Skeletal preservation of children's remains in the archaeological record

HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 66 (2015) 520–548

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Skeletal preservation of children’s remains in the archaeological record B.M. Manifold ∗ Derby, Derbyshire, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 6 January 2014 Accepted 7 April 2015

a b s t r a c t Taphonomy is an important consideration in the reconstruction of past environments and events. Taphonomic alterations and processes are commonly encountered on human skeletal remains in both archaeological and forensic contexts. It is these processes that can alter the appearance of bone after death and the properties of the bones influence their reaction to these processes thus leading to differential preservation within a skeletal sample, none more so than the remains of children. This study investigates the skeletal preservation of 790 child and adolescent skeletons from six contrasting early and late medieval cemeteries from Britain in an attempt to assess whether geographical location and geology had an effect on the overall preservation of the skeletons. Skeletons were examined from six cemeteries, namely; Auldhame in Scotland, Edix Hill and Great Chesterford from Cambridgeshire; St Oswald’s Priory from Gloucester and Wharram Percy from Yorkshire, and finally, the site of Llandough in Wales. The state of preservation was assessed using the anatomical preservation index (AP1), qualitative bone index (QBI) and the bone representation index (BRI). Also the presence of natural and artificial taphonomic processes was recorded for each skeleton. The results show a specific pattern of preservation and representation for non-adult remains across all sites with some differences in the states of preservation from different geographical locations and geological influences. Children under two years of age were found to be less affected by taphonomic processes than their older counterparts. © 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2015.04.003 0018-442X/© 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

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Introduction Human skeletal remains offer the most direct insight into the health, well-being, and the lifestyles of past populations, as well as the study of violence and trauma encountered (Larsen, 2002), but also allow the reconstruction of demographic details and the study of age in relation to social identity. In this study children and the term non-adult are defined as individuals from birth to 17 years of age. In early literature and archaeological works, the presence and study of children was completely ignored as they were thought to have little impact on archaeological thinking and methods (Lillehammer, 2010; Renfrew and Bahn, 2005). However, there has been a considerable shift in how children are now viewed in both anthropological and archaeological studies concerning both their physical remains and the material culture and this is reflected in research approaches to the study of non-adult skeletal remains and increased publication over the past two decades within both social archaeology and bioarchaeological investigations (Crawford and Lewis, 2008). In the past the apparent low numbers of child skeletons recovered from excavations were contributed to the lack of attention given to such remains, however, the skeletons of children have always been recovered from excavations in varying numbers over the years, both in Britain and Ireland (Table 1). What has changed is the better understanding and identification of small, unfused bone elements present in the developing skeleton leading to a wider recognition during excavation and study, but also the publication of key texts (Baker et al., 2005; Lewis, 2007; Scheuer and Black, 2000, 2004) have shown the importance of child remains in interpreting the past with regard to anatomy and development, identification, health and disease, social life, physical abuse and trauma. In addition new and improved biomolecular methods and techniques (aDNA analyses, isotopic analyses) in archaeological science have contributed greatly to our understanding of children in past societies (Mays, 2013; Tierney and Bird, 2014). However, there are still limitations to the study of non-adult remains in both biological and forensic anthropology, as studies of mortality and morbidity are often hindered by the poor preservation of their skeletons, infrequent representation of skeletal elements or in some cases complete absence. The reasons, (most notably, taphonomic processes, differential burial rites and archaeological excavation techniques) as to why this may be the case have been widely discussed in the literature (Acsádi and Nemeskéri, 1970; Brothwell, 1981; Bello et al., 2006; Buckberry, 2000; Djuric´ et al., 2011; Guy et al., 1997; Henderson, 1987; Lewis, 2007; Manifold, 2010, 2012, 2013; Mays, 2010; Nawrocki, 1995, 2009; Saunders and Barrans, 1999; Saunders, 2008; Stodder, 2008). Bone preservation studies In any given skeletal sample, the total number of deaths in a population is unlikely to be represented archaeologically (Alesan et al., 1999). One reason for this is taphonomy, which can be divided into two forms: intrinsic (resistance of bone) and extrinsic (environmental influences), both of which exert influence on the long term survival of non-adult bone (Table 2). Taphonomy is a vital consideration in the reconstruction of past environments and events and refers to processes that act on organic matter after death (Pokines, 2013). Taphonomic processes can be macroscopic and microscopic in nature and are commonly recovered on human bone consisting of both natural and artificial processes (i.e., plough damage) in archaeological and forensic contexts, but these are also of importance in forensic investigations in the estimation of post-mortem interval and in the assessment of trauma and pseudotrauma (Pokines, 2013). It is these processes that can alter the appearance of human bone after death and the properties of the bone influences their reaction to these processes thus leading to bias caused by differential preservation in a skeletal assemblage. An important aspect of the biased representation of skeletal elements among sites is that certain age groups are unevenly represented, with the younger and older members of a population under-represented. This under-representation of the younger members of a population in a cemetery is widely known and reported on (Angel, 1969; Acsádi and Nemeskéri, 1970; Chamberlain, 2006; Weiss, 1973). Despite this situation there are a limited number of studies on non-adult remains, especially with regard to the physical preservation of bone (Bello et al., 2006; Buckberry, 2000; Djuric´ et al., 2011; Manifold, 2010, 2013). Previous studies such as Neolithic British populations, studied by Brothwell (1981:75) considered soil types and how the variation throughout Britain would or could cause ‘differential elimination of fragile

522

Table 1 Numbers of child skeletons recovered from archaeological sites in Britain and Ireland. Period

Site name

No. of children

Total no. of burials

% of children

Reference

66

182

36

Hooper (1991)

Anchester, Lincolnshire Baldock 1, Hertfordshire Bathgate, Cirencester Cannington, Somerset Colchester, Essex Eastern cemetery, London Lankhills, Hampshire Poundbury camp, Dorset Queensfarm, Winchester Winchester, Hampshire

84 62 63 155 144 129 118 374 62 144

240 190 405 542 575 550 374 1134 92 369

35 33 15 28 20 23 32 33 67 39

Cox (1989) McKinley (2007) Wells (1982) Brothwell et al. (2000) Pinter-Bellows (1993) Conheeney (2000) Clarke (1977) Farwell and Molleson (1993) Harman et al. (1987) Brown (2012)

Early Medieval (410-1066CE)

Abington, Berkshire Butler’s Field, Gloucestershire Edix Hill, Cambridgeshire Great Chesterford, Cambridgeshire Jarrow, Tyne and Wear Church End, Cambridgeshire Long Witterham, Berkshire Raund Furnells, Northamptonshire Wicken Bonhunt, Essex Buckland, Kent Blackgate Cemetery, Newcastle

48 109 48 83 147 200 55 208 56 42 202

125 222 148 167 395 640 190 328 166 120 643

38 49 32 49 37 31 29 63 34 35 31

Crawford (1991) Harman and Jones (1998) Duhig (1998) Waldron (1988) Cramp (2005) Blue (2009) Akerman (1963) Powell (1996) Hooper (no date) Evison (1987) Mahoney-Swales and Nystrom (2009)

Later Medieval (1066-1600CE)

St Mary Grace, London Fishergate, York Taunton, Somerset Jewbury, York Red Cross Way, London St Helen-on-the-Walls, York St Nicholas Shambles, London Trowbridge Castle, Wiltshire Wharram Percy, Yorkshire Mews Lane, Jewish cemetery, Winchester

106 90 49 150 65 317 51 84 327 48

389 430 150 471 148 1041 234 293 687 88

27 20 33 32 44 30 22 28 47 55

Grainger and Phillpotts (2011) Stroud and Kemp (1993) Gilchrist and Sloane (2005) Lilley et al. (1994) Brickley et al. (1999) Dawes and Magilton (1980) White (1988) Graham and Davies (1993) Mays et al. (2007) Gilchrist and Sloane (2005)

Danebury, Hampshire

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England Iron Age (800BCE -42CE) Romano-British (43-409CE)

Table 1 (Continued) Period

Site name

Post Medieval (1600-1900CE)

Reference

636

28

Grainger et al. (2008)

100 59 492 71

386 87 1271 282

26 68 39 25

Magilton et al. (2008) Stroud (1993) Jacklin (2009a) Jacklin (2009b)

