Sketching sounds – Kinds of listening and their functions in designing

Sketching sounds e Kinds of listening and their functions in designing Arne Nyk€anen, Engineering Acoustics, Lule a University of Technology, 971 87 Lule a, Sweden Johnny Wingstedt, Sound and Music Production, Dalarna University, 791 88 Falun, Sweden Johan Sundhage, Klevgr€ and Produktion, Klevgr€ and 1B, 116 46 Stockholm, Sweden Peter Mohlin, Semcon, 417 80 G€ oteborg, Sweden In this work, the use of sketching in sound design was studied. Based on Schon and Wiggins’ model of how designers use sketching to see, move, and see again, we suggest that sound design evolves through a similar process requiring listening, moving, and listening again. This is facilitated by considering sounds as sketches. A case was followed in which six designers were asked to design a sound logotype. Processes and interactions were studied. The results suggest that sound design can be considered as a listen e move e listen process. Sound design is a conversation with sounding material, crucially dependent on listening. To assist in this, a computer interface was developed. Analysis of its use suggests that it supported co-designing. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: sound sketching, design methodology, automotive design, design behaviour, industrial design

I

ndustrial design takes all senses into account in the design of products. However, most literature on product design has focused on vision and visual design and there is a lack of tools for handling product sound in the design process. There are several studies dealing with the design of auditory displays, and general guidelines on the design of auditory displays can be found in, for example, Blattner, Sumikawa, and Greenberg (1989) and Brewster, Wright, and Edwards (1995). In 1986, Gaver wrote the following visionary description of how sound could be imagined to be used in the future:

Corresponding author: Arne Nyk€anen [email protected]

One can imagine how a single sound could be used to give information about a file arriving in a message system. The file hits the mailbox, causing it to emit a characteristic sound. Because it is a large message, it makes a rather weighty sound. The crackle of paper indicates a text file e if it had been a compiled program, it would have clanged like metal. The sound comes from the left and is muffled: The mailbox must be in the window behind the one that is currently on the left side of the screen. And the www.elsevier.com/locate/destud 0142-694X Design Studies 39 (2015) 19e47 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.destud.2015.04.002 Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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echoes sound like a large empty room, so the load on the system must be fairly low. All this information from one sound! (Gaver, 1986) Today, these kinds of sounds can easily be generated in most human-machine interfaces. The limitation does not lie in the generation of the sounds, and the quality of designed signal sounds has become more dependent on creativity and good processes than on technology. There is a need for more research in the perception of sound, especially with a focus on multisensory humanmachine interactions. However, as Easterby stated for the design of visual symbols in machine displays in 1970: The application of psychology to problems of equipment design requires the development of new skills to exploit current knowledge from “pure” research. One aspect which needs attention is the narrowing of the gap between the elucidation of some theoretical principles and their utilization in some practical design task. (Easterby, 1970) The design of signal sounds is today in a similar state of development as the design of visual symbols for machine displays was in the 1970s. In addition to exploiting knowledge from research within psychoacoustics and perception, there is a need for further development of processes and methodologies. This development process can gain from studying the far more developed theories from industrial design.

1

Literature review

Descriptions of the industrial design process are found, for example, in Baxter (1995), Cagan and Vogel (2002), and Ulrich and Eppinger (2004). The processes can be adopted for product sound design without modifications because the process is not dependent on which senses are being designed for. It should be possible, therefore, to identify critical actions in the industrial design process and to use them to develop methods specific to sound design. Sketching has traditionally been considered to be a fundamental tool in the industrial design process (Buxton, 2007; Jonson, 2005; Pearson & Logie, 2015; Tovey, Porter & Newman, 2003). Casakin and Goldschmidt (1999) showed that providing designers with visual displays increased the rated creativity of their design solutions, and Goldschmidt (2003) further referred to sketches as selfgenerated displays. Bilda, Gero, and Purcell (2006) claim that sketching is a learned procedure during design education where architects learn to think with drawings, develop their ideas and solve complex problems with them. Sketches therefore play an essential part in knowledge acquisition and representation.

1.1

The storing sketch, the talking sketch and the thinking sketch

Sketching as an externalisation procedure helps the designer store solutions and reduce memory load. van der Lugt (2005) refers to this as the storing

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sketch. Another function of sketching is sharing ideas and information. Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) refer to this as the talking sketch. A third function is the use of the drawing surface for the designers individual thinking process. Several researchers have proposed varying cyclical models for this kind of re-interpretation that occurs when the designer interacts with the sketch. Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) referred to this as the thinking sketch. Goldsmith (1991) described this as a process where the designer switches between a mode of extracting new meaning from the sketch (seeing as) and a mode of dealing with the design consequences of the newly acquired meaning of the sketch (seeing that). Fisch and Scrivener (1990) describe this as the designer’s need to foresee results of synthesis or manipulation of objects without actually executing the operations. Schon and Wiggins (1992) defined the design work as a seeing e moving e seeing process. The designer first uses a sketch to see a problem, then tries a solution by suggesting a new sketch (moving), then evaluates the solution by visual inspection (seeing). The same process is utilized by a composer or sound designer when working with music or sounds, listening e moving e listening, and sometimes the term “sketch” is used to describe early drafts of music compositions (Knyt, 2010; Williams, 2012). In addition to the important support for the process of the individual designer, sketches play an important role in communication between members of a design team and with clients and decision makers. As already mentioned, Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) refer to this as the talking sketch. van der Lugt (2005) studied how sketching can affect idea generation processes in design group meetings. His conclusion was that idea generation in design group meetings is supported by enhancing access to earlier ideas. In an earlier study, van der Lugt (2000) examined different graphic tools for creative problem solving in groups. He hypothesized that visual expression in creative problem solving meetings would stimulate building on each other’s ideas, and that this would enhance creativity. However, he showed that the positive effect of stimulating building on each other’s ideas by sketching to a large extent was limited by a slowdown of the process, when compared to simply verbalizing the idea. As quantity has been shown to breed quality in creative problem solving (Parnes & Meadow, 1959), aids for problem solving (e.g. sketches) should be assessed with respect to how they affect the idea generation rate. A slowdown of the design process may well counteract benefits like better communication between design team members. Although sketching is fundamental in most design methodology descriptions, there are a few studies questioning the self-evident position sketching has in design. Bilda et al. (2006) presented a think-aloud experiment with expert architects where they showed that there was no significant difference between sketching and not sketching, based on three assessments: design outcome, cognitive load and idea links. They claim that this result shows that sketching

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21

is not an essential activity for expert architects in the early phase of conceptual designing. However, they acknowledge the importance of sketching for offloading the visuo-spatial working memory, and thereby putting less load on the cognitive processes needed to design. Other studies acknowledge the importance of sketching in early stages of design, but emphasise the possible importance of other representations, e.g. speech (Sachse & Hacker, 2012) and texts (Goldsmith & Sever, 2011).

