, Propotamochoerus hysudricus and Merycopotamus dissimilis. The Pinjor fauna

includes Panthera cf. P. cristata, Pachycrocuta brevirostris, Ursus sp.,

Elephas hysudricus, E. platycephalus, Equus sivalensis, Rhinoceros palaeindicus, Coelodonta platyrhinus, Sus giganteus, S. falconeri, Cervus sp., Sivatherium giganteum, Vishnucobus sterilis, Boselaphus cf. B. tragocamelus, Hemibos triquetricornis, H. acuticornis, Bos sp. and Bison sp. (Nanda, 2015). Both Tatrot and Pinjor faunas in the Jammu region are scanty in comparison to corresponding faunal evidence in the Chandigarh region. 2.6 Chandigarh The Chandigarh region is well-known for yielding rich Upper Siwalik assemblages. The area adjoining Chandigarh is having the type area of the Pinjor Formation and Pilgrim (1913) first listed the rich Pinjor fauna. Subsequently, a large number of investigators carried out the work in this area, made collections and discussed the stratigraphy. A few significant investigators of last five decades include Sahni and Khan (1964), Nanda (1973-2015), Badam (1979), Azzaroli and Napoleone (1982), Gaur (1987), Verma (1989), Patnaik (1995-2013), Ranga Rao et al. (1995), Verma et al. (2002) and Patnaik and Nanda (2010). Now, both the Tatrot and Pinjor faunas are recorded. The type area of the Tatrot lies about 400 km west of Chandigarh. Verma (1989) and Nanda (2002, 2015) referred the pre-Pinjor

beds of Upper Siwaliks to the Saketi Formation and equated with the Tatrot Formation of Potwar. Several localities yielded rich Saketi fauna and these include Surajpur, Quaranwala, Masol, Dhamala, Khetpurali, Masumpur and Saketi. The succession is 245m thick in the Saketi area. About 20 markers for Tatrot fauna are known from this area. These are: Suncus cf. S. murinus, Palaeomys sp., Rhizomyides saketiensis, Rhizomyides cf. R. sivalensis, Mus flynni, M. jacobsi, Hadromys primitivus, H. moginandensis, Cremnomys cf. C. cutchicus, Bandicota sivalensis, Protatera cf. P. kabulense, Golunda tatroticus, Dilatomys moginandensis, Abudhabia cf. A. kabulense, Pliosiwalagus whitei, Saketoteron tatroinse, Anancus (=Pentalophodon) khetpuraliensis, Potamochoerus prasadii, Proamphibos kashmiricus and Probison dehmi. The Pinjor fossils are widespread and abundant, and in Patiali Rao stream section, the Pinjor Formation is 1167m thick. In the last five decades, it has yielded 58 chrono-marker species. These are Chandisorex punchkulaensis, Procynocephalus pinjorii, ?Homo erectus, Theropithecus delsoni, Nesokia punchkulaensis, Rattus sp., Hystrix leucurus, Mus linnaeusi, M. cf. M. flynni, Cremnomys cf. C. blanfordi, Golunda sp., Dilatomys sp., Hadromys loujacobsi, Tatera pinjoricus, Anepsirhizomys pinjoricus (="Rhizomys” pinjoricus), Bandicota sp., Caprolagus sivalensis, Canis pinjorensis, Mellivora sivalensis, Enhydriodon sivalensis, Lutra sp., Lutra palaeindica, Amblonyx indicus, Pachycrocuta brevirostris (=Crocuta felina, =C. sivalensis, =C. colvini), Panthera cf. P. cristata, Hyaenictis bosei, Megantereon palaeindicus, Sivapanthera (=Sivafelis) potens, Stegodon pinjorensis, Elephas hysudricus, E. platycephalus, Equus sivalensis, ?E. namadicus, Coelodonta platyrhinus (=Punjabitherium platyrhinum), Rhinoceros palaeindicus, R. sivalensis,

Potamochoerus theobaldi, Sus falconeri, S. hysudricus, S. giganteus, S. choprai, Cervus

sivalensis, C. punjabiensis, Sivatherium giganteum, Sivacapra

subhimalayaensis, Damalops

palaeindicus, Oryx (= Sivoryx) sivalensis, Sivacobus palaeindicus, Antilope subtorta, Vishnucobus (=Indoredunca) sterilis, Hemibos acuticornis, H. triquetricornis, H. antelopinus, Bubalus bubalis var. palaeindicus, B. platyceros, Leptobos falconeri, Bison sivalensis and Bos acutifrons (Nanda, 2015). 3. Fossiliferous areas of Pakistan Siwaliks

As mentioned, all the type sections of the Siwalik Group, except Pinjor and Boulder Conglomerate formations, lie in the Potwar Plateau and are richly fossiliferous. Earlier, pioneer investigations were carried out by Pilgrim (1910-1944) and Colbert (1935). In the last five decades, significant advances were made in Pakistan and various faunal lists are available. A very large number of investigators made significant contributions, some of which include Pilbeam et al. (1977, 1996), Moonen et al. (1978), Hussain et al. (1979, 1992), Badgley and Behrensmeyer (1980), Barry et al. (1980- 2013), Barry and Flynn (1990) and Raza (1997). Various investigators (Black, 1972; Jacobs, 1978; Munthe, 1980; Dehm et al., 1982; Flynn, 1982 a-b; 1990, 2009; Wessells et al., 1982, 1987; Musser, 1987; Lindsay, 1988, 1994; Flynn, et al. 1990a, 1995, 1998; Wessells, 1996, 2009; and Flynn and Wessells, 2013) studied microvertebrates and particularly rodents. Several new taxa were reported including Tamias urialis, Democricetodon kohatensis, Megacricetodon aguilari, M. mythikos, M. daamsi, Punjabemys downsi, P. mikros, Myocricetodon sivalensis, Dakkamys barryi, D. asiaticus, Potwarmus primitivus, P. minimus, Mellalomys lavocati, Paradakkaymys chinjiensis, Prokanisamys benjavuni, Kanisamys potwarensis, Miorhizomys (=Brachyrhizomys) micrus, M. blacki, M. tetracharax, M. choristos, Eicooryates kaulialensis, Anepsirhizomys opdyki, Antemus chinjiensis, A. primitivus, Progonomys debruijini, P. darwini, P. huxleyi, Mus auctor, Golunda kelleri, Parapelomys robertsi, Kochalia geespei, Sayimys

chinjiensis,

S. baskini

and Myomimus sumbalenwalicus.

Advances in the Pakistan Siwaliks along with the faunal list are discussed by Nanda (2015). Upper Siwalik fossils were collected from Mangla-Samwal area (Arif, 1985; Hussain et al., 1992; Arif and Hussain, 1994) and Pabbi Hills (Keller et al., 1977; Dennell, 2004, 2008; Dennell et al., 2006). Lower and Middle Siwalik successions of the Daud Khel area are described by Hussain et al. (1977, 1979) and Munthe et al. (1979). This area yielded sparse fossils as compared to the Potwar Plateau. The Pakistan Siwaliks are richly fossiliferous and are described by several investigators. The details are not provided, but can be seen in the works of the authors mentioned above.