65 437

360 705

18 62

Start and Kirk (1998) Powers (2008)

183 186 54 78 64 57 170 101 122 87 58

715 968 163 301 137 231 544 147 239 200 150

25 19 33 30 46 25 31 69 51 43 39

Emery and Wooldridge (2011) Lewis (2002) Powers (2007) Miles et al. (2008) Schofield and Maloney (1998) Miles et al. (2008) Miles and Conheeney (2005) Brickley et al. (1999) Connell and Miles (2010) Loe (2007) Adams and Colls (2007)

153 58

505 372

30 15

Brickley et al. (2006) Boyle (2006)

Multi-period

1740 128 1000

9000 489 2750

19 26 36

Molleson and Cox (1993) Rogers (1999) Waldron (2007)

Scotland Neolithic (4000-2500BCE)

Isbister, Orkney Quaterness, Orkney

156 72

341 157

46 46

Chesterman (1983) Chesterman (1979)

Parliament House, Edinburgh The Hirsel, Berwickshire

42 153

96 334

44 46

Melikian (2005a) Anderson (1994)

Quaker burial ground, Kingston St Mary & St Michael’s Whitechapel, London St Pancras Burial Ground, London Christ Church Spitalfields, London St George the Martyr, London St Marylebone School, London Broadgate, London St Benet Sherehog, London St Brides Lower, London Cross Bones, London City Bunhill, London St Hilda’s South Shields St Peter’s Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton St Martin’s Birmingham St Bartholomew’s Church, Wolverhampton St Mary Spital, London St Oswald’s Priory, Gloucester St Peter’s Barton-upon-Humber

No. of children

Total no. of burials

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% of children

177

East Smithfield, Black Death Cemetery, London James and Mary Magdalene, Chichester Thetford, Norfolk St Peter’s Leicester St Michael’s Leicester

Early Medieval

523

524

Table 1 (Continued) Period

Site name

No. of children

Total no. of burials

% of children

Reference

Kirkhill, Fife Auldhame, East Lothian

56 78

282 240

20 51

Maldonado (2013) Melikian (2005b)

St Ninian, Whithorn Linlithgow, East Lothian Ensay, Outer Hebrides

514 112 200

1605 207 416

32 54 48

Cardy (1997) Gilchrist and Sloane (2005) Miles (1989)

88

200

44

Brothwell et al. (1986)

226 48

801 112

28 43

Loe and Robson-Brown (2005) Manifold (forthcoming)

51

138

36

Gilchrist and Sloane (2005)

Late Medieval

Multi-period Newark Park, Orkney Wales Early Medieval

Llandough, Glamorgan Towyn-y-Capel, Anglesey

Late Medieval Carmarthen Greyfriars, Wales Ireland Early Medieval (400-1169CE)

Late Medieval (1169-1540CE)

Post Medieval (1540-1700CE)

Johnstown 1(Main cemetery and topsoil), Co Meath Owenbristy, Co Galway Faughart Lower, Co Louth Carrowleek, Co Galway Parknahowen, Co Laois Mount Gamble, Dublin Kilshane, Dublin Dunmisk, Co Tyrone Ballyhanna, Co Donegal Camlin 3, Co Tipperary

245

461

53

Clarke (2010)

45 267 113 211 109 51 43 432 51

95 771 132 425 281 86 117 1301 153

47 35 86 49 39 59 37 33 33

Geber (2009) Buckley and McConway (2010) Wilkins and Lalonde (2008) O’Neill (2010) O’Donovan and Geber (2010) Buckley (1991) O’Donnabhain (1989) McKenzie (2008) Svensson (2009)

Ballinderry, Co Kildare Ballykilmore, Co Westmeath Ardeigh, Co Kildare St Mary’s of the Isle, Cork

147 469 432 52

240 902 1300 200

61 52 33 26

Tesorieri (2012/13) Channing and Randolph-Quinney, 2006 Troy (pers comm.) Power (1995)

Johnstown 1 (Cillín), Co Meath Kill Co Kildare Mackney Ringfort, Co Galway Tonybaun, Co Galway Illaunloughan Island, Co Kerry Kilkenny Workhouse, Co Kilkenny

60 71 140 181 102 545

62 0 143 248 112 970

97 100 96 73 91 56

Clarke (2010) Nolan (2006) Lynch (2009) Nolan (2006) Buckley (2005) Geber and Murphy (2012)

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Post Medieval

Table 2 Summary of taphonomic factors that influence the survival of human bone. Variable Intrinsic 1. Age

3. Bone density 4. Pathology

Extrinsic 1. Groundwater 2. Geological 3. Acidity and soil pH

4. Flora and fauna

5. Temperature

6. Funerary treatment

Reference

Bones still growing, non-fusion of elements Smaller in size, higher organic and low organic content Easier to disarticulate and ease of dispersion Some bones more vulnerable to destruction, (e.g. vertebrae, ribs, epiphyses) Bones with high proportion of cortical bone, (e.g. temporal, occipital, mandible, long bones) less affected. Increased porosity Varies in all bone and at all ages, e.g. infancy

Guy et al. (1997), Morton and Lord (2002,2006)

Injuries can speed up decomposition of corpse Metabolic conditions such as rickets and scurvy lead to increased porosity and fragility of remains in burial environment. Leads to increased porosity of bones Greater water movement tends to lead to greater dissolution. Soils can have a negative or positive effect on the prolonged survival of remains Acidic environments can completely destroy human bone.

Both can directly and indirectly damage bone tissue resulting in scattering and breakage of bone. Pseudopathology. Root etching. Faster decay at high temperatures. Expansion and contraction of earth in grave leading to fragmentation of bone. Post-mortem warping leading to misinterpretation, (e.g. trauma) Treatment of the body after death can have negative impact on the long term survival of remains. Time period (e.g., Iron Age; Medieval) Grave types (e.g., pit burials, shallow graves) Alternative burial rites for children (e.g., burial outside cemetery walls)

Chaplin (1971), Von Endt and Ortner (1984), Hanson and Buikstra (1987),Nielsen-Marsh (2000), Manifold (2010,2013)

Nicholson (1996), Djuric´ et al. (2011), Manifold (2014a,b) Breitmeier et al. (2005), Lewis (2010)

Hedges and Millard (1995), Hedges et al. (1995), Nielsen-Marsh (2000) Brothwell (1981), Henderson (1987), French (2003), Ferllini, 2007 Lindsay (1979), Brothwell (1981), Gordon and Buikstra (1981), Henderson (1987), Locock et al. (1992), Child (1995), French (2003), Ferllini (2007), Mays (2010) Well (1967), Erzinclioglu (1983), Henderson (1987), Lyman (1996)

Boddington (1987), Crist et al. (1997), Prangnell and McGowan (2009)

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2. Bone size

Reasons

Crawford (1991,1993), Gilchrist and Sloane (2005)