1.2

Kinds of seeing and their functions in designing

Schon and Wiggins (1992) further undertook a thorough analysis of the kinds of seeing in the design process and their functions in designing. They stated that “designing is an interaction of making and seeing, doing and discovering”. They concluded that: (1) Designing must be thought of as designers working in a medium. In their examples, the designers drew on paper. Designers “literally see the evolving products of their work”. (2) The design process “involves several kinds of seeing, all dependent on visual apprehension”, “the construction of figures or gestalts”, “appreciation of qualities”, and “the recognition of intended and unintended consequences of moves”. (3) “As a designer draws, and sees what she has drawn, she makes discoveries.” This yields “an understanding of the problem of the design situation.” “Such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide and stimulate further designing.” (4) “In this sense, designing serves as preparation for further designing.” Schon and Wiggins (1992) further pointed out the following implications of their results: (5) The “notion of designing as an educational process in its own right”. Designing “may be undertaken in order to build improved understandings of systems and structures.” (6) “The hard work of making explicit the discoveries gained through designing may help to make them more readily accessible and more subject to conscious control and choice.” (7) “Finally, the account of designing sketched out above suggests a reinforcement of the architectural design studio’s traditional emphasis on drawing (or other forms of action in visual media) as a means of coming to see things in new ways”. They mean here that this leads to important implications “for the development of computer assistants, or environments, for designing.” When it comes to development of computer environments for designing, they suggest that “research should focus on computer environments that enhance the designer’s capacity to capture, store, manipulate, manage and reflect on what he sees.”

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Similar ideas should be applicable to sound design. Designing sounds should be considered as working in some kind of sounding medium, and designers should be able to listen to the evolving products of their work. The process should involve several kinds of listening that would allow for the construction of gestalts, the appreciation of qualities, and the recognition of intended and unintended consequences of moves. As the designer creates sounds and listens to what she has made, she should be able to make discoveries. This should yield an understanding of the design situation that should inform, guide, and stimulate further designing. Schon and Wiggins (1992) focused on how the individual designer interacts with the pen and the paper. Purcell and Gero (1998) made a thorough literature review of design research dealing with how sketching is used in design, and also reviewed literature in cognitive psychology and cognitive science in an attempt to explain how sketching affects working memory, imagery reinterpretation and mental synthesis, and their implications for design research. They point out the role that sketches play in the individual designer’s reinterpretations, termed ‘seeing as’ (Goldschmidt, 1991), ‘moves’ (Schon & Wiggins, 1992), ‘lateral transformations’ (Goel, 1995) or ‘focus shifts’ (Suwa & Tversky, 1997). In addition, Purcell and Gero (1998) highlight the role of drawing in activities involving thinking, imagery, drawing and reinterpretation throughout the design process. Problem solving consists of a set of cognitive processes which occur in short-term memory. Knowledge relevant to solving a problem are retrieved from long-term memory and used in short-term memory. The short-term memory capacity is limited, and a design problem soon gets too complex for being processed and held in the short-term memory. The problem therefore is broken up into sub-problems, with problem solving occurring incrementally. This process is supported by external memory aids, e.g. written material, drawings, diagrams and sketches. This makes the use of sketches and images an important tool for design problem solving, even though they are not the only tools available for supporting memory and breaking down the design task into sub-tasks.

1.3

Tools for sound sketching

Today, few dedicated tools for sound design exist and the most commonly used tools are designed for music composition and production. These tools allow the composer/designer to interact with the media in a listen e move e listen manner. However, such tools are more complicated than a pen and paper, and this is especially apparent in stages of product design that involve non-experts in sound design, including product development teams, jury groups, and decision makers. Visual sketches on paper or on a computer screen are easily interpreted by all those involved in the design of a product. A seeing e moving e seeing process is utilized not only by an individual designer, as suggested by Schon and Wiggins (1992), but by the whole product design team as a way of interacting and developing ideas and thoughts.

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“Sketching serves as a tool for both thinking and communicating” (Bar-Eli, 2013). Nyk€ anen (2008) and Nyk€ anen, Johnsson, Sirkka, and Johansson (2013) suggested that simple auralizations (analogous to visualizations) could be used as sound sketches, and similar ideas have been expressed by Jansen, € Ozcan, and Van Egmond (2011), Schifferstein and Desmet (2008), € Wingstedt (2008), Wingstedt, Br€ andstr€ om, and Berg (2008), and Ozcan and van Egmond (2008). Moussette (2012) undertook a thorough study of how to utilize sketching of haptics in interaction design. Design of haptics has many similarities with the design of sounds, and the theories and processes used for one modality can in many cases be used for the other. In many applications, interaction design involves both sounds and haptics. Buxton (2007) has described how sketching is used in industrial design and has suggested that a good sketch is quick, timely, inexpensive, disposable, and plentiful; that it has a clear vocabulary, distinct gesture, minimal detail, and appropriate degree of refinement; that it suggests and explores rather than confirms; and that it contains some degree of ambiguity. These characteristics should also be true of sound sketches. The number of sketches early in the product design process should not be limited by cost or effort. Furthermore, the sounds produced are often not interpreted as sketches because sound lacks a vocabulary that communicates that “this is a sketch” in the way visual sketches do. Ekman and Rinott (2010) suggested the use of “vocal sketching”, i.e. using the human voice for making sketches of sound in early stages of product sound design. They stated, “The prerequisite for making informed design decisions is the access to a variety of methodologies to explore the material at hand: the tools that help the designers think, plan, and communicate during the design process. Sketching is a fundamental part of the early design process.” Voice is quick, easy, and highly communicative. A drawback with their method is that vocal sketching is not a neutral tool, and it tends to promote the use of complex, ecological sounds. Participants in their study asked for complementary tools such as sounds made by objects and materials, realtime digital sound processing tools, sound libraries, and sound authoring software.

