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Social media: A new vehicle for city marketing in China
Cities 37 (2014) 27–32
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Cities journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
Social media: A new vehicle for city marketing in China Lijun Zhou a,b, Tao Wang a,⇑ a b
Economics and Management School, Wuhan University, Wuhan City, Hubei Province 430072, China Economics School, Kunming University, Kunming City, Yunnan Province 650214, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 19 May 2013 Received in revised form 19 November 2013 Accepted 20 November 2013 Available online 6 December 2013 Keywords: Social media Microblog City marketing City branding China
a b s t r a c t Following global trends, cities, like companies, across the world are under fierce competitive pressure. To compete and promote city brands, various levels of Chinese governments have begun to integrate multiple marketing tactics to promote cities. Social media has gained global popularity since 2008. Utilizing social media for city marketing is being applied in the Chinese cities. This paper introduces the application of social media for city marketing in Chinese cities. Based on several cases of social media use for city marketing in major Chinese cities (e.g., Guangzhou, Chengdu and Nanjing), this paper suggests that using social media is an appropriate tactic to promote cities because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature of social media. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction Following the development of internet information technology, the development of social media has transformed the communication styles of billions of people. Through internet and mobile technology, social media has fulfilled the need for increased interaction between organizations, firms and people. Social media is ideal because it reflects participative, interactive, open and transparent attributes (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009; Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Mayfield, 2007; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010). Because of the large number of users and the rapid propagation of social media, more organizations and businesses have recently begun to explore the potential marketing capacity of social media. Cities, like companies and products, have their own target customers (i.e., investors and visitors) (Cao, 2011). Cities can utilize a marketing mix to promote themselves (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005; Kotler, Asplund, Rein, & Heider, 1999). Generally, the primary players in city marketing are local governments, residents, and firms (Cao, 2011). The traditional measures employed in city marketing include TV, radio, newspaper, magazines and mega events (i.e., tourism festivals and sports events) (Levinson, 2011). These approaches share information through the vertical transmission system imposed by governmental departments (Mu, 2013). However, traditional media is a one-way transmission platform ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Economics and Management School, Wuhan University, Bayi Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan City, Hubei Province 430072, China. Tel.: +86 13807168884. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Zhou), [email protected] (T. Wang). 0264-2751/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.11.006
that lacks participation, efficient feedback and communication from and among stakeholders, including city residents, local firms and other players in cities. Since 2009, microblogs have become immensely popular in China. On August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that, under the concept of ‘‘Microblog for all people’’, official government microblogs were in a stage of rapid development. It was also reported that Guangzhou City, the capital city of Guangdong Province, opened a new stage of ‘‘Microblog-Governance’’. To promote the city’s image, Hangzhou City, the capital city of Zhejiang Province, highlighted the interaction between city government and customers using an official microblog (Xinhuanet, 2012). On January 18, 2013, the Chinese Ifeng website stated that Nanjing City, the capital city of Jiangsu Province, had integrated microblog, microfilms and online mobile App games for city branding (Ifeng., 2013). The widespread popularity of social media has resulted in more and more Chinese cities employing social media (e.g., official city microblogs, city tourism websites, city BBS websites) to establish city brands and promote city images. To satisfy the needs of urban customers and build city brand identification, social media can prove advantageous in city marketing. What is the current state of social media utilization in city marketing, given the rapid development of social media in China? What are the specific social media marketing practices employed by Chinese cities? What are the challenges to social media integration into city marketing? This paper explores the current social media practices employed as marketing tactics in Chinese cities. Based on the analysis of current social media practices in China, this paper suggests the appropriate utilization of social media to provide advantages in city marketing. Although social media provides a convenient
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dialogue platform for the general public to participate and express opinions on city promotion and improvement, city marketing cannot ignore online public opinions. How to effectively manage and direct online public opinion to mainstream city marketing practices remains an important challenge for cities. This paper is structured as follows. The first section reviews the current literature on both social media and city marketing. Based on current research, the next section introduces the present city marketing applications of social media in Chinese cities. Several typical cases of social media application in the main Chinese cities, such as Guangzhou, Chengdu and Nanjing cities, are reviewed. The final section discusses and suggests future research for the utilization of social media to address city marketing matters.
feedback from the general public (Xu, 2010). There are three social media strategies used in the public sector (Mergel, 2010). In addition to traditional internet-based methods, a ‘‘push strategy’’ creates an additional information platform to announce information to the public. To avoid the loss of control on information, a ‘‘pull strategy’’ attracts the audience to the formal and comprehensive official government department websites (Mergel, 2010). The last strategy, called ‘‘networking strategy’’, highlights the interaction between the public sector and common social media users (Mergel, 2010). Currently, the ‘‘networking strategy’’ has seen limited use for public sector issues (Mergel, 2010). There are more practical social media marketing tactic cases than studies of city marketing.