525

526

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young infant skeletons’. In a study of French cemeteries (eighth to thirteenth century) and settlements, Bello et al. (2006) found that non-adult skeletal remains were less likely to survive than those of adults, and their bone elements were also less represented. Also it was reported that bone preservation of the non-adults from the crypt at Christ Church, Spitalfields, which was in use between 1729 and 1857 (Reeve and Adams, 1993), and found that they were again less likely to be well preserved than those of adults (Bello et al., 2006). Further studies on the Spitalfields collection confirmed that non-adults and infants were generally under-represented within the sample of burials with coffin plates (Bello and Humphrey, 2007). Guy and colleagues (1997) studied a number of infant remains from ten Hungarian cemeteries ranging in dates from the tenth to twelfth centuries and noted their remains were also under-represented. They argued that the limited number of infants could not be due to taphonomy alone, but a mixture of factors such as burial practices and recovery strategies. Again, Acsádi and Nemeskéri (1970) also observed that infants were under-represented in Hungarian cemeteries dating from the tenth and twelfth centuries; this was thought to be due to the excavation techniques employed. In a study by Mays (1993), on the remains of perinates and infants recovered from late Romano-British sites from Dorset and Lincolnshire, it was reported that the perinatal skeletons (26–40 lunar weeks) were often better preserved than those of the older infants (40–49 lunar weeks). Studies in the United States have concluded that non-adult skeletal remains are less likely to survive the burial environment unlike their adult counterparts (Crist et al., 1997; Haglund and Sorg, 1997). Other studies have focused on natural selection and natural increases in non-adult deaths from prehistory rather than taphonomy and burial practices (Henneberg, 1977). In a study on the African Iron age site of K2 and Mapungubwe the high number of juveniles (n = 81) present was as a result of natural increase rather than selective burial practices (Henneberg and Steyn, 1994). The purpose of this study is to investigate the bone preservation of a large number (n = 790) of child (0–12 years) and adolescent (13–17 years) skeletons from six medieval British cemeteries of contrasting geology and geographical locations. Materials and methods A sample of 790 child skeletons from six medieval cemeteries of different geographical locations and geology were studied. These include the early medieval sites of Edix Hill, Cambridgeshire, Great Chesterford, Cambridgeshire; the site of Auldhame, East Lothian and Llandough in South Wales; the late medieval site of Wharram Percy, Yorkshire and the multi-period site of St Oswald’s Priory in Gloucester (Table 3; Fig. 1). Each site will be discussed in turn. Edix Hill The site of Edix Hill is situated on the western edge of Barrington Parish close to the village of Orwell, which lies 12 km south-west of Cambridge (Malim and Hines, 1989). The cemetery at Edix Hill is situated on a chalk knoll surrounded by lower lying clayland (Gault clay) which is the underlying geology of the area (Malim and Hines, 1989). To the north, Chapel Hill Ridge is formed from lower chalk and a spur of lower chalk extended north-westwards from a main core around Barrington and Shepreth which terminates in the Knoll at Edix Hill (Malim and Hines, 1989). These geological conditions can lead to good preservation of human bone. Rounded pebbles that abounded on the site had not been brought from the river by human action, but instead were stones eroded from the boulder clay. The site was dated to between the sixth and seventh centuries. The burials at Edix Hill were generally shallow and mostly comprised single interments with only a few graves containing more than one individual. There was little patterning in the orientation of the graves and it would appear that the topographical factors were of more importance (Malim and Hines, 1989). A concentration of non-adult burials was apparent in the area on the bow of the knoll, (n = 15; 33%), of which 8 (17%) were aged less than 13 years and 7 (15%) consisted of adolescents aged between 13 and 17 years of age (Malim and Hines, 1989) which may indicate a particular area of burial for children of all ages. Otherwise, the graves of the children appear to have been evenly spread out across the cemetery. The remains were damaged by agricultural processes as a result of the shallowness of the burials. Compression from heavy machinery had lead to the shattering of some

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Table 3 Skeletal samples studied. % of children

Reference

71

29

41

28

Melikian (2005b) Duhig (1998)

Rural; cemetery

82

49

Waldron (1988)

Rural; cemetery

226

25

Loe and Robson-Brown (2005) Rogers (1999)

Site Name

Location

Date

Type

Auldhame, East Lothian Edix Hill, Cambridgeshire

Scotland

6th–16th centuries 6th–7th

Rural; cemetery Rural; cemetery

England

No of children

centuries Great Chesterford, Cambridgeshire

England

Llandough, Glamorgan

Wales

St Oswald’s Priory, Gloucester Wharram Percy, Yorkshire Total

England

7th–11th centuries

Urban; cemetery

96

20

England

9th –19th centuries

Rural; cemetery

274

40

5th–7th centuries

9th–18th centuries

Mays et al. (2007)

790

of the remains (Malim and Hines, 1989). The total number of individuals recovered was 148, forty-six of which were children. Great Chesterford The site of Great Chesterford lies on the gravel terraces of the east bank of the river Cam, to the south of Cambridge city (Evison, 1994). The town of Great Chesterford is located approximately 15 km south-east of Edix Hill. Great Chesterford was an Anglo-Saxon cemetery built upon a Romano-British extramural cemetery (Evison, 1994). The geology of the site was not discussed in detail in previous reports. It is believed to have consisted mainly of a mixture of sand and gravel, which would have provided a neutral to alkaline pH (Evison, 1994). The total number of individuals recovered was 167, eighty-three of which were non-adults. The non-adults were mostly buried in single graves, although there were three multiple graves. The graves at Great Chesterford lie in one of two directions, some with their head to the south, (south-north graves) and some with head to the west, (west-east graves). For the non-adults graves, 58 had recorded orientation. Most of the infants were buried south-north, (25 out of a total 40) (62%). Four out of nine were north-south burials, and three out of four were eastwest burials were infants. Overall, the north-south graves included males, females, one non-adult, infants and foetuses, but only infants and one female were buried east-west. No clustering of nonadults was observed. A total of 19 of the non-adults were buried with grave goods, which ranged from brooches, beads and two spears. Auldhame The site of Auldhame, East Lothian, was uncovered in 2005 by AOC Archaeology Group when 206 individuals were recovered, and a further sixty-six burials were identified but were left in situ. The multi-phased remains of a chapel were also recovered. Four phases of activity were identified – Phase One (c. 650-950 CE); Phase Two (c. 950-1200 CE); Phase Three (c. 1250-1450 CE) and Phase Four (c. 1470-1680 CE) (Melikian, 2005). The remains mark the site of a previously unknown medieval cemetery, and lie within the possible promontory fort of Seacliff. It is not known when a settlement at Auldhame first appeared, but discovered within the locality, such as the prehistoric round cairn at St Baldred’s Cradle and Iron Age burials at Greghans Cave, suggests occupation from at least the

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Fig. 1. Location of the sites.

Bronze Age (Hindmarch and Melikian, 2006). The burials were recovered from loamy soil and brown clay, with an alkaline to neutral pH (Hindmarsh pers.comm.). All burials were supine and extended, with most following the west to east alignment with the head at the western end. Two groups of child burials were encountered, the first has a direction of north-west to south-east and were concentrated towards the south-western corner of the chapel (n = 18; 23%) and the second group were located near the western edge of the excavation area and were turned to a more south-west to north-east direction (n = 50; 64%). A total of seventy-eight non-adults were recovered (Melikian, 2005b).

Llandough The site of Llandough, South Wales lies in the north of Penarth on sloping ground near the crest of an escarpment. The escarpment overlooks the estuary of the river Ely to the north and a stream that runs through a combe to the south (Holbrook and Thomas, 2005). In 1994, excavation of the ancient burial ground was undertaken by Cotswold Archaeological Trust, ahead of residential development by Ideal Homes Wales Ltd. The excavation area lies to the north of the churchyard wall and extends to the edge escarpment. Within this area 1026 graves were recovered (Thomas and Holbrook, 1994). There were 814 articulated skeletons and 212 disturbed skeletons recovered, of these 226 were of children. Many of the skeletons were found only a few centimetres below the ground and there were signs of activity which post-dated the cemetery had truncated much of the site. These included postmedieval quarrying, which bisected the excavation, and levelling carried out during construction of the farmhouse and outbuildings of the Great House Farm. Other disturbances were caused by two shallow ditches which were dated after the cemetery but before the construction of the farmhouse (Loe, 2003). The importance of the site dates back to the 1960s and 1970s when Iron-Age and Roman features were recovered. Davies (1982) concluded that the 19th century church of Saint Dochdwy overlies the site of one of the major early medieval monasteries of Glamorgan. It is thought that a monastic community existed in Llandough during the period 650-1075 CE (Davies, 1982). No information was available detailing the geology of the site.

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However, the burial environment surrounding South Wales is prone to waterlogging, which can have a destructive effect on organic materials such as human bone. During excavation burials were divided into three areas. Area 1 was situated in the south of the cemetery, which included burials which were contained within a possible curvilinear boundary which was indicated by the line of burials on a north-east to south-west alignments (Loe, 2003). Areas 2 and 3 lay to the west and north of Area 1. Burials in Area 2 lay further to the west outside the limits of the excavation. Area 3 was the most extensively used part of the cemetery. The burials were aligned east-west. This area contained a large proportion of infant and non-adult remains, which were clustered into two distinct groups; one which was central and the other in an adjacent area to the north. These burials were aligned east-west and were cut into the adult burials, suggesting later interments. It is likely that the burials in Area 1 relate to the monastic community which was established in the 6th century. This area of the cemetery would have included the monks and lay aristocracy (Davies, 1982). The Areas 2 and 3 are thought to comprise the lay population who were afforded the right to be buried in monastic cemeteries from about the 8th century, this would account for the distribution and the majority of the burials.