2

Objective

There seems to be consensus about the importance of sketching in product design, and the idea of sketching in sound design is developing (Ekman & Rinott, 2010; Jansen et al., 2011; Nyk€ anen, 2008; Nyk€ anen et al., 2013; Schifferstein & Desmet, 2008). The objective of this study was to further develop methods and tools for sketching sound and e in a similar manner as Schon and Wiggins (1992) e to explore the kinds of listening involved in the sound design process. The hypothesis was that discussions among design teams would benefit from easy modification of sounds, and this led to the development of a computer interface allowing easy and intuitive manipulation of sounds. The presentation of non-static sounds would communicate to the

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participants that the sounds were sketches with a low degree of completion. Furthermore, the kinds of listening and their functions in designing were studied, both for individual designers and for a design team. Schon and Wiggins (1992) theory of seeing e moving e seeing was developed into an analogous theory of listening e moving e listening. Kinds of listening were explored and their various functions were described. The use of sound sketches for supporting idea generation in sound design group meetings was studied and compared to the studies of graphic tools for creative problem solving by van der Lugt (2000, 2005), and the role of playing and listening for thinking, imagining and reinterpreting throughout the sound design process was compared to Purcell and Gero (1998) analysis of these aspects for design. As a case study, a team designing a sound logotype for a passenger car was followed and studied.

3

Method

The research was performed as a case study described below, and a qualitative analysis was undertaken based on interviews with participants involved in the design process and analysis of audio recordings of design critique sessions (commonly called “crits”, see Dannels, 2005).

3.1

The case

Volvo Car Corporation appointed the project team to design prototypes for a sound logotype for Volvo cars. The sound was supposed to welcome the driver into the car and to contribute to the experience of the brand identity of the car. It was not defined exactly when the sound was to be played. The team was told that it was supposed to be played some time when the driver is approaching the driver seat or during the first moments in the seat. It was also intended for use in other interactions with future car systems, e.g. when logging into interfaces for programming navigation systems, selecting music for the sound system, or engaging with other possible future systems for offeboard interaction with the information and entertainment systems in the car. The sounds were not addressed to a specific car model but were intended to be concepts for possible use in future models.

3.2

The project team

The project team consisted of a sound design team responsible for designing the sounds and a product development team responsible for integration of the sounds in the product (the car). The sound design team consisted of four professional composers specializing in sound production for audio, film, and web applications, and two sound and vibration engineers with experience in car development. The product development team consisted of 12 employees from different departments of the Volvo Car Corporation.

3.3

The sound sketching computer interface

Due to the lack of a common vocabulary for sound sketches, it was important to find other ways to communicate the basic ideas of sketching when sharing

Sketching sounds

25

ideas. Some of the sound designers later expressed in interviews that they do feel that they are sketching as long as they are working alone with the material. The feeling of sketching is also maintained as long as professional sound designers are working together in the studio. However, as soon as something is presented outside the studio, especially to people not familiar with sound design, this feeling of sketching is easily lost. It was, therefore, considered important to communicate that the sounds being presented were sketches. This was done by clear presentations of the basic ideas of sketching. In addition, a computer interface for presenting the sketches was developed by Johan Sundhage. This interface allowed the designers to divide their sketches into two to four tracks (or “stems”) that could be mixed in various ways. In practice, this was done by building the sketches as two to four tracks, each containing different sound properties. Each track could then be faded in the same manner as is conventionally done with a mixer. In the computer interface, this mixer was given a graphic interface that differed from a conventional mixer (Figure 1). The interface consisted of a line, a triangle or a rectangle, for 2, 3, or 4-track representations, respectively. The cross in the figure could be dragged and dropped at any position within the figure, and after dropping it a mix of the 2, 3, or 4 tracks was played. Each corner (or endpoint for the line) represented one of the tracks, and by dropping the cross in a corner this track was played on its own. If the cross was placed within the figure, the tracks were mixed at levels corresponding to the geometrical position of the cross relative to the corners or endpoints of the figure. The hypothesis was that by making the sketches changeable the interface would clearly communicate that the sounds presented were sketches with a low degree of completion. In addition, the preparation of the audio material for the sketches forced the designers to think about which aspects of the sound they wanted to experiment with.

3.4

The sound design and research process

The design and research process followed is shown in Figure 2. Times for the main design and research actions are shown in the figure. Input to the project included written descriptions and a number of verbal attributes defining the Volvo brand identity and a number of mood boards used at Volvo for internal communication of brand identity. The idea was that the given key attributes and mood boards describing the company brand would serve as inputs to an iterative design process based on sound sketching. The sound designers were asked to create sound sketches that would then be discussed in a design crit session with the product development team. Based on the discussions within the design crit session, the designers analysed the responses and modified and created new sound sketches. In this case study this process was iterated twice. The formal way of working with a rather large design team in combination with rigorous documentation made the process slow. In a practical, “non-research” design case we would suggest a less formal way of working and with more and faster iterations.