The most significant aspect of the Siwalik studies is the introduction of magnetostratigraphic ages. On the basis of this, Barry et al. (1982) identified four biostratigraphic interval-zones for the Middle and Upper Siwaliks. These are “Hipparion s.l.” Interval-Zone (9.5 to 7.4 Ma), Selenoportax lydekkeri Interval-Zone (7.4 to 5.3Ma), Hexaprotodon sivalensis Interval-Zone (5.3 to 2.9 Ma) and Elephas planifrons Interval-Zone (2.9 to 1.5Ma). Subsequently, Hussain et al. (1992) modified these zones for the Upper Siwalik succession of Mangla-Samwal area and called these Range-Zones. Dennell et al. (2006) also proposed zones (called faunal-zones) for the Upper Siwaliks of Pabbi Hills of Pakistan and proposed two zones: Elephas hysudricus-Sivatherium faunal-zone (2.7 to 1.7 Ma) and E. hysudricus – Crocuta – Ursus- Panthera faunal-zone (1.7 to 0.9 Ma). In India, Nanda (1997, 2002, 2015) also modified the interval-zones for the Upper Siwaliks. The details of these zones have already been discussed by the above mentioned investigators (Table 2).

Again it is advisable while

mentioning the magnetostratigraphic ages, the name of the magnetic scale, such as of LaBrecque et al. (1977), Cande and Kent (1995) and Gradstein et al. (2004) should be stated or calibrated ages of Gradstein et al. (2004) should be provided. The magnetostratigraphic studies dated the various fossil ranges including the first and last appearance of several taxa. This helped to demarcate routes of migration of various Siwalik taxa with respect to their coevals in Europe, Asia and Africa. 4. Fossiliferous areas of Nepal Siwaliks As mentioned, the history of vertebrate collection is not very old in Nepal. Sharma (1977) reported a partial skull of Hexaprotodon sivalensis from Janakpur town in eastern Nepal. West et al. (1978) reported Lower Siwalik vertebrates from Dang Valley and provided details on systematic palaeontology. Subsequently, several investigators including West and Munthe (1981, 1983), West (1984), Corvinus (1988 a-b, 1993, 2006), West et al. (1988, 1991), Nanda and Corvinus (1992, 2000), Corvinus and Nanda (1994), Nanda (1997, 2013) and Corvinus and Rimal (2001) collected or commented on the Upper Siwalik fossils. Munthe et al. (1983) reported Sivapithecus sivalensis from Tinau Khola, near Butwal town in southwest Nepal. Lower and

Upper Siwaliks are well-known in Nepal. However, Middle Siwalik fossils are scanty. West et al. (1991) reported Hipparion near Gidhniya village and considered this form of Middle Siwalik age. Pachyportex in Dang Valley and Sivapithecus in Tinau Khola with assigned age of 9-10 Ma (West et al., 1991) indicate the presence of a Middle Siwalik succession in Nepal. A modified mammalian faunal list of Lower and Middle Siwaliks after Nanda (2015) is given in Table 3. Upper Siwalik fossils are very well-known and are reported from Surai Khola, Gidhniya (both in western Nepal), Rato Khola (eastern Nepal) and from intermontane deposits of Kathmandu Valley. These intermontane deposits, referred to as Lukundol Formation, yielded typical Pinjor fauna comprising Elephas hysudricus, Potamochoerus palaeindicus, P. cf. P. theobaldi, Cervus sp. and Bos/Bubalus. Gidhniya locality yielded Pinjor fossils, which include Equus sivalensis and Cervus sp. Surai Khola and Rato Khola areas yielded both Tatrot and Pinjor faunas. Stegodon bombifrons, Hippohyus lydekkeri (= H. tatroti), Giraffa punjabiensis and Proamphibos cf. P. lachrymans indicate the presence of the Tatrot fauna, whereas Pinjor fauna is characterised by Equus sivalensis, Potamochoerus cf. P. theobaldi, Cervus sp. and Hemibos acuticornis. A composite faunal list of Upper Siwaliks is given in Table 4. 5. Fossiliferous horizons lying south of Himalaya As mentioned above, Himalayan foothills are very rich in the Siwalik fossils. However, there are several areas, which lie south of foothills and have yielded Siwalik fossils in India, Pakistan and Myanmar. This indicates the southward extension of the foreland basin. These fossiliferous horizons or localities are discussed region wise below. 5.1 Indian Horizons Khari Nadi Formation of the Kachchh, Piram Island of Kachchh and Bokabil Formation of Tripura have yielded mammalian faunas. 5.1.1 Khari Nadi Formation, Kachchh

The pioneering works regarding the mammalian fauna of Khari Nadi were carried out by Bhandari et al. (2010, 2015). Patnaik et al. (2014) described additional vertebrate remains including fishes and reptiles. Earlier Prasad (1964b, 1967) reported vertebrate fossils. The composite mammalian faunal list, along with a range of individual taxon with respect to Siwalik formations, is provided in Table 5. Vertebrate fauna is reported mainly from Samda, Fategad, Tapar, Pasuda, Junagia and Jangadia localities (all in Kachchh). Bhandari et al. (2010, pp. 15, 16; fig. 10) considered this succession belonging to the terminal part of Early Miocene (16.5 + 0.5Ma).

They further equated the Kachchh fauna

equivalent to the Murree beds (=Dharamsala, and Dagshai and Kasauli beds) or at least partly to the successions at Pasuda, Fategad and Samda. However at the same time, they considered the Murree (=Dharamsala) beds equivalent to Bugti beds (Bhandari et al. 2010, p. 20). Later, Bhandari et al. (2015, fig. 30) put Fategad and Samda beds equivalent to the Kamlial Formation with an age slightly younger than 18.2 Ma. However in Figure 32, they considered the Fategad fossil locality between 20-19 Ma and Samda locality between 17-16 Ma. They recorded Hipparion s.l. teeth from Pasuda and Tapar and placed these localities slightly younger 10 Ma or of Nagri age. Thus, the Khari Nadi Formation has two distinct horizons. The older deposits exposed at Samda and Fategad indicate Kamlial-age, whereas Pasuda and Tapar deposits may belong to Nagri- age. 5.1.2 Bokabil Formation, Tripura Trivedy

(1966,1980)

reported two Siwalik taxa,

Gomphotherium angustidens and

Dorcatherium sp. from the Bokabil Formation of Tripura. In the Siwalik Group, the former taxon is characteristic of the Chinji Formation (Colbert, 1935; Nanda, 2015). The genus Dorcatherium is long ranging and known from Kamlial to Tatrot formations. Thus, on the basis of occurrence of G. angustidens, in Lower Siwaliks the yielding succession may belong to Chinji age. Beside these proboscidean Stegolophodon cautleyi; perissodactyl Hipparion theobaldi and artiodactyls Pachyportax

sp. and Propotamochoerus hysudricus are also known (Patnaik, 2016). The presence of Hipparion indicates a Middle Siwalik age. Thus, the succession at Tripura may represent a Lower to Middle Siwalik age. 5.1.3. Piram Island (Gujarat) Piram Island is situated in the Gulf of Cambay, Gujarat and is well-known for vertebrate fossils, which are contemporary with the Middle Siwaliks. All the mammalian taxa known from the island, expect Ruticeros compressa, are present in the Siwalik Group. Lush and Fulljam made the earliest collection in 1830’s and this was subsequently described by Falconer (1845). Falconer and Cautley (1845-1849) and Falconer (1867, 1868) mentioned or described the Piram fossils. Prasad (1974, 2006) made extensive collection and described and listed the fauna. Pilgrim (1939) also discussed the Piram fossils. A composite mammalian faunal list, with range of individual taxon, after Pilgrim (1939) and Prasad (1974, 2006), is given in Table 6. Prasad (1974) erected a new species Ruticeros compressa, but did not distinguish it from the known species of R. pugio from the Dhok Pathan Formation. Prasad (1974, p. 3) discussed the age of Piram beds and was of the view that all the collection except proboscidean fossils gives sufficient evidence of Nagri-age. However, all Piram taxa (Table 6) also indicate Dhok Pathan age except Pachyportax nagrii. This taxon is confined to the Nagri Formation of northwestern Indian subcontinent and may have lived longer in the region of Piram Island. 5.1.4. Baripada Beds of Mayurbhanj, Odisha Recently, Sharma and Patnaik (2013) reported dental specimens identified as Tetraconodon intermedius from the Baripada Beds in Odisha, and broadly assigned it a late Miocene age or equivalent to the Nagri -Dhok Pathan transition as known from the Siwalik Hills.