Wharram Percy Wharram Percy is a deserted medieval settlement situated on a terrace on the west-side of the Yorkshire Wolds, 29 km from the city of York. It is thought that occupation of Wharram Percy began during the Roman period and continued until the twentieth century. The excavation of St Martin’s Church and its churchyard at Wharram Percy was carried out between 1962 and 1978, when 681 skeletons were recovered, of which 303 (44%) were children (Mays et al., 2007). The site of Wharram Percy lies on chalk geology, which is alkaline in nature and resulting in high pH levels. Thus the resulting macroscopic preservation of the non-adult remains was excellent. The majority of burials recovered from Wharram Percy were single interments; this reflects a Christian burial ground (Mays et al., 2007). There were seven areas of burial within the church and churchyard. The majority of adults were buried within the church and the majority of non-adults were buried in the area north of the church (NA). The burials in the NA consisted mostly of neonates and infants, this may indicate that these individuals were unbaptised, and as the north of the church is a traditional location for the burial of such infants (Gilchrist and Sloane, 2005; Boddington, 1996). Alternatively, Mays et al. (2007) has linked weaning and the burial of infants in this area.

St Oswald’s Priory The multi-period site of St Oswald’s Priory lies in the fertile valley of the River Severn and to the east is the scarp slope of the Cotswold Hills. The site has been used as a burial ground since the Roman period. Both churches appeared to be dedicated to St Peter in the late Anglo-Saxon period, whereas in the pre-conquest period they were known as the Old Minster and the New Minster, respectively. This later became known as the abbey church of St Peter and the later Priory church of St Oswald’s (Hare, 1999). A total of 487 skeletons were recovered, 128 (26%) of which were non-adults. The geology of the site is not reported on, but this area of south-west England does have a predominance of rendzinas or calcaric brown soils, with associated luvic brown soil. This can lead to a pH of 7 (i.e., alkaline) or over, which can lead to good preservation of organic materials (Evans and O’Connor, 1999). As this cemetery is a multi-period burial ground which has been in use since Roman times, as a result the burials in the cemetery consisted of a series of overlying skeletons indicating different generations. The burials were placed into five periods; namely, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norman, late medieval and 18th and 19th century, each containing a varying number of non-adults. A high percentage of children were buried in the Norman layer of the cemetery (n = 52; 40%). It is thought that this is due to the inclusion of an area of burial ground external and adjacent to the church wall, which contained infant burials. This may indicate as seen in other cemeteries a special area for unbaptised children. This practice of burying children close to church structures has being identified at many British sites (Boddington, 1996).

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Age at death The age at death of the non-adults was primarily assessed using the dentition (Moorrees et al., 1963a,b), long bone lengths (Ubelaker, 1989) and bone development (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). The foetal remains were aged using the long bone lengths (Scheuer et al., 1980) and the occipital bone where the length and width of the pars basilaris was calculated for age estimation (Scheuer and MacLaughlin-Black, 1994). Skeletons were divided into the following age categories: less than 40 weeks, 0–0.5 months, 0.6–1.5 years, 1.6–2.5 years, 2.6–4.5 years, and 4.6–6.5 years, 6.6–8.5 years, 8.6–10.5 years; 10.6–14.5 years and 14.6–17.0 years. In the last category 14.6–17.0 years the individual was estimated to be over 17 years if the root of the third molar was complete (Moorrees et al., 1963b). Bone preservation The state of preservation of the bones was assessed using three preservation indices: the anatomical preservation index (API) (Bello et al., 2006) which is the percentage of bone preserved for each individual bone. The frequency of the bones was assessed using the bone representation index (BRI) (Dodson and Wexlar, 1979). BRI measures the frequency of each bone and bone type in each of the samples. It is the percentage of bones present compared to the actual number of bones which should be represented according to the minimum number of individuals (MNI) in the sample. The qualitative bone index (QBI) (Bello et al., 2006) measures the amount of cortical bone present for each individual bone. The preservation scores can be arranged into six classes: class 1 = 0% not preserved or absent; class 2 1–25% up to a quarter preserved; class 3 = 25–50% up to half preserved; class 4 50–75% up to three quarters preserved; class 5 = 75–100% between three quarters and total preservation; class 6–100% total preservation. Each skeleton was examined macroscopically for any forms of taphonomic damage such as bleaching, erosion and cracking of surfaces, root etching, discolouration, soil adhesion and plough damage. Taphonomy was scored as absent or present on each skeleton. Intra-observer and inter-observer error The intra-observer error is the error between two measurements taken twice by the same observer on the same sample and using the same methods of measurement. The inter-observer error is the error between two observers on the same sample using the same criteria. The scores of preservation for both the anatomical preservation index (API) and the qualitative bone index (QBI) were estimated on sixtyeight bone elements of two skeletons by the author and another experienced osteologist to test for errors. The scores of preservation for the API and QBI were estimated by the author and produced a P value equal to 1. Therefore, the difference was not considered significant. The inter-observer error was estimated and produced a P value of 0.883, which means there was no significant difference between the measurements taken. Statistical analysis All data for each of the preservation scores were entered into an excel database and analysed according to the difference between bone preservation expressed in terms of (API) and (QBI) and site (location) both nationally and locally. Trends were analysed using Chi squared statistical test to test the null hypothesis that there was no difference between trends (Shennan, 1997). A significance level of 1% (p < 0.01) was used for all tests. Results Preterm and neonatal mortality Preterm and neonatal mortality was calculated for five sites, this is because only five out of the six sites had large numbers in this age range. Edix Hill only had one perinate. The ages of the preterm babies and neonates were between 24 and 48 weeks which were estimated using the regression equations

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Table 4 Perinate and neonate mortality at the sites. Age (weeks)

24–26 26–28 28–30 30–32 32–34 34–36 36–38 38–40 40–42 42–44 44–46 46–48 48–50 Total

Great Chesterford

St Oswald’s Priory

Auldhame

Wharram Percy

Llandough

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

0 0 1 0 3 0 11 11 11 4 3 1 0 45

0 0 2 0 6 0 24 24 24 8 6 2 0

0 1 2 2 1 2 3 9 3 2 2 0 0 27

0 4 7 7 4 7 11 33 2 7 7 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 0 1 0 1 1 9

0 0 0 0 0 22 11 33 0 11 0 11 11

0 0 2 3 4 9 7 4 8 5 6 5 0 53

0 0 4 6 7 17 13 7 15 9 11 9 0

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 2 2 1 0 0 9

0 0 0 0 0 11 0 33 22 22 11 0 0

Table 5 Demographic profile of the children in the samples. Age (years)

0–0.5 0.6–1.5 1.6–2.5 2.6–4.5 4.6–6.5 6.6–8.5 8.6–10.5 10.6–14.5 14.6–17.0 Total

Auldhame

Edix Hill

N

%

N

7 13 3 6 5 12 8 4 4 62

11 21 5 10 8 19 13 6 6

1 1 3 7 1 4 2 4 11 34

Great Chesterford

Llandough

Wharram Percy

%

N

%

N

%

N

3 3 9 20 3 12 6 12 32

20 8 0 7 2 3 2 2 0 44

45 18 0 16 4 7 4 4 0

17 36 19 26 21 26 17 19 19 217

8 17 9 12 10 12 8 9 9

47 38 22 23 37 18 18 19 12 234

St Oswald’s Priory %

20 16 9 10 16 8 8 8 5

N

%

18 13 4 16 9 5 4 3 5 77

23 17 5 21 12 6 5 4 6

published by Scheuer et al. (1981) (Table 4). At all sites the majority of preterm and neonatal deaths occurred between 36 and 42 weeks gestation, or around full-term. At Great Chesterford, Auldhame, and St Oswald’s Priory the peak occurred between 38–40 weeks (n = 11; 24%, n = 3; 33% and n = 9; 33% respectively), with St Oswald’s Priory having an obvious peak at 40 weeks, whereas at Great Chesterford deaths are more evenly spread out. At Wharram Percy four (7%) of the total deaths occurred between 38 and 40 weeks, but there was a higher percentage of premature deaths occurring around 34–36 weeks (n = 9; 17%) and 36-38 weeks (n = 7; 13%) respectively. There were no significant differences between any of the sites and the preterm babies (< 40 weeks) and or the neonates (>40 weeks) recovered (e.g., no different in mortality between Great Chesterford and Wharram Percy (2 = 0.09; p = 0.01, d.f = 1). Auldhame and Llandough, shared a similar pattern with regard to the ages at death. At both sites, there were no skeletons of preterm babies recovered before 34 weeks (Table 4). This may reflect their exclusion or the possible clustering of stillborn babies elsewhere in the cemetery. Non-adult mortality Table 5 illustrates the number and percentage of skeletons available in each age category. There was a sharp decline in the number of deaths from the first year of life at Great Chesterford. There was a striking lack of adolescents with only 2 (4%) present at the 10.6–14.5 years age group and no individuals present in the 14.6–17.0 years group. There is an interesting and opposite trend occurring at the neighbouring site of Edix Hill, which is situated 15 kilometres away (Fig. 2) At Edix Hill the majority of deaths occurred much later at the 14–17 years (n = 11; 32%), compared to the other site.