City marketing Social media Social media is an interactive community built on internet and mobile platform technology (referred to as Web 2.0). It is a technological platform that allows people to write, share, evaluate and discuss content that creates User Generated Content (UGC) (Cao, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009; Mayfield, 2007). Social media fulfills the need for interactive dialogue among organizations, communities and people. It embodies participative, interactive, open and transparent attributes (Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Wang, 2012; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010; Yu, 2011). The term ‘‘social media’’ appeared in the 1990s, based on the development of computer and internet technology. It has gained global popularity since 2008 (Cao, 2011). It is also referred to as ‘‘new new media’’, to differentiate social media from the other two types of media (Levinson, 2011). As Levinson summarizes, ‘‘old media’’ includes TV, newspapers and magazines. These types of media highlight the top-down control approach; they are produced and managed by professionals. The second type is called ‘‘new media’’, which includes email, websites, online message boards, chat rooms, etc. As a result of internet technology, ‘‘new media’’ transcends the time and space of ‘‘old media’’. Finally, ‘‘new new media’’ includes blogs and microblogs (e.g., Twitter), Wikis (e.g., Wikipedia), picture sharing sites (e.g., Flickr) and video sharing websites (e.g., YouTube), BBS (e.g., Tianya in China), SNS (e.g., Facebook, MySpace) and internet communities (e.g., Maopu in China) (Cao, 2011; Levinson, 2011). Because the users are not media professionals, all of the information and resources from social media are free for users (Cao, 2011; Levinson, 2011). Additionally, although ‘‘old media’’ cannot be replaced by social media because all of the information is free, social media remains an economical tool for promoting brands (Wigmo & Wikström, 2010). Word-of-mouth marketing through social media can significantly affect consumer behavior (Chen, 2012). More specifically, the 21st century is a new era of technology experiencing an explosion of internet-based messages transmitted through social media (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). Social media has played a major role in influencing consumer behavior, providing awareness, information acquisition, opinions, attitudes, purchase behavior, post-purchase communication and evaluation (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). As a result of the robust development of social media, more companies and professionals have begun to explore the marketing capacity of social media. Social media strategies have been widely utilized in the studies and practices of companies, brands and public sector marketing (e.g., Chen, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Yang, 2012; Yu, 2011; Zhang, 2011; Zhao, 2010). Currently, several researchers are applying social media strategies to public sector administration (e.g., Mergel, 2010; Xu, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012). Social media provides opportunities for policy makers (Xu, 2010). Governments can employ social media as a dialogue platform to publicly discuss policies, share thoughts of decision makers and receive efficient
The promotion of urban places can be traced back to the 19th century (Ward, 1998). Today, sharp competition among cities motivates city governments to utilize marketing methods for city promotion. Promoting a place using marketing approaches is both an additional method for the public sector to manage places and a principle of place management (Ashworth & Voogd, 1994). Like other entities, such as firms, products and services, cities can also employ marketing tactics for specific target markets (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005). City marketing, or place marketing, is a process of planning and designing cities to satisfy the needs of city customers, also called city target markets (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005; Kotler et al., 1999). The primary players in city marketing implementation are local governments, firms and residents (Cao, 2011; Guo & Liu, 2006; Qiu, 2005). City governments take the lead role in promoting cities, enabling the cooperation of all governmental departments, such as tourism, public relations and economic development. However, the power of local firms cannot be ignored because they also directly benefit from the city marketing process (Cao, 2011). City residents may include present political celebrities, entrepreneurs, notable researchers and scientists who can also contribute to city marketing (Ashworth & Voogd, 1988; Guo & Liu, 2006; Qiu, 2005; Zhao, 2010). Similar to firms and organizations, a city has its own customers who are the stakeholders directly and indirectly benefiting from city marketing (Kotler et al., 1999; Qiu, 2005). The city customers include city visitors, investors, potential residents and other related organizations and institutions (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kotler et al., 1999; Qiu, 2005). City products consist of the city environment (e.g., political, economic, cultural and residential environment), facilities (e.g., infrastructure, public transportation and medical facilities), brands and images (e.g., city brand, government image) and human resources (e.g., talent and labor force) (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Qiu, 2005; Zhao, 2010). As one of a city’s products, the city brand can be a vital element in distinguishing one city from other competitive cities (Guo & Liu, 2006). In addition, city branding can contribute to the image of a specific city (Zhao, 2010). A branding strategy can establish a product or service as an exclusive identity, with a mix of functional and symbolic characteristics (Hankinson & Cowking, 1993). The city brand can thus be defined as the core identity that integrates the geographical, natural, historical, cultural and industrial attributes. The city brand provides a conscious, reliable commitment to city customers to enhance the city image (Trueman, Klemm, Giroud, & Lindley, 2001; Zhang & Zhang, 2006; Zhao, 2010). City branding is thus one of a few widely used city marketing strategies to strengthen the relationship between a city and its customers and establish a good image of the city among its customers (Kavaratzis, 2004). In general, city branding should convey both the intentions of city authorities and the experiences of common people (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). Consequently, city branding, as one of the city
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marketing vehicles, must establish a long-term relationship with its customers and promote the identification. Social media provides a bilateral beneficial vehicle for mutual communication between a city and its customers, and it allows customer participation in city marketing campaigns because of its participative, interactive, open and transparent nature (Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Wang, 2012; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010; Yu, 2011). Numerous city marketing studies have focused on specific areas of economic activity, such as tourism, retailing, cultural activities and sporting events (Hankinson, 2004). For example, Beijing was promoted as a tourism destination and utilized the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games mega-event to create a city brand (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). However, there is less robust research on combining both city marketing and social media tactics for city promotion. Although there are some references that explore social media strategies in the public sector (e.g., Chen & Cao, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012), few scholars have focused on social media applied to city marketing or city branding.