T.intermedius is

also known from the Irrawaddy Formation. Tetraconodon mirabilis, which was earlier described from Jammu (Pilgrim, 1926) is synonymous with T. intermedius and is considered to be approximately of Dhok Pathan or Late Nagri equivalent (Made, 1999).

5.2. Southern foreland basin of Pakistan South of Potwar Plateau, Bugti Basin and Zinda Pir area, the Vihowa and Litra formations yielded both Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils, respectively. Manchar beds of Sind province also yielded both Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils. Bhittani-Marwat Ranges, lying south of Potwar Plateau yielded Upper Siwalik fossils. These are discussed below. 5.2.1. Bugti Basin The Chitarwata Formation contains the famous Bugti beds, which are well-known for mammalian fossils of Oligocene age. Overlying the Chitarwata Formation is the Vihowa Formation (Lower Siwaliks of Welcomme et al., 2001, fig. 4), which has yielded rich mammalian fauna (Métais et al., 2009, fig.5).

The Vihowa Formation has yielded both Siwalik and non Siwalik taxa.

Hyainalouros bugtiensis, Gomphotherium browni, Zygolophodon metachinjiensis and Protanancus chinjiensis are restricted to the Chinji Formation of northwest Himalaya, and are also present in Vihowa Formation. Brachypotherium fatehjangense, known from Vihowa Formation, is found in both the Kamlial and Chinji formations. In addition, B. perimense, Prokanisamys benjavuni, Megacricetodon daamsi and Predeinotherium pentapotamiae have their lower limit in the Kamlial Formation. The fauna of Vihowa Formation indicates a Lower Siwalik age. Overlying the Vihowa Formation is the Litra Formation from which Antoine et al. (2013, fig. 16.3) recorded fossils of Middle Siwalik affinity. The recorded taxa of Litra Formation include ?Bramatherium perimense, Rhinoceros aff. R. sivalensis, Alicornops complanatum, Brachypotherium perimense and Hipparion sp. The faunas of Vihowa and Litra formations are given in Table 7. 5.2.2. Zinda Pir The Vihowa and Litra formations of Zinda Pir Dome (eastern Sulaiman Range) yielded both Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils, respectively. Raza et al. (2002) and Antoine et al. (2013) published the faunal lists of these formations. A composite faunal list is given in Table 8. The Zinda Pir area has

yielded rich assemblage of Vihowa fossils. The presence of Galerix sp., Hyainailouros sulzeri, Microbunodon silistrense, Sivameryx palaeindicus and Progiraffa exigua indicates Lower Siwalik age and Eotragus noyei is known from Kamlial Formation of north western Indian subcontinent. In addition, Myocricetodon sivalensis and Brachypotherium perimense have lower limit in the Kamlial Formation. The composite fauna indicates Lower Siwalik age. The fauna of Litra Formation is scanty and the presence of Cormohipparion (Sivalhippus) theobaldi and Prostrepsiceros vinayki indicates a Middle Siwalik age. Both taxa are known from the Dhok Pathan Formation. As the fauna is scanty, the Litra Formation is referred to the Middle Siwalik. Vihowa Formation, both in Bugti and Zinda Pir areas, has yielded certain taxa known from the Chinji Formation of Potwar. However, in Tables 7 and 8 additional taxa are listed from Vihowa Formation, but these are not yet known from the Kamlial Formation of Potwar. Some of these additional taxa may belong to the Kamlial Formation. In Potwar, the Kamlial fauna is scanty, whereas overlying Chinji fauna is comparatively very rich. According to Raza et al. (2002) there were two palaeodrainages at that time. Firstly, the Ganga type with palaeocurrent directions east and southeast, secondly,

the Indus type with southward palaeocurrent directions.

In Potwar Plateau, the

sedimentation hiatus between Neogene terrestrial sediments and marine Eocene was about 20-25 Ma, whereas in Sulaiman Ranges, it was about 14 Ma. Thus, surface of non-deposition was more in Potwar, and the Kamlial fauna is younger in Potwar. Thus, the additional taxa tabulated in Tables 7 and 8 for Vihowa Formation may be older than Chinji and not yet recorded from Potwar.

5.2.3. Manchar Lake (Sind) The Manchar Formation is a Neogene succession of sandstones, silts and conglomerates. It is exposed in a narrow N-S belt in Sind Province. It overlies the Gaj Formation, and is at some places overlain by Dada Conglomerate Formation (Raza et al., 1984). The Manchar Formation is 2220m thick in Gaj and is divided into three subdivisions. A section of maximum thickness of

430m is exposed in Bhagothoro section and lower 100m of this section has yielded most of the fossils collected by Pilgrim (1917). The other investigators of the Manchar Formation include de Bruijin and Hussain (1984, 1985), Bernor et al. (1988), de Bruijin et al. (1989), der Made and Hussain (1992) and Zijlstra et al. (2013). A modified list given in Table 9 after Nanda (2015). According to Raza et al. (1984), both basal and Middle Manchar levels are probably older than Chinji fauna and younger than Bugti fauna. However, there are elements in Manchar Formation, which support Chinji age. The Chinji elements include Gomphotherium angustidens palaeindicus,

Antemus chinjiensis,

Paraulacodus indicus,

Myomimus

sumbalewalicus,

Hemimeryx blanfordi, Dorcabune sindiense, D. anthracotherioides and Propalaeomeryx exigua. From upper part of the formation, Hipparion is known (Raza et al., 1984) and indicates Middle Siwalik age. 5.2.4. Bhittani and Marwat Ranges These ranges are situated in the Trans-Indus region and known for their Upper Siwalik age, particularly based on the Pinjor fossils. The first significant collection was made by Morris (1938) and he divided the succession into four formations. These in stratigraphic order are Kargocha, Marwat, Sheri Ghasha and Malagan. He described a unique depositional unit from the middle part of Marwat Formation and called it ‘Bain Boulder Bed’ of glacial origin. However, Swie-Dizn and Hussain (1981) studied the sedimentological aspects of the Marwat Formation and consider the bed as debris flow and devoid of any glacial evidence. Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) carried out studies of Bhittani and Marwat Ranges and correlated the formations with the Siwalik formations. Munthe (1981) studied the lithostratigraphic aspects and was of the opinion that the successions exposed do not represent lateral expansion of the Siwalik formations. West (1981) carried out biostratigraphic studies and made extensive collection of the vertebrate fossils. Except Hemphill and Kidwai (1973), all the other investigators recognized three formations: Kargocha, Marwat and Malagan. They considered the Sheri Ghasha Formation as part of