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Fig. 2. Comparison of mortality at Great Chesterford and Edix Hill. Table 6 Mortality patterns at each site. Site

Wharram Percy Llandough St Oswald’s Priory Edix Hill Great Chesterford Auldhame Total

Number and percentage of deaths before 15 years

Number and percentage of deaths between 10–14 years

Number and percentage of deaths between 15–17 years

N

%

N

N

%

251 180 87 25 70 59 672

70 29 24 25 84 36

19 23 3 5 2 2 52

12 26 5 11 0 3 57

3 4 1 0.11 0 2

% 12 4 1 1 2 1

There is a peak in the number of deaths at 2.6–4.5 years 7 (20%). At Llandough the majority of deaths occurred in infancy and early childhood (Table 5). The mortality profile shows that there are older children in the sample which are evenly spread out. At the Scottish site of Auldhame, two peaks appear at 0.6–1.5 years (n = 13; 21%) and 6.6–8.5 years (n = 12; 19%), with fewer non-adults in the 0.0-0.5 month category (n = 7; 11%). The majority of deaths at St Oswald’s Priory occurred between birth and 0.5 months (n = 18; 23%), with a further peak at 2.6–4.5 years (n = 16; 21%) and a gradual decrease in the number of deaths with increasing age. The mortality profile at Wharram Percy was more evenly distributed with the majority of deaths occurring around birth and 1.5 years (n = 42; 20% and n = 38; 16%). The non-adult mortality across all sites appears to have an increase in deaths in early infancy followed by a gradual decline in numbers as age increases. However, there are some differences. At Edix Hill, the majority of deaths occurred in adolescence, this was in total contrast to the site of Great Chesterford (Fig. 2). Exploring under-representation According to Weiss (1973), the probability of dying in the first year of life is higher than at 15 years. Here, the percentage of deaths before 15 years of age was calculated for all sites and compared to the number of deaths after 15 years of age (Table 6). The highest number of deaths occurred before

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Fig. 3. Anatomical preservation index (API) for each site.

15 years at Wharram Percy (n = 251; 70%), Great Chesterford (n = 70; 84%) and Llandough (n = 180; 29%). With the lowest number of deaths occurring at Edix Hill (n = 25; 25%) (Table 6). The numbers of non-adults in each group were compared using Chi- squared 2x2 tables. There was a significantly greater number of deaths under 15 years of age at Wharram Percy compared to that of Llandough (2 = 7.04, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). There was also a difference in the number of children dying before 15 years at Great Chesterford compared to that of Edix Hill (2 = 23.87, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). No difference in the nonadults less than 17 years was noted between the sites of Great Chesterford and Auldhame (2 = 3.47, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Finally, a significant difference was found between those dying at less than 15 years at Wharram Percy compared to Great Chesterford (2 = 13.26, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Anatomical preservation index (API) By considering the percentage of bones for each class of preservation for each assemblage, a similar pattern of preservation is observed. For the API values the six assemblages had a high percentage of bones not preserved (class 1) (Fig. 3). Using the Chi-squared test the regional differences were analysed to observe if any differences were present. It was found that significant differences were present between the percentages of bone in each class of preservation and each site. There were considerably more poorly preserved bones at Edix Hill than Great Chesterford (2 = 89.73, P = 0.01, d.f = 1) demonstrating that differences can exist between sites which are from the same geographical location, in this case only 15 km apart. The sites of Llandough and St Oswald’s Priory are situated in the same region of south west Britain. The number of poorly preserved bones at Llandough was considerable when compared to St Oswald’s Priory (2 = 299.60, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Differences in bone preservation at Wharram Percy It was found that preservation differences exist between regions within one cemetery. It is required to test whether regional differences existed on a much smaller scale within a cemetery. At Wharram Percy, there were seven zones of burial; this allowed the investigation of differential preservation between different areas of burial within one cemetery with a single geological type. It was found that all zones had a high percentage of poorly preserved remains in class one. The number of bones not wellpreserved was significant at the glebe (G) compared to the north aisle (2 = 89.12, P = 0.01, d.f = 1); and also remains were less-well preserved at the glebe compared to the area of the east of the churchyard

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Fig. 4. Qualitative bone index (QBI) for each site.

(EE) (2 = 53.87, P = 0.01, d.f = 1) and bones in the area of the vestry (V) were considerably less wellpreserved than those in the western corner (WCO) (2 = 104.80, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). This indicates that differences in bone preservation exist between burial regions within one cemetery. Differences in preservation at time periods at St Oswald’s Priory The differences in the class of preservation between the different periods of burials at St Oswald’s Priory were also analysed. All periods had a high percentage of class 1 preservation. There was an increase in class 6 preservation in the 18th century burials. The percentage of the remains in class 1 compared between Anglo-Saxon (62%) and Norman (78%) was significant (2 = 114.29, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). The percentages of bones not preserved in the late medieval (73%) and 18th and 19th century (57%) burials differed significantly (2 = 26.32, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). At class 2 preservation, a slight difference was found between the Anglo-Saxon (14%) and Norman burials (17%) (2 = 6.42, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). No significant differences were recorded at class 3. Those remains that were well-preserved at classes 4 and 5 between Anglo-Saxon (3%) and Norman (5%) were not significantly different (2 = 4.00, P = 0.01, d.f = 1 and 2 = 3.26, P = 0.01, d.f = 1 respectively). A difference was noted at class 6 (2 = 13.81, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Overall, most differences were between the Anglo-Saxon and Norman periods. Differences in preservation at each phase at Llandough Each of the Phases was considered in terms of the percentage of the bones present at each class. There was a small significant difference between the bones not preserved at Phase One and Two at class 1 (2 = 14.98, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). There were considerable differences between the bones not preserved at Phase One and Three at class 1 (2 = 107.98, P = 0.01, d.f = 1), class 2 (2 = 41.57, P = 0.01, d.f = 1), class 3 (2 = 21.92, P = 0.01, d.f = 1), and class 4 (2 28.06, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). There was no difference between Phases Two and Three. Qualitative bone index (QBI) All sites had at least 50% of the bone surfaces present (i.e., high percentage of class 3 preservation) (Fig. 4). At the northern site of Auldhame, the poorly preserved cortical bone at classes 1-3 was significantly different when compared to Edix Hill (2 = 149.29, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). This indicates a possible

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Fig. 5. Frequency of cranial bones for each site.