Social media for city marketing cases Traditionally, the primary players in city promotion are the municipal departments, such as the News and Tourism sectors (Qiu, 2005). In the past, these city marketing participants generally utilized traditional media (e.g., TV, magazines and newspapers, etc.) as part of the city marketing mix to promote cities (Sun, 2004). For example, there are numerous city advertisements, such as city image videos and mega-event publicity that are frequently broadcast using traditional media. These approaches can increase the popularity of cities but at a high cost and with limited feedback from the audience (Cao, 2011). Traditional media provides oneway communication between cities and customers; the lack of interaction and participation during the communication is a barrier for city marketing (Cao, 2011). Additionally, because of time and space limitations, traditional media reduces the effect and width of propagation (Zhang, 2011). Although the city government or other official departments can also employ ‘‘new media’’ (e.g., official websites and email) to develop a city marketing mix that enhances the openness and transparency of city marketing, it remains a government-lead marketing approach that lacks interaction and participation from other shareholders (e.g., local firms, communities and the general public). Unlike traditional media, social media fulfills a ‘‘public–private partnership’’ approach for city marketing that enables a more interactive and participative platform. Social media enhances satisfaction and identification of city customers because its content is generated by both governmental agencies and any common user (Xu, 2010). Social media can also fulfill the need for a two-way communication vehicle to promote the ‘‘products’’ and ‘‘services’’ of cities, unlike a one-way promotion method (Zhao, 2010). Because of the large number of information categories users can access, social media significantly increases the network exposure and awareness of a city, without the limitations of time and space (Cao, 2011). These social media strengths allow for a multi-network system of city marketing at a relatively reasonable budget. Thus, compared with traditional media, social media can expand the influence of city customers in city marketing because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature of social media. Currently, there are 300 million social media users in China. The social media registration rate of Chinese urban residents is approximately 95% (McKinsey, 2012). One survey conducted in 2012 indicated that 91% of the Chinese interviewees had logged onto social media in the past six months, compared with 30% in Japan, 67% in the USA and 70% in South Korea (McKinsey, 2012). These
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social media users have enabled China to become the largest social media network in the world (Chen, 2012). According to Ogilvy China (2011), there are three new categories of social media in China: ‘‘Groupon’’ (e.g., Meituan and Manzuo websites), ‘‘Q&A’’ (e.g., Tianya and Baidu Q&A) and ‘‘More Tencent’’ (one of the powerful social media companies in China producing popular social media software, such as the mobile chat application ‘‘WeChat’’) (Chen, 2012). All of these ‘‘new new media’’ have capacity to handle the thriving development of social media in China. In that paper, Chen also indicated that the coverage rate of microblogs is up to 97%, followed by 70% for SNS (Social Network Site) and 10% for LBS (Location Based Service) in China. This indicates that the microblog is the most popular type of social media in China. Microblogs in city marketing The widespread use of microblogs, with a nearly 97% coverage rate of 300 million users, provides marketing opportunities for firms, organizations and governments at various levels (McKinsey, 2012). As an important information communication platform, microblogs have played a major role in the daily life of the Chinese people (Chen & Cao, 2012). An increasing number of specialists and professional organizations are exploring the potential marketing capacity of microblogs. In western countries, Twitter (microblog) and Facebook (social network site) are often utilized by business and government, as exemplified by the social media strategy of the London 2012 Olympic Games. However, ‘‘Weibo’’, a Chinese microblog platform that integrates the functions of both Twitter and Facebook, is more popular than Twitter and Facebook in China (Chen & Qiu, 2013). This advanced microblog, launched by famous Chinese web portals (e.g., Sina and Sohu), fulfills the need for an interactive and vivid communication platform for users to upload and share pictures, videos and music; it provides services for discussions, virtual meetings and instant message sharing (Chen & Qiu, 2013). On August 2, 2012, during the London 2012 Olympic Games, the CNN website reported ‘‘Forget Twitter, in China it’s the Weibo Olympics’’, proving the popularity of microblogs in China (CNN, 2012). In China, various levels of Chinese city government opened their own official microblogs using the multi-functional Chinese ‘‘Weibo’’ platform. These Chinese government microblogs have produced an interactive microblog network to market Chinese cities with a tremendous propagation effect. Microblogs labeled with the name of a Chinese city have been particularly successful. They have attracted fans and promoted the overall image of cities with advertising and the promotion of full-scale city information, including city news, scenery, foods and other sources. ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’ is a typical example that incorporates a city name; it has gained nearly 4 million fans since March 2012 (Wei Chengdu, 2013). Since 2011, the Chinese ‘‘Weibo’’ platform for city marketing has also enabled some foreign government users, such as the Korean Tourism Organization and the Singapore Tourism Bureau, to open their own official Chinese microblogs to promote their cities (Zhang, 2013). The pervasive utilization of the ‘‘Weibo’’ platform has enabled a microblog network to market both Chinese and foreign cities in China. Social media’s participative, interactive, open and transparent nature has created an effective channel for city marketing, particularly for implementing a city branding strategy to build city uniqueness and commitment among its customers. Sun (2004) suggested that there are two types of tactics for city branding. One tactic involves constructing the overall brand image of a city that integrates the political, economic, cultural and natural factors to define core city advantages. Another tactic is to build the tourism brand as a functional tactic to promote the exclusive tourism attractions (e.g., natural scenery, cultural customs) of a city (Sun, 2004). Social media provides the platform to build and promote