Marwat Formation. Only the Marwat Formation yielded identifiable vertebrate fossils. This formation comprises extremely thick to thin sandstone beds. The thick sandstone beds are dominant in lower part and up to 150m thick. The sandstone beds alternate with subordinate over bank deposits. As mentioned, the middle part of the Marwat Formation contains the Bain Boulder Bed. It contains angular clasts, which are up to 1.5m in size. The bed can be followed for 3-5 km and maximum thickness is 70 m; vertebrate fossils occur on both sides of this bed. Khan and Opdyke (1981) carried out palaeomagnetic studies and according to them, the Bain Boulder Bed occurs stratigraphically below the Olduvai subchron and the assigned age is 2.0-2.2 Ma. Morris (1938) and West (1981) published the faunal list, which includes Stegodon insignis, Elephas planifrons, E. hysudricus, Equus sivalensis, Rhinoceros palaeindicus, Cervus punjabiensis, Bubalus sp. and Bos sp. The presence of E. hysudricus, R. palaeindicus, Equus, Cervus, Bubalus and Bos all indicate Pinjor fauna. 5.3. Myanmar Some formations in neighbouring Myanmar are contemporaneous with the Siwalik Group with significant mammalian faunas. Colbert (1938) recognized three Cenozoic terrestrial mammalian bearing horizons in Myanmar. In ascending order, these are ‘Pondaung Sandstone’, ‘Pegu Series’ and ‘Irrawaddy Series’. Pondaung Formation is essentially a sandy facies, about 6000 ft (1829m) thick and yielded Upper Eocene fossils. Both Pegu and Irrawaddy have yielded Siwalik fossils and are discussed briefly. 5.3.1. Pegu Beds Pegu beds have yielded scanty mammalian fauna and Colbert (1938) assigned a broad age of Oligocene-Upper Miocene. Recently Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al. (2008) published the first comprehensive faunal list for this region. Bhandari et al. (2010, table 2) also provided a modified faunal list after the works of Thaung-Hitke et al. (2006) and Takai et al. (2006). A composite

faunal list with respect to the Siwalik Group is given in Table 10. Pegu beds also contain Diceratherium naricum, Tetraconodon malensis and Cadurcotherium, which are not recorded from the Siwalik Group. Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al. (2008) assigned these beds to the Early to Middle Miocene (Orleanin-Astaracian) and thus equated with Kamlial and Chinji formations. The fauna of Pegu Formation is scanty (Table 10) and only three Siwalik species are known. These are Deinotherium sindiense, Choerolophodon corrugatus and Brachypotherium perimense. The known range of Choerolophodon corrugatus is from Chinji to Dhok Pathan formations. Deinotherium sindiense is known both from Kamlial and Chinji formations and Brachypotherium perimense is known from Kamlial to Dhok Pathan. Therefore, the Pegu Beds may represent the Chinji fauna. 5.3.2. Irrawaddy Formation The freshwater deposits are exposed along Irrawaddy River and its tributary Chindwin River. These beds yielded rich vertebrate assemblage, which range from Middle Miocene to Pleistocene. These fossiliferous beds lie unconformably above the Pegu Beds. The earliest collection was made by Crawfurd in early 1800’s and Clift (1828) described the collection. The first detailed reports were given by Colbert (1938, 1943); and two distinct faunas, referred to Lower and Upper Irrawaddy, were recognised by him. Recently T.-Htike et al. (2005, 2006), Chavasseau et al. (2006, 2010, 2013), Takai et al. (2006), Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al. (2006, 2008, 2010), Tsubamoto et al. (2006), Chit-Sein et al. (2009), Egi et al. (2011) and Jaeger et al. (2011) have described or listed the fossils. This formation comprises mainly coarse grained sandstones, but pebbles, boulders and ferruginous concretions are also common. The lower part of the formation is ferruginous conglomerates. The Irrawaddy Formation is about 3000m thick and two fossiliferous horizons are separated by 1500m. The lower fossiliferous horizon yielded mainly Middle Siwalik fossils, whereas the upper horizon yielded Upper Siwalik fauna. Faunas from the Irrawaddy Formation

are compiled in Table 11. The Lower Irrawaddy formation is generally considered equivalent to the Dhok Pathan Formation. Stegolophodon latidens, Stegodon elephantoides, Hydaspitherium birmanicum and Vishnutherium iravaticum are restricted to the Dhok Pathan Formation and are also present in the Lower Irrawaddy beds. Tetraconodon minor is restricted to the Nagri Formation and also restricted to the Lower Irrawaddy. Thus, most of the fauna indicate a Dhok Pathan age. However, Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al. (2008, text fig. 2; 2010, p. 155, fig. 2) recorded Hemimeryx blanfordi, Brachypotherium fatehjangense, Siamotragulus sp. and Conohyus thailandicus. The latter taxon is not known from the Siwalik Group, but the presence of H. blanfordi and B. fatehjangense indicate the presence of Chinji elements. Chit-Sein et al. (2009, p. 21) are of the view that the Lower Irrawaddy beds are equivalent to the Middle Siwaliks, but some elements show resemblance to the Chinji fauna and fauna of Tha Chang, Thailand. The presence of Elephas hysudricus, Rhinoceros sivalensis, Hemibos triquetricornis and Equus in Upper Irrawaddy indicates the Pinjor fauna. However, the upper limit of Hipparion antelopinum and Merycopotamus dissimilis in the Siwalik Group extends up towards the Tatrot Formation. Thus, their presence in Upper Irrawaddy suggests affinities with the Tatrot fauna. The presence of Stegolophodon latidens and Stegodon elephantoides is puzzling. These taxa occur in the Dhok Pathan Formation, but are recorded from both the Lower and Upper Irrawaddy beds. This may be due to two reasons. First, they survived longer in Irrawaddy Formation times, second, there was mixing of Lower and Upper Irrawaddy fossils as observed by Colbert (1938, p. 398). Chavasseau et al. (2013, fig. 19.6) recognized three faunal assemblages in the Irrawaddy Formation. Their respective ages are late Middle Miocene (= Chinji Formation), early late Miocene (= Nagri Formation) and Plio-Pleistocene (= Tatrot, Samwal or Pinjor formations). However, they did not compile a composite faunal list and only provided locality based lists. In conclusion, the Pegu beds may have elements of Lower Siwaliks and probably fauna is equivalent to Chinji fauna. The Lower Irrawaddy contains mainly Dhok Pathan fossils, but

the

succession extends down and is characterized by the presence of Chinji fossils. The Upper Irrawaddy beds contain both Tatrot and Pinjor faunas. 6. Significance of foreland faunas Foreland faunas are highly varied and have a wide distribution as they are well-known from the Himalayan foothills of India, Nepal and Potwar Plateau. The faunas extend southwards to the Sind province of Pakistan and the Kachchh region of India, and are also very well-known from the Irrawaddy Valley of Myanmar. The Himalayan foothills faunas (including Potwar Plateau) are rich and varied in comparison to faunas that lie south of Himalayan foothills (see Chauhan, 2008). As mentioned, Khari Nadi Formation has both Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils (Table 5). The Tripura local fauna, belonging to Bokabil Formation also indicates a Lower to Middle Siwalik age. The Vihowa and Litra formations of Bugti and Zinda Pir area yielded both Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils, respectively. The Manchar beds of Sind also yielded Lower and Middle Siwalik fossils. The Pegu beds of Myanmar have yielded Chinji-age fossils. From the Irrawaddy Formation, both Middle and Upper Siwalik fossils are well-known. The lower part of the formation extends down to the Lower Siwaliks. The Marwat Formation of Bhittani and Marwat Ranges, lying south of the Potwar Plateau, have yielded a characteristic Pinjor fauna. The succession lying south of the Himalayan foothills and Potwar Plateau can be broadly correlated with Siwalik sections lying in India, Pakistan and Nepal (Table 12). Numerous genera of foreland faunas are present north of the Himalaya in Central Asia and other correlatives in Europe, Africa and Turkey, and throw light on the uplift of the Himalaya. Its elements are also present in the younger faunas including Recent Fauna of India which have been interpreted to be taxonomically linked with the Pleistocene fauna of central and peninsular India (Roberts et al., 2014). Many of the taxa of India probably have their origin from the Siwalik faunas. Thus, the foreland faunas are significant and various aspects are discussed briefly. 6.1. Fauna and uplift of Himalaya