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Figure 1 Layout of computer interface for a) 2-track, b) 3-track, and c) 4-track sound sketches. The cross could be dragged and dropped at any position within the figure. After dropping it a mix of the 2, 3, or 4 tracks was played mixed at levels corresponding to the geometrical position of the cross relative to the corners (or endpoints for the line). Each corner (or endpoint) represented one sound track

3.4.1

Design sprints

The design strategy used for this case study was inspired by agile development methods (see for example Deuff & Cosquer, 2013). These methods rely on performing rounds of development in successive iterations. The iterations generally last between two and four weeks, and are known as “sprints”. The sprints should be of a fixed duration, and the activities which take place during them are organised in the same way for all the sprints. In this case study two design sprints were ran. Design Sprint 1 lasted for approximately four weeks. Input to Design Sprint 1 was written descriptions, a number of verbal attributes defining the Volvo brand identity, and a number of mood boards used at Volvo for internal communication of brand identity. Output was a number of sound sketches to be used in Design Crit 1. Design Sprint 2 also lasted for approximately four weeks, but due to vacation periods the subsequent Design Crit 2 was postponed. Input to Design Sprint 2 was the feedback from Design Crit 1. Output was sound sketches to be used in Design Crit 2. Each sound designer was assigned 20 working hours per sprint. Conventional music production tools (digital audio workstations and software synthesizers) were used for the creation of the sound sketches.

3.4.2

Design crits

Two design crits (Dannels, 2005; Reimer & Douglas, 2003) were held. In these, the product development team participated. In total, the product development team consisted of 12 participants from different departments of Volvo. Eight of them participated in both design crits. Two representatives from the sound design team participated in both crits. The design crits were audio recorded. The recordings were provided to all designers, and were later used by the authors for analysis. Swedish was used for oral and written communication during the design crits. All participants in the design crits were native Swedish speakers. The task for the first design crit was presented in the following way:

Sketching sounds

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Figure 2 A schematic view of the design and research process

1. An introduction of the design task: To design a sound logotype for a future Volvo car. The sound is supposed to welcome the driver into the car and to contribute to the experience of the brand identity of the car. The sound is supposed to be played at some time when the driver is approaching the driver seat or during the first moments in the seat. It might also be used for other interactions with future car systems, e.g. when logging into interfaces for programming navigation systems, selecting music for the sound system, or other future systems for offeboard interaction with the car’s information and entertainment systems. The sounds are not addressed to a specific car model but intended as concepts for possible use in future models.

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2 An introduction to the requirements of the project. 3 A presentation of Volvo’s internal material for definition of brand identity, including written descriptions and mood boards. 4 An introduction to the basic ideas of sketching. It was made clear that the work was based on sketching, and the characteristics of a sketch were described to all team members using the following attributes selected from Buxton’s list of attributes characterising a good sketch: quick, timely, inexpensive, disposable, and plentiful; having clear vocabulary, distinct gesture, and appropriate degree of refinement; and being suggestive and explorative rather than confirmative (Buxton, 2007). Some graphic sketches demonstrating the vocabulary of visual sketching were also shown. It was made clear that we lack analogous vocabulary for sound sketches and, therefore, it was important to point out to all participants that the sounds played were sketches. They were supposed to work with them. The designers were not expected to deliver finished proposals and the product development team was not expected to just select a favourite. The sound sketches were rather supposed to act as a medium for interactions and the sharing of ideas. 5 The purpose of the design crit was presented: e Consider the sounds as sketches. e We want feedback on the sounds. e Which associations do you get from the sounds? e What can be combined? e Could some sounds be suitable in special contexts? For example, welcoming sounds, when the infotainment system starts up, in an advertisement, etc. e Do we get new ideas about the preferred sounds for a future Volvo car?

Design Crit 1 was conducted according to the following scheme. After the introduction, all sound sketches were presented once and no discussion was allowed. The graphical representation of the sketches is found in Figure 3. In addition to 2-, 3-, and 4-track presentations, some ideas were presented as lists of variants in a more conventional concept selection manner (see Idea 5, 7, 11, 13, 12, and 16 in Figure 3). These were included in order to be able to study how the novel way of graphically communicating the low completion level of the sound sketches affected interactions and responses from the group when compared to a more conventional way of dealing with concept evaluations. In total, 19 ideas were presented. For the 2-, 3-, and 4-track representations, all extremes (the cross in each corner or endpoint) were presented together with an example of a balanced mix between the tracks (the cross in the middle of the figure). The participants were asked to make short written comments about each version of a sound (idea) on a questionnaire. These comments were kept by the participants during the whole design crit session and served to aid their memory during the session. After the session the

Sketching sounds

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Figure 3 Computer interface used to present sound sketches to the product development team in Design Crit 1. The function of the interface is explained in Figure 1

questionnaires were collected and analysed. After having listened to the extremes and the balanced mixes of all of the sketches discussion started. Design Crit 2 followed a similar scheme. After the introduction, all sound sketches were presented once. In total, 23 ideas/sketches were presented (21 geometrical representations as shown in Figure 1 and two lists of variants). However, this time the participants were asked to identify approximately three favourites in addition to making notes on associations and ideas they got when listening to the sketches. The subsequent discussion focused on the most popular sounds. By the end of the session, a final concept was selected.

3.4.3

Interviews

By the end of the project all six sound designers and two of the product development team members were interviewed. The interviews were made over telephone and followed a semi-structured scheme. Both the designers and the product development team members were first asked about their professional

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background, their present work, their professional experience, previous experience in product sound design, and previous experience in music, composition and sound production. Then, they were asked if they thought that experiences from this project will affect their way of working with product sound design in the future, and if some procedures in the project worked particularly well or particularly bad. They were also asked if they thought that the final result would have been better, worse or unaffected if other work procedures would have been used. By the end of the interview, they were asked if the idea of sketching sound, analogous to visual sketching, added values to the sound design process. All interviews were made in Swedish. Five of the designers were native Swedish speakers. One designer was native English speaker but fluent in Swedish. All product development team members were native Swedish speakers.

4

Analysis of design crits and interviews

In the excerpts from the design crits and the interviews shown below, the interviewer is denoted I, the six designers denoted D1 to D6 (D1 to D4 are the four professional composers specializing in sound production for media and D5 and D6 are the two sound and vibration engineers specializing in car development), and the interviewed participants from the product development team are denoted as P1 and P2. The session leader in the design crit sessions is denoted L and the participants in the design crit sessions are denoted C1 to C7. Analysis was made in Swedish. Excerpts cited below have been translated from Swedish to English.

4.1

Sketching sound

Interviews and recordings of design crits were analysed in order to extract the designers’ and the product development team members’ views on sketching of sound.

4.1.1

Did the participants consider the sounds as sketches?