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the overall brand image of a city. The government image also contributes to the city image; numerous city government microblogs promote the images of both the government and the city (Wang, 2012). Therefore, government microblogs interactively implement an e-governance strategy using the popular and ‘‘people first’’ method by building a professional full-scale information platform to present the new look and overall brand image of the city (e.g., redevelopment conditions, mega-events, news of city, etc.). Social media also establishes the tourism brand of a city by promoting the city as a tourism destination (Yu, 2013). Microblogs, along with other types of social media, such as SNS (social network site), LBS (location based on service) and review (i.e., online comments) websites, can facilitate the tourism brand of a city. The unique UGC created from social media creates a platform for city customers, particularly visitors and tourism investors, to acquire and share information about a city. Microblogs for launching e-governance platforms Since 2009, microblogs have grown in popularity in China. After two years of development, 2011 was called ‘‘The year of MicroblogGovernance’’ in China. The number of government microblogs reached 20,000 (McKinsey, 2012). On October 22, 2012, the Chinese People website calculated that the number of governmental microblog changed to 50,561 in 2012, increasing nearly 776.58% since 2011 (People, 2012). Government microblogs are launched, managed and owned by various governmental departments. They are the new communication and dialogue-oriented platforms connecting the public sector and the general public. The popularity of government microblogs can be attributed to three factors (Chen & Cao, 2012). First, governments can employ a microblog to interactively communicate with the general public. Second, because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature, UGC can be a suitable source for the government to collect public opinion (Chen & Cao, 2012). Third, the microblog government–citizen interaction can influence government decisions. The general public can participate in policy decisions and provide recommendations or suggestions for the government through the microblog. The public can even receive a timely response from specific government departments (Xu, 2010). A microblog is also a channel in which a government can publicize its image. Hence, the government microblog is a new e-governance approach for Chinese governmental departments to market themselves (Zhao & Yin, 2012). Numerous Chinese governmental agencies have recently launched official microblogs to pursue public-friendly images. For example, on August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that Guangzhou launched the Guangzhou official microblog. It was also reported that Kunming, the capital city of Yunnan Province in southwest China, highlighted local ecotourism in its official microblog. To promote a good image, Kunming utilized the official city microblog to fulfill the interaction needs of the city government and the general public (Xinhuanet, 2012). On August 7, 2012, the Xinhuanet announced that the official microblog of Chengdu, the capital city of Sichuan Province, provided aspects of city news to the public, which enabled this microblog to become the most popular government microblog in China (Xinhuanet, 2012). The city image is a reflection of the city government’s image. Through a microblog, a city government can maintain and improve upon good relationships with the general public and promote an advantageous city image to its visitors, investors and other potential customers. To some extent, microblog utilization has changed the traditional promotional approach of cities. As a social media tool for the public sector, a microblog is both an official information publishing platform and a networking vehicle that connects a city with its customers and other cities (Chen & Cao, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012).
Microblogs to promote the city brand platform As discussed above, a government microblog is an interactive platform for city government and general public communication. To promote a favorable government image, a microblog also affords a wide range of applications to promote the city brand. The city brand is an identity with both functional and symbolic aspects (Hankinson & Cowking, 1993). Because of the convenience, speed and economic advantages, some Chinese cities have advertised their city brand through microblogs. For example, Chengdu named its official city microblog as ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’; it presents an information platform of cultural, historical, geographic and other city characteristics for public audiences. For ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’, a high microblog forwarding rate among its visitors has resulted in a wide transmission of the Chengdu brand (Wei Chengdu, 2013). The government of Xi’an used its Bell Tower as a logo and launched its microblog, which attracted nearly 25,000 fans as of late 2012 (Mu, 2013). The Bell Tower is a famous landmark located in central Xi’an. People forwarding the microblog of the Bell Tower also promote the brand of Xi’an City and enhance the awareness of Xi’an (Mu, 2013). On August 17, 2011, the Ifeng website reported that Wuhan City, the capital city of Hubei Province and the central transportation hub of China, conducted a Wuhan city image poster campaign through microblog transmissions that attracted both local residents and outside visitors to participate in the event (Ifeng, 2011). Celebrity microblogs can also contribute to city brands. For instance, on August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that Mr. Wu Hao, a political celebrity from Hani-Yi Autonomous Prefecture of Honghe, Yunnan Province, opened his personal microblog to interact with people and introduce them to the characteristics of the Honghe Prefecture (Xinhuanet, 2012). Celebrity microblogs produce high forwarding rates that also benefit the city’s promotion and reputation. People can also present and discuss various interesting city topics on microblogs. For example, on February 14, 2012, the Chinese Xkb website started a creative microblog event named ‘‘What is the character of your city?’’, labeling Shanghai as a royal sister, Xi’an as an elder uncle, Hangzhou as a fair lady and Guangzhou as an old grandmother (Xkb, 2012). These characterizations led to a heated discussion. People participated in this microblog debate and actively forwarded the microblog all over the country. High forwarding rates led to an increased awareness of the city characteristics and images through the microblog. Microblogs, as the most widespread social media category in China, provide a convenient, economical and swift dialogue platform for use by Chinese cities in city branding and marketing (Cao, 2011; Wang, 2012; Yu, 2011). Using social media to promote tourism destinations In addition to microblogs, there are numerous other social media categories in use in China (Ogilvy China, 2011). Although the popularity of microblogs enables the widest coverage rate in Chinese urban areas, other social media, such as professional SNS (social network site), LBS (location based on service) and review (i.e., online comments) websites, also promote cities as tourism destinations. Social media has a significant influence on city marketing, particularly in promoting cities as tourism destinations (Yu, 2013). It is also a suitable platform for enhancing the experience and loyalty of city visitors. Some Chinese municipal departments have integrated official tourism microblogs and websites and released promotional videos of the city through video sharing websites (e.g., Tudou, Youku websites in China). These Chinese cities have also launched online mobile networking games to promote tourism destinations. For example, on November 8, 2012, Nanjing, the capital city of Jiangsu Province, which is hosting the Youth Olympic Games in 2014, declared through its website that Nanjing