geological influence. Cortical bone preservation also differed across a small geographical area, for example at Edix Hill and Great Chesterford, the poor cortical bone preservation at Edix Hill may be due to the abrasive actions of the chalk on the bone surface despite the chalk environment being good for preservation (alkaline) and was significantly different at class 1 (2 = 96.18, P = 0.01, d.f = 1) and class 2 (2 = 404.72, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). At Wharram Percy, which also had chalk geology, the opposite occurred with the majority of bones preserved in classes 4-6, thus resulting in near complete cortical surfaces. Qualitative bone preservation at Wharram Percy The qualitative bone index was calculated for each burial area at Wharram Percy. There was an increase in the cortical bone preservation from class 3, with the north aisle (NA) having the highest percentage of bone elements in class 6. The different areas of burial were compared to assess if there was any differences in the cortical bone preservation and area of burial. A significant difference was observed between EE and NA at class 3 (2 = 102.02, P = 0.01, d.f = 1) and between V and WCO at class 5 (2 = 228.59, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Qualitative bone preservation at St Oswald’s Priory The cortical bone preservation was calculated for each time period at St Oswald‘s Priory. There was an increase in good cortical bone preservation at classes 3 and 4 over all time periods. However, there is still a lack of excellent preservation at classes 5 and 6. Qualitative bone preservation at Llandough The qualitative bone index (QBI) was calculated for each phase of burial at Llandough. There was an increase in good preservation from classes 3 and 4. Each phase was compared to assess if any differences occurred. Preservation at class 3 was found to be significantly different between Phase 1 and Phase 2 (2 = 83.07, P = 0.01, d.f = 1) and class 4 (2 = 37.60, P = 0.01, d.f = 1). Bone representation index (BRI) The bones that were most frequently represented across all the sites for the cranium were the temporal, occipital, sphenoid, parietal and the mandible, with the small fragile bones of the face less well-represented (Fig. 5). The post-cranial bones that were most frequently present included the upper and lower limbs, rib, pelvis and vertebrae (Fig. 6). The sternum and coccyx tend to be poorly

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Fig. 6. Frequency of post-cranial bones for each site.

represented; however, preservation of these bones is age-dependent. The patella and the small bones of the hands and feet are also less well-represented. The frequency of the epiphyses of the upper and lower limbs at each site was also calculated. The proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur were best represented at all sites, particularly Wharram Percy (n = 144; 20%) (Table 7). Epiphyses can easily be missed during excavation, due to their small size. Overall, the epiphyses of the leg bones were the best represented with a total number of 1,275 compared with the upper limbs which had a total of 454. The sites of Wharram Percy and Auldhame had the greatest number of epiphyses preserved (n = 584 and n = 210 respectively). The numbers recovered at Auldhame reflect the presence of an on-site osteologist during excavation.

Taphonomic processes Six of the most commonly observed taphonomic processes; both natural (i.e., root etching, bleaching, soil adhesion, cracking and erosion of surface and discolouration) and artificial (i.e., ploughing damage) were recorded for each of the sites. Plough damage was the most abundant at Auldhame (n = 26; 37%) and Llandough (n = 54; 41%). Root etching was frequent at Edix Hill, Great Chesterford and St Oswald’s Priory (n = 22; 54%, n = 34; 41% and n = 34; 35% respectively) (Table 8). Soil adhesion was a common finding with 179 skeletons exhibiting signs across all sites (Table 8). This was followed by plough damage (n = 135) and root etching (n = 129). Despite the waterlogged environment at Llandough only 15 (12%) of skeletons displayed evidence of this (Table 8). It was explored to see if taphonomic processes and age of the non-adults were directly related. It was found that the youngest individuals (preterm babies and infants) (i.e., <40 weeks to 1.5 years) were the least affected by both natural processes such as root etching (n = 231; 33%), bleaching (n = 12; 2%), cracking and erosion of the surfaces (n = 81; 11%), and discoloration (n = 34; 35%) compared to those of the older age groups (Table 9). Also this age category was least affected by ploughing damage (n = 35; 5%). It would appear that younger individuals (<40 weeks to 1–1.5 years) were least affected by taphonomy (Table 9). The sites of Auldhame and Llandough had a higher percentage of plough damage (n = 26; 37% and n = 51; 41%) respectively; this was explored to see if this was age related as it may indicate that children buried in different areas were more prone to plough damage. However, this was found not to be the case. In the <40 weeks to 1–1.5 year age category only 22% of skeletons were found to have plough damage. In the older age categories, plough damage (n = 204; 29%), root etching (n = 229; 33%), and discolouration (n = 302; 43%) were the most commonly observed (Table 9).

Bone

Humerus Proximal Capitulum Lat. Epicondyle Med. Epicondyle Trochlea Radius Proximal Distal Ulna Proximal Distal Total Femur Proximal Distal Greater Trochanter Lesser Trochanter Tibia Proximal Distal Fibula Proximal Distal Total

Auldhame

Edix Hill

N

N

%

%

Great Chesterford Llandough

Wharram Percy

St Oswald’s Priory

N

N

N

%

N

%

%

Total no. of epiphyses

%

26 7 1 0 0

18 5 1 0 0

20 8 4 4 3

25 10 5 5 4

5 1 1 1 1

3 1 1 1 1

30 4 3 3 3

24 3 3 3 3

144 38 4 4 4

26 6 1 1 1

25 7 3 0 2

6 1 0.7 12 0.2

250 65 16

4 7

3 5

6 8

7 10

0 1

0 1

4 7

3 6

12 19

2 3

3 10

0.7 2

29 52

22 4

16 3 71

5 2

6 2 60

0 0

0 0 10

1 2

1 2 57

4 1

1 0.2 230

4 2

1 0.5 56

36 11 454

52 54 18 11

37 38 13 8

40 40 25 8

50 50 31 10

5 8 0 0

3 5 0 0

39 40 7 4

31 32 6 3

132 139 35 26

24 25 6 5

23 43 8 8

6 11 2 2

291 324 93 57

35 29

25 21

34 25

42 31

8 5

5 3

21 25

17 20

113 100

21 18

40 24

10 6

251 208

5 6

3 4 210

2 16

2 20 190

1 2

1 1 29

0 0

0 0 138

3 37

0.5 7 584

2 7

0.5 1 155

13 68 1275

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Table 7 Frequency of long bone epiphyses at each of the sites.

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Table 8 Number and percentage of skeletons displaying taphonomic damage. Site

Auldhame Edix Hill Great Chesterford Llandough Wharram Percy St Oswald’s Priory Total

Plough damage

Root etching

Bleaching

Soil Adhesion

Cracking and erosion

Discoloration

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

26 9 9 51 21 19 135

37 19 11 41 8 20

12 22 34 2 25 34 129

17 54 41 2 9 35

2 20 1 4 18 4 49

3 49 1 3 6 4

9 2 13 0 74 81 179

13 5 16 0 27 84

6 6 2 1 5 7 27

8 15 2 1 2 7

6 6 8 15 40 10 85

8 15 10 12 14 10

Table 9 Number and percentage of skeletal elements in each age category displaying taphonomic damage. Taphonomy

Plough Damage Root etching Bleaching Soil adhesion Cracking and erosion Discolouration Total

1.6 years to 8.5 years

8.6 years to 17.0 years

N

%

N

%

N

%

37 231 12 207 81 85 653

5 33 2 29 11 12

180 182 62 179 102 154 859

26 26 9 25 14 22

204 229 89 139 81 302 1044

29 33 13 20 11 43

Table 10 Number and percentage of non-adult skeletons in each age category displaying taphonomic damage at Wharram Percy. Taphonomy

Plough Damage Root etching Bleaching Soil adhesion Cracking and erosion Discolouration Total

1.6 years to 8.5 years

8.6 years to 17.0 years

N

%

N

%

N

%

37 231 12 207 81 85 653

5 33 2 29 11 12

180 182 62 179 102 154 859

26 26 9 25 14 22

204 229 89 139 81 302 1044

29 33 13 20 11 43

Taphonomy and burial at Wharram Percy The site of Wharram Percy allowed the exploration of taphonomy at different burial areas within a cemetery. The burial environment can vary immensely within a cemetery as shown above. The Vestry area had the highest percentage of root etching (n = 7; 27%). The central nave had the highest percentage of discolouration (n = 2; 69%); however this area only contained three non-adults. The area (North Aisle) where the most non-adults were buried had the least types of taphonomy recorded, with the exception of soil adhesion (n = 50; 38%). Table 10 displays taphonomy and age at Wharram Percy, with a number of skeletons aged less than two years displaying soil adhesion and discolouration (n = 36; 25% and n = 17; 12%) respectively, followed by the 2.6 years to 8.5 years age category (n = 28; 34% and n = 15; 18%) respectively. Taphonomy, grave depth and age at Great Chesterford and Edix Hill The grave depths and taphonomy were compared to see if a difference in preservation at the three age categories existed. The average depth of graves for the children at Edix Hill and Great Chesterford were 290 mm and 990 mm compared to those of the adults 290 mm and 1.09 m respectively. The