As mentioned, certain areas of the Indian Siwaliks have yielded rich mammalian faunas. The successions at Ramnagar (Jammu and Kashmir), Nurpur and Haritalyangar (Himachal Pradesh), Kalagarh (Uttarakhand), Jammu and Chandigarh yielded about 57, 20, 75, 16, 50 and 105 species, respectively. Nanda and Sehgal (2015) have used the mammalian faunas to interpret the uplift of the Himalaya. They studied the relative distribution of mammalian genera on both sides of the Himalaya and also took into consideration the links of the Siwalik genera with counterparts in Europe, Central Asia, Turkey and Africa. In Lower Siwalik times, the Himalaya were not a significant barrier everywhere for dispersal across its width. In the Chinji times, out of 54 Chinji genera known from the Indian subcontinent, 23, 15, 20 and 16 are common with Europe, Turkey, Africa and Central Asia, respectively (Table 13). However in the Nagri interval, only 6 genera were common with Central Asia and it indicates that the Himalaya had already become a topographic barrier by then. In the Dhok Pathan intervals, there are 16 common genera between India and central Asia. In fact at that time, there were migrations between India, Europe, Turkey, Africa and Central Asia, but not across the Himalaya. The list of common Siwalik genera with Central Asia during the Lower and Middle Siwaliks times is given in Table 14. The details are given by Nanda and Sehgal (2015) and they are of the view that at 10 Ma, the Himalaya became a prominent barrier and at 8 Ma monsoons were properly established due to this uplift. 6.2. Relation of Pinjor fauna with younger faunas of India The Pinjor fauna is the youngest Himalayan foreland fauna and ranges in age from 2.6 Ma to 0.6 Ma. After 0.6 Ma (Nanda, 2015, p. 87), faunal elements possibly migrated southwards to the Indo-Gangetic Plain and Peninsular India. These faunas, which appeared just after the extinction of the Pinjor fauna, have been called post-Siwalik faunas by Nanda (2002). It is important to note that the current absence of Early Pleistocene or Pinjor-age fossils south of the Siwalik Hills can be primarily attributed to the marginal preservation and exposure of Early

Pleistocene deposits and thus does not represent a true taxonomic absence. Inversely, the Middle and Upper Pleistocene faunas are abundantly known from numerous localities across central and Peninsular India; Upper Pleistocene fauna is also known from the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Various investigators (e.g. Badam, 1979; Chauhan, 2008; Roberts et al., 2014) discussed or listed the post-Siwalik faunas as mentioned by Nanda (2002). Only five Siwalik taxa, ?Homo erectus, Stegodon insignis, Elephas hysudricus, Potamochoerus theobaldi and ?Bubalus palaeindicus are present in the post-Siwalik faunas. In addition, 17 genera, Hystrix, Bandicota, Tatera, Mus, Canis, Ursus, Panthera, Felis, Equus, Rhinoceros, Cervus, Sus, Hippopotamus (=Hexaprotodon), Gazella, Antilope, Boselaphus and Bos survived. Thus, the elements of the Himalayan foreland faunas were present in the post-Siwalik faunal record and the Pinjor fauna shows extinction rather than mass migration. In addition to the post-Siwalik faunas, there are two younger faunas, Kurnool Cave fauna and the Recent fauna of India. The foreland Siwalik faunas comprise about 231 genera and 443 species in comparison to the 178 genera and 397 species present in the Recent Fauna of India. The post-Siwalik and Kurnool faunas, are comparatively scanty and each contains 45 taxa. The number of common genera and species present in the Siwalik and younger sections are given in Figure 3A. Forty-three Siwalik genera gave rise to 126 Recent species (Figure 3B), but no species survived. The details are given by Nanda (2015); these emphasize the presence of foreland elements in younger faunas of India. 7. Conclusions The Siwalik successions, belonging to Himalayan foreland basin of Nepal, India and Pakistan are very rich in vertebrate fossils. The foreland basin extends further southward to the Sind province of Pakistan, Kachchh region of India and the Irrawaddy Valley of Myanmar (Fig. 1 and Table 12). As compared to the rich faunal assemblages of the Himalayan foothills,

the faunas from the localities

lying south of the Himalaya are scanty. However these localities yielded significant Siwalik-age

faunas. At the generic level, the Siwalik faunas of the foreland basin have links with its correlatives in Europe, Africa, Turkey and Central Asia. Elements of the Siwalik faunas are present in post-Siwalik, Kurnool and Recent Fauna of India. However, much more multidisciplinary work is needed in South Asian vertebrate palaeontology compared to other regions of the Old World. For example, the precise locations and stratigraphic contexts are not well-known for all collections, especially the historically older ones. As a result, it has created confusion regarding the linking of specific taxa with specific formations and ages. Many specimens also require a re-analysis of their species identifications and a revision of their taxonomic relationships with other species. A large number of sites and associated strata require both relative and absolute dating, not only in the foreland basin but also in the rest of the Subcontinent. Indeed, the Plio-Pleistocene teeth can be dated using electron spin resonance and Uranium-series dating where the younger fossil specimens can be dated using radiocarbon and accelerator mass spectrometry methods. In most cases, the associated sediments can also yield reliable ages using optically stimulated luminescence for younger sites and palaeomagnetic dating for older sites. What is also required is the application of stable isotope studies for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions and attempts at DNA extraction from well-preserved fossil specimens in the Himalayan zone. Furthermore, precise mapping of all known sites and a comprehensive database of known collections are also urgently required. Finally, systematic surveys and collections are required from intermediate Siwalik zones (between the well-known sites) where very few surveys have been done such as between Jammu and Chandigarh, east of Haripur Khol, parts of Nepal and northeast India. This research target should also include the rest of the Indian Subcontinent to add more fossil data from possible pre-Middle Pleistocene contexts which are currently very rare and difficult to identify. In comparison to other parts of the Old World, vertebrate palaeontology in the Indian Subcontinent has received marginal attention in recent years. Renewed focus on this valuable scientific archive – the Siwalik Hills - can contribute in the following aspects: refining our knowledge of past extinction and speciation cycles in regional and global contexts, making nuanced

palaeoenvironmental reconstructions at specific locations, filling geographic and biochronological gaps in our knowledge, making more meaningful comparisons with global faunal databases, understanding ecological and subsistence implications on past hominin populations and salvaging valuable field data prior to their imminent destruction through natural processes and increased anthropogenic activity. Acknowledgements ACN and RKS are grateful to Prof. Anil Kumar Gupta, Director Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, for providing working facilities. Authors express their sincere thanks to anonymous reviewers for valuable suggestions. The authors are thankful to Prof. Rajeev Patnaik and Prof. R. S. Loyal (both Panjab University) for providing the opportunity to discuss the findings in Chandigarh and helpful suggestions.

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FIGURE CAPTIONS Fig. 1 Extent of Himalayan Foreland Basin (modified after Valdiya, 2010)

Fig.2 Siwalik belt of northwest Himalaya showing significant stratigraphic localities.

Asian

Fig. 3 (A) Number of common genera (above arrow) and species (below arrow) between the Siwaliks and younger horizons. (B) Number of Siwalik genera and corresponding species in younger horizons

TABLE CAPTIONS Table 1

Prominent localities of Siwalik fossils

Table 2

Range of various Siwalik biostratigraphic-zones, based on magnetostratigraphy, as proposed by different workers.