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was going to employ social media, such as online mobile SNS, games and videos, to promote Nanjing as a tourism destination (Wmnj, 2012). The Tourism Bureau of Shandong Province, proposed ‘‘Hospitable Shandong’’ as a tourism slogan to market Shandong cities using social media, including official tourism microblogs and online tourism community websites (Yu, 2013). The UGC from social media can also contribute to the promotion of cities as tourism destinations. There are several online review websites, tourism communities and LBS (location based on service) sites that exist in China. Through these media, social media users can share their own tourism comments about specific places, upload pictures and tourism plans and offer strategies on tourism community websites. Users can also review particular places on online review websites. For example, an online tourism strategy community called ‘‘Honeycomb’’ has launched the online mobile ‘‘Tourism Review’’ software (Zheng, 2012). ‘‘Honeycomb’’ integrates information on tourism routes, places to shop, local snacks, public transportation, hotels, interesting places and even tourist comments on a specific city or place (Zheng, 2012). Users can easily search specific Chinese city tourism information on this website. All of the information from this online community is generated by users, a characteristic that embodies the main attributes of social media (Zheng, 2012). There are other types of social media that contribute to the tourism in Chinese cities, such as LBS websites (location based on service). One typical LBS website is ‘‘Jiepang’’. It is a new SNS community based on the real location (i.e., cities) of users that combines the real and virtual lives of citizens. Users can upload their own city life stories and record their footprints about their living cities. Similar to the ‘‘Honeycomb’’ community, ‘‘Jiepang’’ provides a platform for users to introduce the food, interesting places and experiences related to their own cities (Baidu, 2012). These new types of social media, as discussed above, can provide suitable channels to promote Chinese cities as tourism destinations. Unlike official government microblogs, these new types of social media, such as LBS websites and SNS communities based on a specific city, have content generated by common users, and they more conveniently satisfy and promote identification of city customers. Therefore, new types of social media can also contribute to the promotion of cities as tourism destinations.
Conclusions This paper explores the present developmental level of social media in China, particularly the application of social media tactics by Chinese cities for city marketing. Social media, as the ‘‘new new media’’ with numerous advanced forms, is becoming more popular globally. Firms, organizations and governments can employ this ‘‘new new media’’ to market themselves. Compared with traditional media, social media provides a more convenient, participative, open, transparent and interactive dialogue platform for the general public to express their ideas. Similar to companies and organizations, cities have their own customers and can employ marketing approaches to promote themselves. As a result of the increasing utilization of social media in firms and the public sector, social media is a new promotional instrument that can also be applied in city marketing. Microblog platforms are the most widespread social media category in China, and they have played a vital role in city marketing. Official government microblogs are fulfilling the purpose of promoting both the government and the city image. Microblogs contribute to the publicity of city brands, in part because of high forwarding and transmission rates. This paper also reviews how some new categories of social media, such as LBS, SNS, online tourism communities and online review websites, can promote Chinese cities as tourism destinations. Unlike the government microblogs, the information transmitted from these new
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platforms is generated by users. Based on word-of-mouth communication, they can enhance the satisfaction and identification of city customers. However, some new problems have arisen, such as how to deliberately manage and direct public opinion using this ‘‘new new media’’. Because of the rapid social media transmission rates, it is a serious challenge for the Chinese public sectors to handle negative information during city marketing. For example, negative information is usually the result of people writing about a tourism experience. If one person, particularly an opinion leader, uploads a negative tour experience and comments on a microblog, it will damage that city’s image and brand. In addition, the reliability of information from social media can also present problems. Some types of social media, such as SNS and LBS websites, are launched by third party firms. What are the effective governmental department policies to deliberately manage and integrate social media? Moreover, social media as a ‘‘new new media’’ cannot easily replace traditional media for city marketing. Because of the wide use of social media, this channel is popular among people who can afford the necessary instruments (e.g., smart phones and computers) and access to social media. For disadvantaged groups, with low income and poor education, it is difficult to afford and access the necessary instruments; consequently, they are not familiar with social media. Social media cannot entirely replace traditional media in China, particularly for the disadvantaged groups. How to integrate both the traditional and ‘‘new new media’’ into city marketing strategies needs to be further studied. Future studies should further explore the integration framework of both traditional and social media in city marketing. It is also necessary to make a more robust empirical analysis of practical city marketing social media cases. Acknowledgments This paper is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71272226) and the Post-70s Scholars Academic Development Program of Wuhan University, China. The authors thank Dr. R. Edward Grumbine, Kunming Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences; Prof. Dequn Zhou, Kunming University of Science and Technology; and Mr. Will Feinburg, IES Kunming Center, for their comments and grammar improvements. References Ashworth, G. J., & Voogd, H. (1988). Marketing the city: Concepts, processes and Dutch applications. Town Planning Review, 59(1), 65–79. Ashworth, G. J., & Voogd, H. (1994). Marketing and place promotion. In J. R. Gold & S. V. Ward (Eds.), Place promotion: The use of publicity and marketing to sell towns and regions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Baidu (2012). What is Jiepang website? Baidu encyclopedia. Accessed 15.01.13. Cao, B. L. (2011). Social media: Definition, history of development, features and future—The ambiguous cognition of social media. Journal of Hunan Radio & Television University, 47(3), 65–69. Chen, S. Z. (2012). Social media: An unmissable opportunity for Chinese enterprises. Modern Economic Information, 6, 117–118. Chen, L. D., & Cao, W. X. (2012). The analysis of development tendency to governmental microblog. Editorial Friend, 7, 6–9. Chen, C. F., & Qiu, J. Q. (2013). Microblog propagation: ‘‘Weak tie’’ and the power of group intelligence. Journalist Lover, 3, 18–20. CNN (2012). Forget twitter, in China it’s the Weibo Olympics. Accessed 11.02.13. Guo, G. Q., & Liu, Y. P. (2006). The new development of the research on city marketing. Contemporary Economy & Management, 28(2), 5–12. Hankinson, G. (2004). Relational network brands: Towards a conceptual model of place brands. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(2), 109–121. Hankinson, G., & Cowking, P. (1993). Branding in action. London: McGraw-Hill. Ifeng (2011). The most beautiful scenery in Wuhan: Wuhan city image poster campaign. Accessed 10.01.13.