It was found that the product development team members were not accustomed to considering sounds as sketches. This made it difficult or almost impossible to rely on properties of the sound to communicate that the sound was a sketch. However, among professionals the sound itself might be sufficient. Here follows two excerpts from interviews with the professional sound designers supporting this conclusion: Excerpt 1 I: What do you think about the concept of sketching sound? D1: It is difficult to know how a sound sketch will be conceived. It is hard not to listen to the sound in its entirety. I think that maybe you have to explain the purpose of the sketch in advance.

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31

Excerpt 2 I: Was the idea of sound sketching useful? D4: If you are used to working with sounds, I think you can imagine it as a sketch, and you can imagine that it can sound better. If you see a sketch of a painting, you kind of fill in what is missing. I thought that this would work for sounds as well, but it didn’t. A bad sound just sounds bad. It is easier in the world of music. Then a demo is a sketch. For example, you don’t use real guitars, or whatever, but the one who listens can fill it in.

4.1.2

Were the designers familiar with working with sounds as sketches?

The concept of sketching sound was introduced to the designers at the start of the project. In the interviews, the designers were asked whether they had been working with sounds as sketches prior to the project, and if so whether they had used the term “sketching”. Designer 3 said that he uses the term “sketch” when working with other professionals within his area of expertise (music production): Excerpt 3 D3: I use tune sketches or production sketches when I make music. A professional can imagine how it will sound. The one who doesn’t have this ability just concludes that the sound is no good. I feel like we got those kinds of comments from the product development team. In the second round, we made sure the sound sketches were more worked through. I: Production sketch, do you say that? D3: Yes, we do.

As Designer 3 expressed, professional composers and sound designers have a common view on what a production sketch is and can imagine how the final product might sound. However, this did not work in the interaction with the product development team in the studied case. Designer 3 was the only designer who spontaneously used the term sketching. Designer 1, 2, and 4 expressed a way of working that is similar to sketching, but they used the words example, draft, idea, and demo (see Excerpts 2, 4, and 5). Excerpt 4 I: How do you usually work with this type of assignment? D1: You start by creating some examples. Usually the client chooses one of them. You get directives from the client from the start and you try to interpret those directives. They are usually verbal descriptions of feelings. Maybe the client wants a specific instrument. After that it usually goes quite fast.

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Excerpt 5 I: How do you usually work with this type of assignment? D2: You make a draft, an idea, or a couple of ideas. When making film music you make a couple of quick drafts of different concepts. Then the client might give their opinion. Then one sends some sounds back and forth. Then you make the real music. That’s the way I have worked. I: Sketches, is that another word for what you already have done? D2: Yes, kind of. It’s like making much rather than a few perfect things.

4.1.3

Were the sound sketches suitable for communication with the product development team?

Both Designer 3 and 4 expressed that sound designers and music professionals are able to use the sounds as sketches but that this did not work with the product development team. Designer 3 developed his ideas and said that sound professionals have a language for describing sounds that other people do not have (Excerpt 6). He suggested that “sound references” are useful in communication within product development teams and with clients. Excerpt 6 D3: If you work professionally with sound and music, you have another language for describing sounds. I will use many more sound references in the future to try to figure out what kind of sound a client wants. It cannot be described by words. I believe quite strongly in this idea, to make many sounds and then try to pick the best. I also believe in trying to find a way for communication based on the use of reference sounds.

4.1.4

Was the concept of sound sketching useful?

The product development team members and Designer 6 expressed that they found the concept of sound sketching useful. Excerpt 7 D6: It is easy to understand because it is analogous to visual design, just that you call it sound sketches.

Excerpt 8 I: Did the sound sketching concept add any value? P1: Yes, it could be a good idea, that it isn’t a finished sound, but rather an idea, working material.

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Excerpt 9 I: We have called it sound sketches, in analogy with visual sketches. What do you think about this concept? P2: I think it is good. And especially the fact that you have been very clear with pointing out, already from the beginning, that it is sound sketches and that it is OK to say that it does not sound good. The analogy with the visual sketches that you showed was good. You don’t hear that it is a sketch in the same way as you see it.

4.1.5

The thinking sketch, the talking sketch and the storing

sketch The sound sketches seem to have served the same functions as outlined by Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) for visual sketches; storing, talking and thinking. Excerpts 5 and 6 express the use of talking sketches, even though some of the designers expressed the problem of getting clients to understand that the sounds they heard were sketches. Excerpt 10 illustrates how sound sketches were used for talking, as one designer handed over his idea to another designer; thinking, as the individual designer used the sketches for developing his ideas; and storing, as the relay race presupposed the possibility of storing ideas. The whole design process relies to a large extent on the possibility of storing ideas as sound sketches for later use in communication and discussions. Excerpt 10 D2: We also made a relay race, one designer started the sketch and handed over the files to another, who continued, and who then handed them over to a third, etc. It felt good. We will work in that way more in the future. We didn’t plan to communicate orally, but of course we talked. We were sitting in the same room. But we mainly communicated through the sounds, and we didn’t use any written communication. The communication was based on how it sounded.

4.1.6

Sketching sound e summary of the interviews

The interviews illustrate how sound designers and composers work in a listening e moving e listening way similar to the seeing e moving e seeing process suggested by Schon and Wiggins (1992) for describing the workflow of architects and visual designers. Both the designers and product development team members appreciated the use of sound sketches and the analogy with visual sketching. However, several designers expressed the problem with getting all participants in a product design team to understand that the sounds are sketches. It becomes a pedagogic and methodological challenge to establish the idea of sketching in sound design.

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4.2

The process

The concept of sketching sound was introduced in the studied case. However, sound sketches can be used in different ways. For research design purposes, a structured process consisting of two sprints (iterations) was used (Figure 2). It must be noted that this might not be the optimal way of working in real-life projects. Interviews and audio recordings of the two design crit sessions were used for obtaining responses on how processes should be developed in order to support actual projects. The main objections against the process used in the case study were that it was too slow, there were too few iterations, and the interaction between the client (the product development team) and the designers was too formal.

4.2.1

How could the process be made more efficient?