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Fig. 7. Depth of non-adult graves at Edix Hill and Great Chesterford at different age groups.

depths were also calculated for each age category at each site (Fig. 7). Plough damage tended to be more prevalent on the skeletons of the older children (8.6–17.0 years – n = 204; 29%). In order to assess whether non-adults are poorly preserved because of shallow burial depth, burial depth, age, API and QBI were analysed for the sites of Great Chesterford and Edix Hill. A difference was found between grave depth, cortical surface preservation and age, at the ages of 0–1 years and 1–4 years (2 = 9.34; P = 0.01, d.f = 1) and a significant difference was also found at the ages of 5–10 years and 11–17 years (2 = 24.78; P = 0.01, d.f = 1). There were no significant differences between the API, age and grave depth in the younger individuals, but a significant difference was found in the older children, 5–10 years and 11–17 years age group (2 = 52.65; P = 0.01, d.f = 1). The type of taphonomy and age was assessed to see if there were any differences, and no significant differences were observed. Discussion The primary aim of this study was to assess the bone preservation and taphonomic processes on the skeletal remains of children from six medieval burial assemblages from Britain. This also involved examining the demographic profile of the infants and children within the samples and the evidence surrounding the under-representation of the younger members of society in the archaeological record and whether their absence is a result of taphonomic bias or socially constructed ideas concerning childhood. Attention has nearly always focused on the absence rather than the presence of children from both prehistoric and historic cemeteries. It is long established that children and infants in particular are rarely treated the same as adults and this is reflected in the funerary remains (Parker Pearson, 1999; Ucko, 1969). With each society and community treating their dead differently, and this can vary widely across countries, regions and time periods reflecting both individual and social identities, of which age is an inherent aspect of identity and frequently represented and expressed through modification in burial practices of children. This often results in limited numbers of non-adult skeletons recovered from burial grounds, therefore contrasts sharply with the high mortality rates in pre modern societies. The sites studied here show mortality ranging from 26% at St Oswald’s Priory to 47% at Wharram Percy to 49% at Great Chesterford (Table 1). These results are in keeping with pre-modern societies, where infant and child mortality may have averaged around 50% of all deaths (Flinn, 1981; Heywood, 2001), with 40%-50% of the living population less than 15 years of age (Bolton, 1980). Alternatively, most deaths occur in the first year of life; 30%–70% of deaths occur before 15 years of age and the number of deaths between 15 and 19 years is higher compared to deaths between 10–14 years of age (Littleton, 1998:56); this is shown to be the case in this study (Table 6). As expected there was a decrease in deaths as age increased with the exception of Edix Hill where the majority of deaths occurred at 14–17 years of age (n = 11; 32%) and when compared to the neighbouring site of Great Chesterford an opposite trend appeared (Fig. 2). It is possible that there was migration of older children into Edix Hill from nearby Great Chesterford, as there was an ease of communication and links to other parts of the county during this time and made easy because of the location of the river Cam flowing northwards just to the west of the town, and by Roman roads converging from London, Colchester and Cambridge (Malim and Hines, 1989). There would have been ease of access, not only to

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and from the towns of Edix Hill and Great Chesterford, but also the neighbouring Anglo-Saxon sites in the area, such as Haslingfield. It had been stated by Malim and Hines (1989) that the nearby communities of similar size and status were burying their dead on Edix Hill and in Hooper’s Field, just outside, perhaps contributing to the general number of older children at this site. This could also imply that the large numbers of perinates and infants recovered from Great Chesterford, represent the deaths from neighbouring communities such as Westgarth. Bone preservation and taphonomic processes Once remains are inhumed, the burial environment will affect the preservation of bone/skeleton whether that skeleton is a child or an adult at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. The changes occurring are influenced by many factors (Table 2) but one of those factors is soil type and pH (Gordon and Buikstra, 1981; Lindsay et al., 1979; Nielsen-Marsh et al., 2007). Nielsen-Marsh and colleagues (2007) identified soils described as corrosive for bone preservation, as acidic, aerated, and well drained thus reducing the capacity for local buffering leading to a loss of bone minerals. This is an important consideration for the survival of children’s bones as their skeletons tend to be less mineralised than those of adults, particularly at various stages during childhood development. Further, a strong alkaline environment will also cause damage to the bone’s microstructure resulting in extensive cracking (Jans, 2013; Nielsen-Marsh et al., 2007). A complex relationship exists between the geology and pH of a site and the long-term survival of human bone. This is evident in the numerous publications on the subject but also in the number of contradictions surrounding the best environment for excellent preservation (Brothwell, 1981; Carter et al., 2008; Child, 1995; Ferllini, 2007; French, 2003; Henderson, 1987; Locock et al., 1992; Maat, 1987; Nicholson, 1996; Nord et al., 2005). In this study all sites showed a similar pattern of preservation for both the anatomical preservation index (API) and the qualitative bone index (QBI) (Figs. 3 and 4) with large percentages of bones not present (class 1) at all sites and a low percentage of well-preserved bones (class 6). Despite this pattern of preservation significant differences were observed between the sites of differing geography and geology both locally and nationally. Macroscopic preservation at each site varied considerably, for example, at the sites of Wharram Percy and Edix Hill, both sites have similar geological profiles (i.e., chalk) but different degrees of preservation, resulting from the reaction of the chalk with the bones. The best preserved skeletons come from the site of Wharram Percy. Chalk is pure limestone and is created by the deposits of solid calcium carbonate in water. Soils which develop upon calcium carbonate are known as rendzinas. These types of soils are usually shallow, porous, well-aerated and permeable and this can serve to protect the bones in some cases (Ferllini, 2007), as is the case at Wharram Percy in contrast to Edix Hill where many of the skeletons had their cortical surface damaged by the abrasive action of the chalk (Ferllini, 2007). This was also observed at the Experimental Earthworks project at Overton Down in Wiltshire, southern England, where bone samples that were buried over a long period of time show bone modifications due to the chalk (Armour-Chelu and Andrews, 1996). At other sites such as Llandough, the human bone was highly fragmented and badly preserved due to the effects of the water-logged environment; the site of Great Chesterford in Cambridgeshire had a good macroscopic preservation in most cases. These differences are a result of the strong influences of intrinsic factors such as age, bone size and bone density. A previous study observed age differences in the state of preservation (API) at the early medieval cemeteries. Differences were noted at Edix Hill at the ages of <40 weeks and 0–1.5 years at preservation classes 1–3 (Manifold, 2013:32), whereas at the site of Auldhame differences were noted in those aged between 4.6 and 10.5 years and 10.6–17.0 years. No differences were noted at any age group between the sites of Great Chesterford and Llandough (Manifold, 2013:32). Age was also assessed in relation to the state of preservation of the cortical surfaces (QBI) of the remains from the four early medieval cemeteries. Only one difference was noted at the age of 4.6–10.5 years between the sites of Auldhame and Edix Hill (Manifold, 2013:35) indicating that cortical surface preservation is more affected by extrinsic factors rather than intrinsic influences. At the site of Auldhame in the north, there was evidence of shallow burial with many of the skeletons exhibiting plough damage. This was also noted at the Welsh site of Llandough. Evidence from many archaeological sites suggests that children are buried in shallower graves than their adult counterparts which may expose them to taphonomic processes (Acsádi and Nemeskéri,