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cities journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
Social media: A new vehicle for city marketing in China Lijun Zhou a,b, Tao Wang a,⇑ a b
Economics and Management School, Wuhan University, Wuhan City, Hubei Province 430072, China Economics School, Kunming University, Kunming City, Yunnan Province 650214, China
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 19 May 2013 Received in revised form 19 November 2013 Accepted 20 November 2013 Available online 6 December 2013 Keywords: Social media Microblog City marketing City branding China
a b s t r a c t Following global trends, cities, like companies, across the world are under fierce competitive pressure. To compete and promote city brands, various levels of Chinese governments have begun to integrate multiple marketing tactics to promote cities. Social media has gained global popularity since 2008. Utilizing social media for city marketing is being applied in the Chinese cities. This paper introduces the application of social media for city marketing in Chinese cities. Based on several cases of social media use for city marketing in major Chinese cities (e.g., Guangzhou, Chengdu and Nanjing), this paper suggests that using social media is an appropriate tactic to promote cities because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature of social media. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction Following the development of internet information technology, the development of social media has transformed the communication styles of billions of people. Through internet and mobile technology, social media has fulfilled the need for increased interaction between organizations, firms and people. Social media is ideal because it reflects participative, interactive, open and transparent attributes (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009; Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Mayfield, 2007; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010). Because of the large number of users and the rapid propagation of social media, more organizations and businesses have recently begun to explore the potential marketing capacity of social media. Cities, like companies and products, have their own target customers (i.e., investors and visitors) (Cao, 2011). Cities can utilize a marketing mix to promote themselves (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005; Kotler, Asplund, Rein, & Heider, 1999). Generally, the primary players in city marketing are local governments, residents, and firms (Cao, 2011). The traditional measures employed in city marketing include TV, radio, newspaper, magazines and mega events (i.e., tourism festivals and sports events) (Levinson, 2011). These approaches share information through the vertical transmission system imposed by governmental departments (Mu, 2013). However, traditional media is a one-way transmission platform ⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Economics and Management School, Wuhan University, Bayi Road, Wuchang District, Wuhan City, Hubei Province 430072, China. Tel.: +86 13807168884. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Zhou), [email protected] (T. Wang). 0264-2751/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.11.006
that lacks participation, efficient feedback and communication from and among stakeholders, including city residents, local firms and other players in cities. Since 2009, microblogs have become immensely popular in China. On August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that, under the concept of ‘‘Microblog for all people’’, official government microblogs were in a stage of rapid development. It was also reported that Guangzhou City, the capital city of Guangdong Province, opened a new stage of ‘‘Microblog-Governance’’. To promote the city’s image, Hangzhou City, the capital city of Zhejiang Province, highlighted the interaction between city government and customers using an official microblog (Xinhuanet, 2012). On January 18, 2013, the Chinese Ifeng website stated that Nanjing City, the capital city of Jiangsu Province, had integrated microblog, microfilms and online mobile App games for city branding (Ifeng., 2013). The widespread popularity of social media has resulted in more and more Chinese cities employing social media (e.g., official city microblogs, city tourism websites, city BBS websites) to establish city brands and promote city images. To satisfy the needs of urban customers and build city brand identification, social media can prove advantageous in city marketing. What is the current state of social media utilization in city marketing, given the rapid development of social media in China? What are the specific social media marketing practices employed by Chinese cities? What are the challenges to social media integration into city marketing? This paper explores the current social media practices employed as marketing tactics in Chinese cities. Based on the analysis of current social media practices in China, this paper suggests the appropriate utilization of social media to provide advantages in city marketing. Although social media provides a convenient
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dialogue platform for the general public to participate and express opinions on city promotion and improvement, city marketing cannot ignore online public opinions. How to effectively manage and direct online public opinion to mainstream city marketing practices remains an important challenge for cities. This paper is structured as follows. The first section reviews the current literature on both social media and city marketing. Based on current research, the next section introduces the present city marketing applications of social media in Chinese cities. Several typical cases of social media application in the main Chinese cities, such as Guangzhou, Chengdu and Nanjing cities, are reviewed. The final section discusses and suggests future research for the utilization of social media to address city marketing matters.
feedback from the general public (Xu, 2010). There are three social media strategies used in the public sector (Mergel, 2010). In addition to traditional internet-based methods, a ‘‘push strategy’’ creates an additional information platform to announce information to the public. To avoid the loss of control on information, a ‘‘pull strategy’’ attracts the audience to the formal and comprehensive official government department websites (Mergel, 2010). The last strategy, called ‘‘networking strategy’’, highlights the interaction between the public sector and common social media users (Mergel, 2010). Currently, the ‘‘networking strategy’’ has seen limited use for public sector issues (Mergel, 2010). There are more practical social media marketing tactic cases than studies of city marketing.