Table 3

Lower and Middle Siwalik mammals from Nepal (modified after Nanda, 2015).

Table 4

Distribution of various mammalian genera/ species in the Upper Siwaliks of Nepal (compiled from various sources).

Table 5

Range of the Khari Nadi fauna with reference to the Siwalik Group (faunal list after Bhandari et al., 2010, 2015).

Table 6

Range of Piram mammalian fauna (faunal list after Pilgrim, 1939; Prasad, 1974, 2006)

Table 7

Mammalian taxa in Vihowa and Litra formations, Bugti Basin, Pakistan (after Welcomme et al. 2001, Métais et al. 2009, Antoine et al. 2013).

Table 8

Mammalian taxa from Zinda Pir Dome, Sulaiman Range (after Raza et al. 2002, Antoine et al. 2013).

Table 9

List of Manchar mammals (modified after Pilgrim, 1917; Raza et al., 1984; de Bruijn and Hussain,1984, 1985; Bernor et al., 1988; de Bruijn et al., 1989; der Made and Hussain, 1992; Zijlstra et al., 2013; Nanda, 2015)

Table 10 Fauna of the Pegu Formation, Myanmar (with reference to the Lower Siwalik Group). Table 11 Elements of Siwaliks in the Irrawaddy Formation (compiled after Colbert, 1938, 1943; T.Htike et al., 2005, 2006; Chavasseau et al., 2006; Chit-Sein et al., 2006, 2009; Takai et al.,

2006; Tsubamto et al., 2006; Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al., 2006, 2008, 2010; Egi et al., 2011; Jaeger et al., 2011) Table 12 Stratigraphic correlation of Siwalik Group of Indian subcontinent and Myanmar (compiled after various sources). Ages given are valid for the Siwalik Group of Pakistan and JammuChandigarh regions of India. Dashed lines indicate approximate boundary. Table 13 Distribution of Lower and Middle Siwalik genera in correlatives. Number in parentheses indicate endemic genera. Table 14 Common Siwalik genera between India and Central Asia.

Fig. 3

(A) 24 Siwalik

→ 6

Post-Siwalik

Siwalik

24 → 1

Kurnool

Siwalik

43 → 0

Recent

(B) Siwalik genera

43

→

Recent species 126

Siwalik genera

24

→

Post-Siwalik species 6

Siwalik genera

24

→

Recent species 0

Table 1 Prominent localities of Siwalik fossils __________________________________________________________________________________ Himalayan foothills  Ramnagar (Lower Siwaliks) 

Nurpur (Middle Siwaliks)



Kalagarh (Lower and Middle Siwaliks)



Haritalyangar (Middle Siwaliks)



Chandigarh and Jammu (Upper Siwaliks)



Nepal (Lower-Upper Siwaliks)

Potwar Plateau  Contains type areas of Kamlial, Chinji, Nagri, Dhok Pathan and Tatrot formations (Lower-Upper Siwaliks) Localities south of Himalaya including Potwar Plateau  Kutch (Khari Nadi Formation) 

Piram Island (Middle Siwaliks)



Tripura (Lower and Middle Siwaliks)



Irrawaddy Valley (Lower-Upper Siwaliks)



Marwat Ranges (Upper Siwaliks)



Bugti (Lower and Middle Siwaliks)



Zinda Pir (Lower & Middle Siwaliks)



Manchar (Lower & Middle Siwaliks)

__________________________________________________________________________________

Table 2 Range of various Siwalik biostratigraphic-zones, based on magnetostratigraphy, as proposed by different workers. Barry et al. (1982)

Hussain et al. (1992)

Nanda (1997)

Nanda (2002)

Dennell et al. (2006)

Elephas hysudricus

Elephas

Equus

Elephas

Range-Zone

hysudricus

sivalensis

hysudricus –

(2.7- ? Ma)

Interval-Zone

Interval- Zone

Crocuta-Ursus –

(2.7- 0.6 Ma)

(2.6 - 0.6 Ma)

Panthera faunal-zone (1.7 – 0.9 Ma)

Elephas hysudricus – Sivatherium faunal-zone (2.7 – 1.7 Ma) Elephas

Elephas planifrons

Elephas

Elephas

planifrons

Range- Zone

planifrons

planifrons

Interval-Zone

(3.4 - 2.7 Ma)

Interval-Zone

Interval-Zone

(3.6 - 2.7 Ma)

(3.6 - 2.6 Ma)

(2.9 - 1.5 Ma) Hexaprotodon sivalensis Interval -Zone (5.3 - 2.9 Ma) Selenoportax lydekkeri Interval-Zone (7.4 - 5.3 Ma) "Hipparion s.l.” Interval-

Zone (9.5 - 7.4 Ma) Table 3 Lower and Middle Siwalik mammals from Nepal (modified after Nanda, 2015). Family

Chinj i

Nagr i

Sivapithecus sivalenis (= S. punjabicus) Amphicyon palaeindicus

X

X

X

X

Deinotheriidae

Deinotherium pentapotamiae

X

X

X

Rhinocerotidae

Brachypotheriu m perimense

X

X

X

Equidae

*“Hipparion” s.l.

X

X

Suidae

Conohyus sindiense

X

X

X

Anthracotheriidae

Hemimeryx pusillus

X

X

X

X

Tragulidae

*Dorcabune sp.

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Pongidae

Amphicyonidae

Giraffidae

Bovidae

Species

*Dorcatherium sp. Giraffokeryx punjabiensis

X

X

Sivoreas eremita

X

Protragocerus gluten

X

Pachyportax sp.* *Range of genus

Kamlia l

Dhok Patha n X

Table 4 Distribution of various mammalian genera/ species in the Upper Siwaliks of Nepal (compiled from various sources). Family Elephantidae

Genera/ Species Elephas planifrons

Fauna Tatrot X

Stegodon bombifrons

X

S. insignis

X

Equidae

Equus sivalensis

Suidae

Hippohyus lydekerri ( =H. tatroti)

X X

X

Potamochoerus cf. P. theobaldi

X

Anthracotheriidae

Merycopotamus dissimilis

X

Hippopotamidae

Hexaprotodon sivalensis

X

Cervidae

Cervus sp.

Giraffidae

Giraffa punjabiensis

X

Bovidae

Proamphibos cf. P. lachrymans

X

X

X

Hemibos acuticornis Bovidae gen.indet.

Pinjor X

X X

X

Table 5 Range of the Khari Nadi fauna with reference to the Siwalik Group (faunal list after Bhandari et al., 2010, 2015). Species

Bugti

Kamlial

Chinji

Deinotherium sindiense

X

X

Gomphotherium sp.*

X

X

X

Brachypotherium sp.*

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Hipparion sp.* Sanitherium schlagintweiti

X

Kachchchoerus salinus

Nagri

Dhok Pathan

X

(= Propotamochoerus salinus) Tetraconodon indicus Parabrachyodus hypopotamoides

X

**

X

X

X

Dorcatherium minus

X

X

X

X

Giraffokeryx punjabiensis

?

X

X

X

Giraffa priscilla

X

X

(= Brachyodus manchharensis) Sivameryx palaeindicus

*Genus range, ** known from Vihowa Formation, Pakistan

Table 6 Range of Piram mammalian fauna (faunal list after Pilgrim, 1939; Prasad, 1974, 2006) ORDER/species Kamlial Chinji Nagri Dhok Tatrot Pathan PROBOSCIDEA Anancus perimensis

X

Stegolophodon cautleyi

X

S. latidens

X

Deinotherium angustidens

X

D. indicum

X

?