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1970). A study of grave depths of both children (n = 803) and adults (n = 1,805) from Roman and AngloSaxon sites did show that infants at both Roman and Anglo-Saxon sites were buried at less depth (0.32 m and 0.35 m respectively) than those aged 11–17 years (0.39 m and 0.45 m respectively) (Manifold, 2012:61). Despite the shallow depths recorded at the sites of Great Chesterford and Edix Hill, the remains of the non-adults did not exhibit a high percentage of the taphonomic processes, which would be associated with shallow burials (Fig. 7). No difference was found between the preservation of bone and depth of burial at either Edix Hill or Great Chesterford among those aged 1-4 years, but they did occur among the older children. Differences were noted between the preservation of the cortical surfaces (QBI) and age at both sites suggesting the depth of burial influences the cortical surface preservation of children’s bones, whereas grave depth does not appear to influence the amount of bone preserved (API). The state of the cortical surface preservation was highly significant with regard to the classes of preservation; this may be directly related to the type of soil and pH. The cortical surface of bone elements is directly in contact with the sediment type, which can have a destructive effect leading to erosion of the surfaces; this can limit the amount of detailed information regarding pathology of the skeleton. At Wharram Percy, there were seven separate burial zones, with the majority of non-adults buried in the North Aisle (NA) zone. The seven zones were compared for differences in taphonomic factors; it was found that there was no major difference between the preservation in one area and another. At the multi-period site of St Oswald’s Priory, the different periods were compared for a difference in the effects of taphonomic factors and again no major difference was found. Depending on the environment in which human skeletal remains are interred and subsequently recovered from, a number of changes will be seen. In woodland areas, bones coming into contact with foliage would be stained black or brown on account of the leaching of tannins (Nawrocki, 2009); also the presence of any fungi and moulds can further stain human bone. Discolouration from waterlogged environments is common; this was evident at the site of Llandough where a number of the skeletons had been stained black as a result. Also in cases where the body was buried with grave goods, green staining is a common finding as a result of copper oxidising; this was commonly seen on the remains from Edix Hill. The most common bones seen with green staining are the clavicle, ribs, mandible, metacarpals and phalanges. Bleaching is a frequent finding on bone, especially on those burials which are shallow due to long term exposure to sunlight. As a result the bones become light both in weight and colour, this can make it easier for remains to be transported and scattered across an area (Nawrocki, 2009). By far the most common form of taphonomy encountered at British sites is that of root etching. Roots of trees and shrubs are frequently found growing across or though bones. This can result in considerable damage to bone, eventually scattering the bone. Roots secrete acids and this can be seen on bone as small, sinuous rounded channels and can be mistaken for cut marks. These channels are often lighter in colour than the surrounding bone surfaces, due to the removal of the cortex (Nawrocki, 2009). Bone representation Certain bone types tend to survive better in the burial environment, especially with regard to the remains of children. The cranial bones such as the temporal (pars petrosa), sphenoid (body and greater wings), occipital, zygomatic, and mandible tend to be well preserved and well represented from neonate to adolescent, thus allowing the skeleton to be aged accurately. The small fragile bones of the face such as the vomer, lacrimal and ethmoid tend to be under-represented at all sites (Fig. 5), all bones are present at birth, with the ethmoid ossified by the seventh month of foetal life and resembling the adult morphology at birth (Scheuer and Black, 2000). The under-representation of such bones can hamper the study of diseases such as leprosy. Also, their absence may be due to difficulties in recognising them during excavation. The small bones of the ear (malleus, incus and stapes) are always recovered in excellent condition, this may be due to the protection of the temporal bone, with the malleus and the stapes tending to be better represented than the incus. This may be due to the relative small size of such bones, which can be easily missed during excavation. An under-representation of such bones hinders the study of otitis media in archaeological samples. The post cranial bones which are well-preserved and represented are the long bones of the upper and lower limbs, ribs (especially the first and last ribs) possibly due to their anatomical position in the body; the cervical vertebrae

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(especially the atlas and axis) tend to be better preserved than the lumbar vertebrae. The pelvis is also well preserved and well represented in all ages. In this study the clavicle and scapulae were well preserved and represented at all sites, it has previously been reported that the scapulae are poorly preserved due to their fragile nature (Andrews and Bello, 2006). It was observed that the scapulae were often recovered in excellent condition in the younger children (i.e., neonates). This may be due to the size of the body of the scapula and its compact nature during the early stages of development. When it increased in size due to growth, the body becomes more fragile and prone to breakage. Bones of the limbs (i.e., femur, tibia, humerus and ulna) are very well-represented in this current study. The femur is the densest bone in the body and therefore it tends to be well preserved. In this study the ulna was also represented in large numbers, contrary to an earlier study by Andrews and Bello (2006) who reported its under-representation. The frequency of upper limb bones such as the humerus and ulna, maybe due to their burial position in the grave. However, burial position will differ from site to site and period to period. There is a differential pattern of preservation with regard to the smaller bones of the hands and feet. When the bones of the hands and feet are recovered they are usually well preserved, however, in some cases they can be misidentified. These bones are also age-dependent and may not have ossified at the time of recovery or excavation. The metatarsals and metacarpals are generally less well represented, as are the phalanges of the extremities. The carpal bones are not present in perinatal remains, only the hamate is present at 2–4 months and the capitate emerges at around 3-5 months (Scheuer and Black, 2000). The metacarpals and phalanges are present before birth. The phalanges are often unrecognized and classed as “animal bone” instead and, in some circumstances there can also be a difficulty in assigning them as human (Brothwell, 1981; Scheuer and Black, 2000). The talus and calcaneus are present in perinatal remains; these bones are the two largest of the foot bones and are easily recognised. The remaining five bones are present from the age of one year. The fact that they are not present in greater numbers may also be due to loss at excavation and washing. Another bone which is constantly under-represented in both adult and non-adult samples is that of the patella. In the current study it was the least represented bone in all samples. This echoes the finding of Cox and Bell (1999) who also reported the under-representation of the patella in their forensic case study. At birth and the first few years of life, the patella is entirely cartilaginous with it not taking the adult shape until early adolescence (Scheuer and Black, 2000). This could explain why it is difficult to recognise and is less likely to be present in younger individuals. The sacrum, coccyx and sternum are also under-represented; this again may be due to the fact that they are age dependent bones, however, this was taken into account during the analysis. The first segment is normally the most represented part of the sacrum. The coccyx was absent from all samples. The unequal representation of certain bones can be linked to bone mineral density (Manifold, 2013). In a study on bone density in children an increase in density was observed in infants aged less than one year at the proximal, midshaft and distal portions of each of the long bones (Manifold, 2014b). A substantial drop in density was noted at two years of age in the long bones with a gradual increase in later childhood (Manifold, 2014b). It has been suggested that in cases where more dense bones, such as the femur are absent could be due to some form of burial treatment, where bones are selected or removed for burial (Andrews and Bello, 2006). However, the storage and curation of human skeletal assemblages must be also considered, as it is often the case that certain elements get lost over time, which is due to human error and not to preservation (Manifold, 2010). This is particularly the case with older collections, where curation was minimal and non-adults were not always deemed to warrant investigation. Depending on the time period of the collection, the under-representation of certain bone elements may be the result of funerary practices. This is often seen in prehistoric sites, where secondary burial practices took place thus causing elements to be displaced. The sites studied here consisted of medieval cemeteries where burials were complete without any rituals, thus leading to suggestions that any bone loss is due to taphonomic processes and or excavation techniques. Among all sites there is a degree of similarity between the preservation and representation of bones, this suggests that non-adult bones have a specific pattern of preservation regardless of the age, geography and geology (Manifold, 2013). The belief that certain bones will be well-preserved (i.e., skull, femur, humerus) and others not so (i.e., phalanges of the hands and feet), is true in some cases, but is by no means universal

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The state of preservation of skeletal remains can have a direct impact on palaeodemographic studies leading to a bias towards individuals within certain age categories. Bone preservation and taphonomic processes are a major contributing factor in the study and analyses of human skeletal remains of all age groups but is not exclusively the reason as to why children ‘disappear’ from the burial environment; even the most destructive of environments can reveal evidence of burial. The absence of children and in particular perinates and infants should be interpreted as a reflection of cultural practices, not as an indication of poor bone preservation or taphonomy. This study focused on the skeletal remains of children from medieval Britain, children of all ages were present at all sites in varying numbers likely reflecting culturally defined thresholds of the time. Acknowledgements I thank those individuals who kindly allowed access to the skeletal assemblages and unpublished details regarding the sites: Dr. Anne Crone, AOC Archaeology, Sarah Poppy, Cambridge Archaeological unit, Dr Sonia Zakrzewski, Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Elizabeth Walker and Colleagues at the National Museum of Wales, Dr Simon Mays, English Heritage, David Rice, Gloucester City Museum and Dr Louise Loe, Oxford Archaeology. I thank all those who have kindly provided me with published and unpublished reports concerning child burials over the years which contributed to Table 1. Finally, I thank the Editors and anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on a previous draft of this paper. The data for this paper were collected as part of a University of Reading studentship. References Adams, J., Colls, K., 2007. 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