City marketing Social media Social media is an interactive community built on internet and mobile platform technology (referred to as Web 2.0). It is a technological platform that allows people to write, share, evaluate and discuss content that creates User Generated Content (UGC) (Cao, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009; Mayfield, 2007). Social media fulfills the need for interactive dialogue among organizations, communities and people. It embodies participative, interactive, open and transparent attributes (Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Wang, 2012; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010; Yu, 2011). The term ‘‘social media’’ appeared in the 1990s, based on the development of computer and internet technology. It has gained global popularity since 2008 (Cao, 2011). It is also referred to as ‘‘new new media’’, to differentiate social media from the other two types of media (Levinson, 2011). As Levinson summarizes, ‘‘old media’’ includes TV, newspapers and magazines. These types of media highlight the top-down control approach; they are produced and managed by professionals. The second type is called ‘‘new media’’, which includes email, websites, online message boards, chat rooms, etc. As a result of internet technology, ‘‘new media’’ transcends the time and space of ‘‘old media’’. Finally, ‘‘new new media’’ includes blogs and microblogs (e.g., Twitter), Wikis (e.g., Wikipedia), picture sharing sites (e.g., Flickr) and video sharing websites (e.g., YouTube), BBS (e.g., Tianya in China), SNS (e.g., Facebook, MySpace) and internet communities (e.g., Maopu in China) (Cao, 2011; Levinson, 2011). Because the users are not media professionals, all of the information and resources from social media are free for users (Cao, 2011; Levinson, 2011). Additionally, although ‘‘old media’’ cannot be replaced by social media because all of the information is free, social media remains an economical tool for promoting brands (Wigmo & Wikström, 2010). Word-of-mouth marketing through social media can significantly affect consumer behavior (Chen, 2012). More specifically, the 21st century is a new era of technology experiencing an explosion of internet-based messages transmitted through social media (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). Social media has played a major role in influencing consumer behavior, providing awareness, information acquisition, opinions, attitudes, purchase behavior, post-purchase communication and evaluation (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). As a result of the robust development of social media, more companies and professionals have begun to explore the marketing capacity of social media. Social media strategies have been widely utilized in the studies and practices of companies, brands and public sector marketing (e.g., Chen, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Yang, 2012; Yu, 2011; Zhang, 2011; Zhao, 2010). Currently, several researchers are applying social media strategies to public sector administration (e.g., Mergel, 2010; Xu, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012). Social media provides opportunities for policy makers (Xu, 2010). Governments can employ social media as a dialogue platform to publicly discuss policies, share thoughts of decision makers and receive efficient
The promotion of urban places can be traced back to the 19th century (Ward, 1998). Today, sharp competition among cities motivates city governments to utilize marketing methods for city promotion. Promoting a place using marketing approaches is both an additional method for the public sector to manage places and a principle of place management (Ashworth & Voogd, 1994). Like other entities, such as firms, products and services, cities can also employ marketing tactics for specific target markets (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005). City marketing, or place marketing, is a process of planning and designing cities to satisfy the needs of city customers, also called city target markets (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2005; Kotler et al., 1999). The primary players in city marketing implementation are local governments, firms and residents (Cao, 2011; Guo & Liu, 2006; Qiu, 2005). City governments take the lead role in promoting cities, enabling the cooperation of all governmental departments, such as tourism, public relations and economic development. However, the power of local firms cannot be ignored because they also directly benefit from the city marketing process (Cao, 2011). City residents may include present political celebrities, entrepreneurs, notable researchers and scientists who can also contribute to city marketing (Ashworth & Voogd, 1988; Guo & Liu, 2006; Qiu, 2005; Zhao, 2010). Similar to firms and organizations, a city has its own customers who are the stakeholders directly and indirectly benefiting from city marketing (Kotler et al., 1999; Qiu, 2005). The city customers include city visitors, investors, potential residents and other related organizations and institutions (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kotler et al., 1999; Qiu, 2005). City products consist of the city environment (e.g., political, economic, cultural and residential environment), facilities (e.g., infrastructure, public transportation and medical facilities), brands and images (e.g., city brand, government image) and human resources (e.g., talent and labor force) (Guo & Liu, 2006; Kavaratzis, 2004; Qiu, 2005; Zhao, 2010). As one of a city’s products, the city brand can be a vital element in distinguishing one city from other competitive cities (Guo & Liu, 2006). In addition, city branding can contribute to the image of a specific city (Zhao, 2010). A branding strategy can establish a product or service as an exclusive identity, with a mix of functional and symbolic characteristics (Hankinson & Cowking, 1993). The city brand can thus be defined as the core identity that integrates the geographical, natural, historical, cultural and industrial attributes. The city brand provides a conscious, reliable commitment to city customers to enhance the city image (Trueman, Klemm, Giroud, & Lindley, 2001; Zhang & Zhang, 2006; Zhao, 2010). City branding is thus one of a few widely used city marketing strategies to strengthen the relationship between a city and its customers and establish a good image of the city among its customers (Kavaratzis, 2004). In general, city branding should convey both the intentions of city authorities and the experiences of common people (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). Consequently, city branding, as one of the city
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marketing vehicles, must establish a long-term relationship with its customers and promote the identification. Social media provides a bilateral beneficial vehicle for mutual communication between a city and its customers, and it allows customer participation in city marketing campaigns because of its participative, interactive, open and transparent nature (Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Wang, 2012; Wigmo & Wikström, 2010; Yu, 2011). Numerous city marketing studies have focused on specific areas of economic activity, such as tourism, retailing, cultural activities and sporting events (Hankinson, 2004). For example, Beijing was promoted as a tourism destination and utilized the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games mega-event to create a city brand (Zhang & Zhao, 2009). However, there is less robust research on combining both city marketing and social media tactics for city promotion. Although there are some references that explore social media strategies in the public sector (e.g., Chen & Cao, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012), few scholars have focused on social media applied to city marketing or city branding.