X

X

Hipparion antelopinum

X

X

X

Cormohipparion (Sivalhippus) theobaldi

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

PERISSODACTYLA

Brachypotherium (=Aceratherium) perimense

X

ARTIODACTYLA Dorcatherium minus Bramatherium perimense

X

Antilope planicornis

X

Cambayella watsoni

?

?

Miotragocerus (=Tragocerus) perimensis

X

Tragoportax sp.

X

Ruticeros compressa*

?

Pachyportax nagrii

X

Selenoportax vexillarius

X

X

S. lydekkeri

X

Perimia falconeri

X

* not known from the Siwalik Group of foothills of Himalaya

?

X

Table 7 Mammalian taxa in Vihowa and Litra formations, Bugti Basin, Pakistan (after Welcomme et al. 2001, Métais et al. 2009, Antoine et al. 2013). ____________________________________________________________________________ Litra Formation Siwalik taxa: Deinotherium sp., Choerolophodon corrugatus, Listriodon sp., ?Propotamochoerus sp., ?Brahmatherium perimense, Alicornops complanatum, Brachypotherium perimense, Rhinoceros aff. R. sivalensis, Hipparion (=Hippotherium) sp. Additional taxon: Parachleuastochoerus sp. Vihowa Formation Siwalik taxa: Brachypotherium (=Aprotodon) fatehjangense, B. perimense, Listriodon pentapotamiae, L. guptai, Prokanisamys benjavuni, ?Megacricetodon daamsi, Hyainailouros bugtiensis, Prodeinotherium pentapotamiae, Gomphotherium browni, Gomphotherium sp., Zygolophodon metachinjiensis, Choerolophodon cf. C. corrugatus, Protanancus chinjiensis, Sivameryx palaeindicus, Progiraffa exigua, Eotragus sp. Additional taxa: Sayimus intermedius, Spancocricetodon khani, Amphicyon cf. A. cooperi, A. shahbazi, Megamphicyon giganteus, Gomphotherium cooperi, ?Hoploaceratherium sp., Aprotodon blanfordi, Bunolistriodon affinis, Parabrachyodus hyopotamoides, Dorcatherium cf. D. parvum, Mesaceratherium welcommi, Mesaceratherium sp,. Prosantorhinus shahbazi, ?Plesiaceratherium naricum, Pleuroceros blanfordi, Brachypotherium gajense, Pterodon bugtiensis, Ansiodon sp., Macrotherium sp. ____________________________________________________________________________

Table 8 Mammalian taxa from Zinda Pir Dome, Sulaiman Range (after Raza et al. 2002, Antoine et al. 2013). Litra Formation Siwalik taxa: Gomphotherium sp., Choerolophodon corrugatus, Cormohipparion (Sivalhippus) theobaldi, Hipparion (s.l.) sp., Listriodon sp., Propotamochoerus sp., ?Bramatherium sp., Prostrepsiceros vinyaki Additional taxon: Hispanodorcas terrubiae Vihowa Formation Siwalik taxa: Amphechinus sp., Galerix sp., Democricetodon sp., Megacricetodon sp., Myocricetodon sivalensis, Myocricetodon sp., Prokanisamys sp., Sayimus sp., Hyanailouros sulzeri, Deinotherium sp., Gomphotherium sp., Choerolophodon corrugatus, cf. Protanancus chinjiensis, Brachypotherium perimense, Microbunodon silistrense, Sivameryx palaeindicus, ?Sanitherium sp., Listriodon sp., Listriodon guptai, Dorcatherium sp., cf. D. minimus, Progiraffa exigua, ?Giraffokeryx sp., Eotrgus sp., E. noyei, cf. Elachistocerus sp. Additional taxa: Guangxilemur sp., Spanocricetodon sulaimani, Prokanisamys arifi, Sayimus cf. S. intermedius, ?Diatomys sp., Bugtirhinus praecursor, ?Listriodon affinis, cf. Rhinoceros ____________________________________________________________________________

Table 9 List of Manchar mammals (modified after Pilgrim, 1917; Raza et al., 1984; de Bruijn and Hussain,1984, 1985; Bernor et al., 1988; de Bruijn et al., 1989; der Made and Hussain, 1992; Zijlstra et al., 2013; Nanda, 2015) _________________________________________________________________________________ Siwalik Taxa Rodentia:

Sayimys sivalensis, Miorhizomys sp., Kanisamays cf. K. indicus, Democricetodon kohatensis, Myocricetodon sp., Dakkamys sp., Antemus chinjiensis, A. primitives, Tamias sp., Paraulacodus indicus, Myomimus sumbalenwalicus Creodonta : Hyainailouros cf. H. sulzeri Tabulidentata: Orycteropus sp. Proboscidea : Deinotherium pentapotamiae, D. sindiense, Gomphotherium macrognathus, G. angustidens palaeindicus Perissodactyla : Gaindatherium browni/ Chilotherium intermedium, Hipparion (s.l.) sp. Artiodactyla : Sanitherium schlagintweiti, Tetraconodon cf. minor, Conohyus sindiense, Listriodon pentapotamiae, Listriodon cf. pentapotamiae, Sivameryx palaeindicus, Hemimeryx blanfordi, “Anthracotherium” punjabiense, A. silistrense, A. bugtiense, Dorcabune sindiense, D. anthracotheriodes, Dorcatherium minus, cf. Giraffokeryx punjabiensis, Propalaeomeryx exigua (=Progiraffa exigua), Sivareas sp.

Additional taxa Primates: Hesperotarsius sindhensis, Dionysopithecus sp. Rodentia: Sayimys minor, S. intermedius, Prokanisamys arifi, Spanocricetodon lii, Democricetodon aff. D. franconicus, ?Atlantoxerus sp., ?Spermophilinus sp., Kirtharia geespei Creodontia: cf. Pterodon sp. Perissodactyla : cf. Aprotodon fatehjangense Artiodactyla : Bunolistriodon sp., __________________________________________________________________________________

Table 10 Fauna of the Pegu Formation, Myanmar (with reference to the Lower Siwalik Group) Common species Deinotherium sindiense, Brachypotherium perimense, Choerolophodon corrugatus Common genera Tetraconodon, Listriodon, Conohyus, Hemimeryx, Telmatodon, Dorcatherium, Prodeinotherium