Several comments from both product development team members and sound designers suggested the use of more and faster iterations. One designer expressed that he felt that the structured way of working limited his creativity. Suggestions for real-life projects would, based on these responses, be to use more and faster iterations and to have designers working in a more handson approach together with the client.

4.2.2

Benefits of the process

The main benefits of the process were that both designers and product development team members felt that a lot of ideas were created (Excerpt 11 and 12). Working together in a joint medium encouraged creativity and helped the group arrive at a common opinion (Excerpt 13). Excerpt 11 D1: I haven’t worked in parallel in this way before. There were a lot of ideas being generated, which maybe we didn’t use. I: What was good with this way of working? D1: I got input on my suggestions rather quickly. We got ideas from each other.

Excerpt 12 D3: I liked the relay race [one designer started the sketch and handed over the files to another designer who continued, and then handed over the files to a third, etc.]. It definitely added something. It mixed many persons’ creativity in a very good and concrete way.

Excerpt 13 D4: When you can send the sounds back and forth a number of times you meet [the designer and the client].

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4.3

The medium of sound design

Based on Schon and Wiggins (1992) theory that the design process must be thought of as designers working in a medium and that designers literally see the evolving product of their work, we wanted to investigate whether the design of sounds could also be considered as designers working in some kind of medium, how this medium could be defined, and how the designers could listen to the evolving products of their work. The designers did not express much about their individual use of media and how it influences their design process, but interesting observations were made about how sound media were used for interaction between designers. For example, some designers made a “relay race” where material was handed over from one designer to another for creation of new ideas and for further development (see Excerpts 10 and 12). These comments show the importance of listening in the sound design process. They also show that the use of sounding media is essential for communicating and reflecting upon the material. Designer 2 further said that: Excerpt 14 I: What do you think about the interface? D2: As a designer, I had no use for it. I can imagine the functionality just as well. I think that it would have been good if the people in the product development team could have dragged and dropped the cross themselves. You see it from a different perspective if you can affect the sound yourself.

This comment shows an awareness of the importance of being able to change the material in order to experience it deeply. A conclusion from this is that the medium used for sound design should not be static and that people involved in the design process need to be able to alter the material. In addition to sound, the modes of communication used in sound design can include speech as well as gestures and graphics, as expressed in Excerpt 15. Excerpt 15 D3: You sit together with the computer. You can listen and point: “the thing you made there .” It is very tangible. You can point on the sound graphically. Very useful. We talk and point to the same extent.

Designer 3 further developed his reasoning in Excerpt 6 by pointing out that professional sound designers develop a way to communicate based on the sounds they create, and that the designer will try to communicate with the clients based on the use of reference sounds.

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Our conclusion is that a group of professionals, sound designers in this case, develop their verbal language and are able to communicate using writing or oral communication. However, when people outside this group are involved the need for sound references or sound sketches increases. Designer 6 said that he felt that within the case study the communication between designers and client was too indirect. He suggested that cocreation would promote a faster and better design process (see Excerpt 16). This co-creation is dependent on a medium that allows listening and acting together. Excerpt 16 I: What was bad about the process? D6: I think you should work more directly with the client. Maybe work in sessions and create something together. The delivery will then be immediately confirmed by the client. It happens quite a lot when you are two.

An analysis of the audio recordings of the design crit sessions showed that using a dynamic medium like the computer interface in the project encouraged co-designing. Participants in the design crits were allowed to listen to different parts of the sounds, and discussions about which aspects were important, and to which degree they should be mixed, were taking place. For example: Excerpt 17 C1: I think that C is the one that contained the warmth in the sound and, therefore, I would like to drag it more in that direction. And in another sound sketch: Excerpt 18 [Corner A is played.] C2: It has too much pulse. [Corner B and Corner C are played sequentially.] C2: There the pulse almost disappeared. C3: B was a good combination. C4: Play it with the marker in the middle again. C5: Between the middle and B. Halfway. [The sound is played with the marker halfway between the middle and Corner B.] Several participants: mmm, yes, mmm.

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The two examples above demonstrate that giving participants on a design team a medium with which they can listen to and change the sounds will lead to co-designing. This is analogous to the interaction of a group of people sketching together on a piece of paper or on a whiteboard. Participants in the design process need to be able to listen to the evolving product of their work in order to appreciate qualities and recognize intended and unintended consequences of moves.

4.4

Kinds of listening

According to Schon and Wiggins (1992) theories, the design process involves several kinds of seeing including “the construction of figures or gestalts”, “the appreciation of qualities”, and “the recognition of intended and unintended consequences of moves”. We studied whether analogous kinds of listening could be identified in sound designers’ work.

4.4.1

Construction of gestalts

There was only one comment in the interviews that could be coupled to the construction of gestalts. This was from Designer 1 who said that it is hard not to listen to the entirety when listening to sound sketches (Excerpt 1). This comment shows the importance of being aware of the human tendency to group sounds into a gestalt. If sketches are to be used for working with details, then the purpose of the sketch must be properly explained.

4.4.2

Appreciation of qualities

Several comments from both designers and product development team members concerned the appreciation of qualities and how this relies to a large extent on listening (see Excerpts 16, 19, and 20). Excerpt 19 I: What do you think about the interface? D4: For us it felt a bit static because we sit and work with the sounds. But it was fun handing it over to the client so that the one who listens to the sound can influence it. The interface was mostly a presentation tool. A pedagogic thing. Because one could move around between the nodes, one could get an idea of the individual parts that make up a sound. This is something that you maybe don’t think of when the marker is in the middle.

Excerpt 20 D5: The music production tools are good. There are a lot of pre-made synth voices that other people have judged to be interesting. If it is almost right, you can play around with the sound’s properties.

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4.4.3

Recognition of unintended consequences of moves

No comments from the designers concerned their own recognition of unintended consequences of moves. However, some comments showed an awareness of the importance of listening for the product development team members to discover new aspects of a sound (Excerpts 14 and 19).

4.5

Stimulating further designing

Schon and Wiggins (1992) stated that “as a designer draws, and sees what she has drawn, she makes discoveries” and that this yields “an understanding of the problem of the design situation”. They further wrote that “such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide and stimulate further designing”. This theory should also be applicable to sound design. As a sound designer creates sounds, and listens to what she has made, she makes discoveries. This process yields an understanding of the problem of the design situation. Such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide, and stimulate further designing, and this theory is supported by some comments from the designers. For example, Designer 1 said that there were a lot of ideas being generated all the time, and further designing was stimulated by listening to sounds from each other (see Excerpt 11). Designer 3 said that the relay race “definitely added something” and that it “mixed many persons’ creativity” (see Excerpt 12). He further pointed out the benefit of using combinations of auditory, verbal, and graphical representations of the creation in order to share and develop ideas (see Excerpt 15). Designer 5 pointed out that music production tools contain lots of pre-made sounds that other people have judged to be interesting. Listening to these sounds stimulates further designing (see Excerpt 20). Designer 6 also highlighted co-creation and suggested that new designs can be stimulated by the designer and the client working together.

4.6

The computer interface

The computer interface was developed as a tool to facilitate the involvement of the product development team in the sound design process and as a pedagogic tool that clearly communicates that the sounds being played are sketches that will be modified. One part of this study was to evaluate how well this interface worked. The excerpts highlighted in Section 4.3 show that the interface facilitated co-designing and that it allowed the participants to listen to the evolving product of their work. After the project was finished, both the designers and the product development team members were asked about their experience with the interface. The designers said that the interface added the possibility of leaving parts of the design open and to choose which aspects of the sound should be highlighted by making them adjustable (see Excerpts 19 and 21). Excerpt 21 I: What do you think about the interface? D1: I liked it.

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I: Did you use it within the design team? D1: I composed with the parts for the interface in mind. I think the interface added something to the composing. There are always many ways to go. The interface allows leaving it open.

A comment from one of the product development team members confirmed that the ability to highlight the parts that make up a sound attracted the attention of the participants: Excerpt 22 P1: I think the arrangement worked well. It was clear what should be considered. It was clear that there were different parts or components in the different sounds.

It was also clear that the sound designers thought that this functionality was already available to them in standard music production tools. It was when they handed the sound sketches over to the product development team that they realized that the interface added something of value (see Excerpts 14 and 19).

4.7

The road to a winning sound design

Designer 6, who designed the sound sketch that was selected as the final concept, was asked to write a short report of the road to the winning sound design. He identified “correct interpretation of the feedback from the design crits” as crucial. He mentioned that “numerous sketches could be considered to be converging toward the design targets”, and he based his design on feedback from Design Crit 1. Designer 6 identified two responses from the product development team to be crucial to the final design. The first was not to use acoustic instruments and the second was to use rhythms. These were not literal requirements from the product development team, but rather an interpretation by the designer. He said, “There was a general interest in percussion instruments and rhythmical sound sketches.” Some of the sound sketches that used acoustic instruments were not deemed suitable. When directly questioning the product development team, they responded that too much guitar and piano were used. The design was based on the list of verbal attributes provided by Volvo. From this list, seven attributes were selected. In addition, three attributes coming from Design Crit 1 were added. Some of them gave suggestions about the sound’s rhythm and some about the timbre. Some attributes led the designer to associate with a pulse or heartbeats, but instead of using recordings of actual heartbeats a synthesized bass drum was used. The designer stated that this ensured a “modern” and “futuristic” feel, and that this was desirable because the sounds were developed for future cars. Neither the instructions

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from Volvo nor the product development team literally required the sounds to be modern and futuristic, but in Design Crit 1 some sounds were judged to be “outdated” and one participant wanted the sound to be “high-tech, without being inhuman”. This was interpreted as a wish to be “modern” and “futuristic” by the designer. These suggestions led the designer to make associations with crystal, winter, something clear and glass-like. A sound with a glassy and crystalized feeling was designed by using rich high-frequency modulations and “a long hollow-sounding tail”. This sound was supported by a synthesized background sound concentrated in the midrange, with a long reverberating tail, making it sound cold and winterish. The rhythm and the timbres were combined in the final mix. The designer’s description of how the sound was created in combination with the analysis of the recordings of Design Crit 1 suggest that some kind of auditory medium is required throughout the designing of sounds. Designers as well as decision-makers, such as the product development team, must be able to listen to the work evolving in order to proceed. The recognition of the intended and unintended consequences of moves is essential. As the sound designer makes and shares sounds, an understanding of the design situation emerges and the designer and the decision-makers make discoveries. As Schon and Wiggins (1992) stated, such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide, and stimulate further designing. Successful sound design is crucially dependent on tools and processes that allow these kinds of discoveries and co-creations.

5

Summary of the analysis

The findings from the analysis of the interviews with the designers and product development team members and the audio recordings of the design crit sessions were compared with Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) theories about the thinking, talking and storing sketches and Schon and Wiggins (1992) observations of the kinds of seeing in the design process (see the introduction): (1) Designing must be thought of as designers working in a medium. Designers “literally see the evolving products of their work” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). This observation of the use of sketches corresponds to the thinking sketch. The designers did not express much about their individual use of media. However, interesting observations were made about how different media were used for interactions between designers (see Section 4.3). It was found that listening is crucial in the sound design process. Sounding media are essential for communicating and reflecting upon the material. Designers showed an awareness of the importance of being able to change the material in order to experience it more deeply. The proper medium promotes co-creation. Based on this, we consider sound designing to be designers working in a medium and that sound designers literally hear the evolving product of their work.