Table 11 Elements of Siwaliks in the Irrawaddy Formation (compiled after Colbert, 1938, 1943; T.-Htike et al., 2005, 2006; Chavasseau et al., 2006; Chit-Sein et al., 2006, 2009; Takai et al., 2006; Tsubamto et al., 2006; Z.-M.-M.-Thein et al., 2006, 2008, 2010; Egi et al., 2011; Jaeger et al., 2011) _________________________________________________________________________________ UPPER IRRAWADDY Siwalik taxa Proboscidea: Stegolophodon latidens, Stegodon elephantoides, S. insignis, Elephas hysudricus Perissodactyla: Rhinoceros sivalensis, Hipparion cf. H. antelopinum, Equus sp. (represented by E. yunnanensis) Artiodactyla: Potamochoerus sp., Merycopotamus dissimilis, Hexaprotodon iravaticus, Hexaprotodon cf. H. sivalensis, Dorcabune sp., Cervus sp., Gazella sp., Hemibos triquetricornis, Proleptobos birmanicus Additional taxa Carnivora: Urva sp. Perissodactyla: Rhinoceros sondaicus, Dicerorhinus gwebinensis, Dicerorhinus cf. D. sumatrensis, cf. Nestoritherium sp. Artiodactyla: Hexaprotodon palaeindicus, Capricornis cf. C. sumatrensis, Bos cf. B. sondaicus LOWER IRRAWADDY Siwalik taxa Proboscidea: Stegolophodon latidens, S. stegodontoides, Stegodon elephantoides Perissodactyla: Hipparion antelopinum, Brachypotherium perimense (=Aceratherium lydekkeri, =?A. perimense), B. fatehjangense, Chalicotherium salinum Artiodactyla: Tetraconodon minor, Sivachoerus prior, Propotamochoerus hysudricus, Merycopotamus dissimilis, M. medioximus, Hemimeryx blanfordi, Hexaprotodon iravaticus, H. sivalensis, Hydaspitherium birmanicum, Vishnutherium iravaticum, Pachyportax latidens, Proleptobos birmanicus Additional taxa Primates: Khoratpithecus ayeyarwadyensis, Khorapithecus sp. Proboscidea: Sinomastodon sp. Artiodactyla: Tetraconodon intermedius, Tetraconodon cf. T. intermedius, Tetraconodon cf. T. magnus, cf. Hippopotamodon sivalensis, Propotamochoerus sp., P. wui, Conohyus thailandicus, Parachleuastochoerus sp., Schizochoerus sp., cf. S. sanyathanai, cf. Siamotragulus sp., Parurmiatherium (=Plesiaddax) sp., Tragoportax sp., Tragoportax cf. T. almalthea, Tragoportax cf. T. rugosifrens, Selenoportax sp., Hemibos sp. ______________________________________________________________________

Table 12 Stratigraphic correlation of the Siwalik Group of Indian subcontinent and Myanmar (compiled after various sources). Ages given are valid for the Siwalik Group of Pakistan and Jammu-Chandigarh regions of India. Dashed lines indicate approximate boundary. Ma

Subgroup

Formation Potwar

- 2.6

Sind

Lei Conglomerate

Boulder Conglomerate

Upper Siwalik

Pakistan Daud Khel Trans Indus Sulaiman Range

Pinjor

Boulder Conglomerate Formation Marwat Formation

Soan Formation (includes Tatrot and Pinjor formations)

Chaudhwan Formation

NW Belt

India Chandigarh

Nepal Kachchh

Myanmar

Tripura

Boulder Conglomerate Formation

Boulder Conglomerate Formation

Dhan Khola Formation

Pinjor Formation

Pinjor Formation

Dobatta Formation

Nagrota Formation Upper Irrawaddy Kargocha Formation

Tatrot -

Jammu

5 . 1

Parmandal Sandstone Formation ----------

Saketi Formation

Saketi Formation

Dada Conglomerate

- 5.1

Nagri 10.8 Chinji Lower Siwalik

S i w a l i k

Middle Siwalik

Dhok Pathan Formation G r o u p

Dhok Pathan

18.3

Murree Group/ Formation

Rawalpindi

Group

Kamlial

Dhok Pathan Formation

Ladhyani Formation ---------Litra Formation

Nagri Formation

Chinji Formation

Khari Nadi Formation

Manchar Formation

Vihowa Formation

Ramnagar Formation

Ramnagar Formation Lower Siwalik Subgroup

Kamlial Formation

Kamlial Formation

----------

----------

?Murree Formation

Surai Khola Formation

Middle Siwalik Subgroup

Lower Irrawaddy

Haritalyangar Formation

Nagri Formation ----------

Chinji Formation

Middle Siwalik Subgroup

Chitarwata Formation

Gaj Formation

Bokabil Formation

Chorkhola Formation

----------

Bankas Formation

Pegu Beds

Table 13 Distribution of Lower and Middle Siwalik genera in correlatives. Number in parentheses indicate endemic genera. Subgroup Formation

Dhok Middle

Mammal Age

Indian subcontinent

Europe

Turkey

Africa

Central Asia

45

23

5

13

16

23

11

7

6

23

15

20

16

22

Nil

4

12

Turolian

Pathan Nagri

(14) Vallesian

42 (16)

Chinji

Astaracian

54

Lower

(17) Kamlial

Orleanian

29 (7)

63

Table 14 Common Siwalik genera between India and Central Asia Formation

Dhok Pathan

Nagri

Chinji

Kamlial

Common genera Sivapithecus, Miorhizomys (=Brachyrhizomys), Progonomys, Hystrix, Indarctos, Pleisogluo, Sivaonyx, Stegolophodon, Stegodon, Hipparion/Cormohipparion, Chalicotherium, Chilotherium, Hippopotamodon, Propotamochoerus, Dorcabune, Gazella

Miorhizomys (=Brachyrhizomys), Ictitherium, Hipparion/Cormohipparion, Chalicotherium, Hippopotamodon, Propotamochoerus Sayimus, Democricetodon, Megacricetodon, Sansanosmilus, Percrocuta, Amphicyon, Gomphotherium, Zygolophodon, Brachypotherium, Chalicotherium, Listriodon, Hippopotamodon, Propotamochoerus, Hyotherium, Sivameryx, Kubanotragus Tamias, Democricetodon, Megacricetodon, Sayimus, Amphicyon, Chalicotherium, Brachypotherium, Aprotodon, Conohyus, Anthracotherium, Sivameryx, Dorcatherium

64

HIGHLIGHTS  Himalayan Foreland Basin is characterized by rich mammalian faunal assemblages belonging to the Siwalik Group.  Himalayan Foreland Basin extended to south of Potwar Plateau, Pakistan and south of Himalayan ranges in India.  Siwalik-age fossils are known from Khari Nadi, Piram Island, Tripura (India), Sulaiman Ranges and Sind (Pakistan), and Irrawaddy Valley (Myanmar).  Himalayan Foreland faunas have a significant relation with the uplift history of the Himalaya.

65

Kamlial

A

B

(LS)

US UK

R.

us

(LS/MS)

H I M Ya m

un aR .

Manchar

R. as

•

Be

Ra vi R

.

(LS)

a utr mp

R.

Ch

A L AY A

R.

ha Bra

yV a S) lley

•

(MS)

Haritalyangar (MS) (MS)

(US)

Sutlej R.

a pur TriS/MS)

Pasuda

Pinjore

Fategad

(L

(LS)

-U

b

a en

Bugti

Nurpur

Nagri (MS)

Sutlej R.

(LS/MS)

add

(US)

w ar M Zinda Pir

(LS)

100 200 300 400 500 km

(LS

(US)

0

R.

ND HI

Tatrot

• Jammu

•

at

.

Ind

Ramnagar

ge

n Ra

In du sR

)

S (U

ga an G

Jhe lum

(LS)

R.

. Ind us R

Chinji

•

T W

O

P

A R

N

Foreland Basin

H

(MS)

Irr aw

Dhok Pathan

Narmada R.

Chandigarh •

Piram Tapti R.

(US)

Mahanadi R.

(MS)

100 km

A - Extent of Himalayan Foreland Basin

Kalagarh

TYPE LOCALITY

•

SIGNIFICANT FOSSIL LOCALITY

nali Kar

SIWALIK BELT

R.

(LS/MS) Kosi R.

LEGEND

• Ganga R.

N

Jamuna R.

¯

50

¯ ¯

0

•

Surai Khola (LS - US)

Kathmandu

•

(LS-Lower Siwalik; MS-Middle Siwalik; US-Upper Siwalik) Su

nk

B - Significant fossiliferous localities of the Siwalik Group

•

osi

R.

Rato Khola (US)

SIWALIK - AGE FAUNAS FROM THE HIMALAYAN FORELAND BASIN