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(2) The design process “involves several kinds of seeing, all dependent on visual apprehension”, “the construction of figures or gestalts”, “appreciation of qualities”, and “the recognition of intended and unintended consequences of moves” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). There was only one comment related to the construction of gestalts in listening, and this comment was about the difficulty of focusing on details and disregarding the sound as a gestalt (see Section 4.4). However, several comments showed an awareness of the influence that media and interfaces have on the appreciation of qualities. No comments concerned designers’ own recognition of intended or unintended consequences of moves. However, some comments showed an awareness of the importance of listening and cocreation for the product development team members’ discoveries of new aspects of sound. Based on this, we consider the sound design process to involve different kinds of listening, much of which is dependent on aural apprehension. (3) “As a designer draws, and sees what she has drawn, she makes discoveries”. This yields “an understanding of the problem of the design situation”. “Such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide and stimulate further designing” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). There were several comments about how the listening-based procedures stimulated further designing (see Section 4.5). For example, “There were a lot of ideas being generated”, “We got ideas from each other”, “It mixed many persons’ creativity in a very good and concrete way”. This suggests that a sound designer creates sound, listens to what has been created, and makes discoveries. This yields an understanding of the problem and the design situation. Such discoveries are outputs from designing that inform, guide, and stimulate further designing. These processes occur both in the individual work of one designer (the thinking sketch), and in interaction between designers and other people (the talking sketch). Processes for interaction require storing of sketches. (4) “In this sense, designing serves as preparation for further designing” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). This is also the case for sound design. In Section 4.5, comments from the sound designers show an awareness of designing as preparation and input for further designing. This was true for the individual designer, but was particularly the case in the communication among designers and between designers and product development team members. From this, we would like to point out the same implications as Schon and Wiggins (1992).

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(5) The “notion of designing as an educational process in its own right”. Designing “may be undertaken in order to build improved understanding of systems and structures” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). Designing sounds should be an obvious part of interaction design education. Human-machine interactions are multisensory, and without designing sounds, tactile sensations, smells, etc., a more thorough understanding for how systems and structures work and can be designed will not be gained. (6) “The hard work of making explicit the discoveries gained through designing may help to make them more readily accessible and more subject to conscious control and choice” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). This applies as well to sound design. There are different ways of making the discoveries gained through the design process more explicit. This case study has highlighted the need for listening during the process in order to promote co-creation both among designers and product development team members. It has also highlighted the need for tangible tools for listening to, talking about, and pointing at sounds. (7) “Finally, the account of designing sketched out above suggests a reinforcement of the architectural design studio’s traditional emphasis on drawing (or other forms of action in visual media) as a means of coming to see things in new ways” (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). The observations from the present study suggest a reinforcement of the sound design studio’s emphasis on creating sounds and listening. This is essential for thinking about sounds at an individual level (the thinking sketch) and for collaboration and co-creation (the talking sketch). Development of designs requires storing of ideas (the storing sketch). Practice has developed and is established for industrial design and architecture. However, there are no traditional ways of working with product sounds. There is a need for the development of both procedures and tools that facilitate listening during the design process. Current music production tools are useful for professional sound designers, but tools for interaction within development teams need to be further developed. The computer interface designed in this study was found to be useful in this interaction. Co-creation and interaction within the team was encouraged by using the interface.

6

Conclusions

The use of sound sketches for thinking about sounds, talking about sounds and storing sounds was explored. Further, the kinds of listening involved in designing of sounds were studied. The analysis was based on Ferguson (1992) and van der Lugt (2005) ideas about the thinking sketch, the talking sketch and the storing sketch, and on Schon and Wiggins (1992) analysis of

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the kinds of seeing and their functions in designing. The following definitions of the kinds of listening and their functions in designing were made: (1) Sound designing must be thought of as sound designers working in a medium. Sound designers literally hear the evolving product of their work. (2) The sound design process involves several kinds of listening, all dependent on aural apprehension. (3) As a sound designer creates sounds, and listens to what she has created, she makes discoveries. This yields an understanding of the problem of the design situation. Such discoveries are outputs of designing that inform, guide, and stimulate further designing. (4) Designing serves as preparation for further designing (Schon & Wiggins, 1992). (5) Sound designing might be undertaken in order to improve the understanding of systems and structures. In interaction design education, designing sounds, tactile sensations, smells, etc. is crucial for learning how systems and structures work and can be designed. (6) Listening while designing sounds help to make discoveries readily accessible and more subject to conscious control and choice. There is a need for tangible tools for listening to, talking about, and pointing at sounds. (7) The observations above suggest a reinforcement of the sound design studio’s emphasis on creating sounds and listening. Procedures and tools that facilitate listening during the design process need to be developed. Current music production tools are useful but can be complemented with tools for interaction and co-creation within product development teams. One example of such a tool is the computer interface developed here that was found to work for facilitating involvement of product development team members in the design of sounds. It also worked as a pedagogic tool that clearly communicated that the sounds being played were sketches, i.e. working material. The interface facilitated co-designing and it allowed the participants to listen to the evolving product of their work. The designers expressed that the interface added the possibility to leave parts of the design open and to choose which aspects of the sound should be highlighted by making them adjustable. To conclude, we consider sound design to be a conversation with sounding material that is critically dependent on listening. The sound designer listens, moves, and listens again, and using sound sketches facilitates this process. Sound designers might use conventional music production tools in this process. However, because other people are involved in the design process, tools and methods that support a listening e moving e listening process must be developed. The presented computer interface is one example, and analysis of its use suggests that it supported co-designing. The development of tools and procedures for product sound design can gain from drawing upon theories and observations from previous design research. Sound sketches can have

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different functions, e.g. for supporting thinking about sounds, talking about sounds and storing sounds (Ferguson, 1992; van der Lugt, 2005). Further, sketching is not always appropriate. There are occasions when the positive effect of stimulating building on each other’s ideas to a large extent may be limited by a slower process, for example when moving from verbal communication to communications using sketches (van der Lugt, 2000). Quantity has been shown to breed quality (Parnes & Meadow, 1959), so processes encouraging plurality should be promoted. It has been shown that designers are able to create good concepts without sketching under certain conditions (Bilda et al., 2006). However, sketching is often important for off-loading working memory and putting less load on cognitive resources needed to design. Other representations, e.g. speech and texts have been acknowledged as important, especially in early stages of design (Goldsmith & Sever, 2011; Sachse & Hacker, 2012). This should apply also to product sound design. We suggest taking these theories into consideration when developing tools and methods for product sound design. Praxis will develop as design of sounds will become a natural part of human-machine interfaces. We hope that this paper will contribute to merging some theories and observations from previous design research into the product sound design praxis of the future.

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