Social media for city marketing cases Traditionally, the primary players in city promotion are the municipal departments, such as the News and Tourism sectors (Qiu, 2005). In the past, these city marketing participants generally utilized traditional media (e.g., TV, magazines and newspapers, etc.) as part of the city marketing mix to promote cities (Sun, 2004). For example, there are numerous city advertisements, such as city image videos and mega-event publicity that are frequently broadcast using traditional media. These approaches can increase the popularity of cities but at a high cost and with limited feedback from the audience (Cao, 2011). Traditional media provides oneway communication between cities and customers; the lack of interaction and participation during the communication is a barrier for city marketing (Cao, 2011). Additionally, because of time and space limitations, traditional media reduces the effect and width of propagation (Zhang, 2011). Although the city government or other official departments can also employ ‘‘new media’’ (e.g., official websites and email) to develop a city marketing mix that enhances the openness and transparency of city marketing, it remains a government-lead marketing approach that lacks interaction and participation from other shareholders (e.g., local firms, communities and the general public). Unlike traditional media, social media fulfills a ‘‘public–private partnership’’ approach for city marketing that enables a more interactive and participative platform. Social media enhances satisfaction and identification of city customers because its content is generated by both governmental agencies and any common user (Xu, 2010). Social media can also fulfill the need for a two-way communication vehicle to promote the ‘‘products’’ and ‘‘services’’ of cities, unlike a one-way promotion method (Zhao, 2010). Because of the large number of information categories users can access, social media significantly increases the network exposure and awareness of a city, without the limitations of time and space (Cao, 2011). These social media strengths allow for a multi-network system of city marketing at a relatively reasonable budget. Thus, compared with traditional media, social media can expand the influence of city customers in city marketing because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature of social media. Currently, there are 300 million social media users in China. The social media registration rate of Chinese urban residents is approximately 95% (McKinsey, 2012). One survey conducted in 2012 indicated that 91% of the Chinese interviewees had logged onto social media in the past six months, compared with 30% in Japan, 67% in the USA and 70% in South Korea (McKinsey, 2012). These
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social media users have enabled China to become the largest social media network in the world (Chen, 2012). According to Ogilvy China (2011), there are three new categories of social media in China: ‘‘Groupon’’ (e.g., Meituan and Manzuo websites), ‘‘Q&A’’ (e.g., Tianya and Baidu Q&A) and ‘‘More Tencent’’ (one of the powerful social media companies in China producing popular social media software, such as the mobile chat application ‘‘WeChat’’) (Chen, 2012). All of these ‘‘new new media’’ have capacity to handle the thriving development of social media in China. In that paper, Chen also indicated that the coverage rate of microblogs is up to 97%, followed by 70% for SNS (Social Network Site) and 10% for LBS (Location Based Service) in China. This indicates that the microblog is the most popular type of social media in China. Microblogs in city marketing The widespread use of microblogs, with a nearly 97% coverage rate of 300 million users, provides marketing opportunities for firms, organizations and governments at various levels (McKinsey, 2012). As an important information communication platform, microblogs have played a major role in the daily life of the Chinese people (Chen & Cao, 2012). An increasing number of specialists and professional organizations are exploring the potential marketing capacity of microblogs. In western countries, Twitter (microblog) and Facebook (social network site) are often utilized by business and government, as exemplified by the social media strategy of the London 2012 Olympic Games. However, ‘‘Weibo’’, a Chinese microblog platform that integrates the functions of both Twitter and Facebook, is more popular than Twitter and Facebook in China (Chen & Qiu, 2013). This advanced microblog, launched by famous Chinese web portals (e.g., Sina and Sohu), fulfills the need for an interactive and vivid communication platform for users to upload and share pictures, videos and music; it provides services for discussions, virtual meetings and instant message sharing (Chen & Qiu, 2013). On August 2, 2012, during the London 2012 Olympic Games, the CNN website reported ‘‘Forget Twitter, in China it’s the Weibo Olympics’’, proving the popularity of microblogs in China (CNN, 2012). In China, various levels of Chinese city government opened their own official microblogs using the multi-functional Chinese ‘‘Weibo’’ platform. These Chinese government microblogs have produced an interactive microblog network to market Chinese cities with a tremendous propagation effect. Microblogs labeled with the name of a Chinese city have been particularly successful. They have attracted fans and promoted the overall image of cities with advertising and the promotion of full-scale city information, including city news, scenery, foods and other sources. ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’ is a typical example that incorporates a city name; it has gained nearly 4 million fans since March 2012 (Wei Chengdu, 2013). Since 2011, the Chinese ‘‘Weibo’’ platform for city marketing has also enabled some foreign government users, such as the Korean Tourism Organization and the Singapore Tourism Bureau, to open their own official Chinese microblogs to promote their cities (Zhang, 2013). The pervasive utilization of the ‘‘Weibo’’ platform has enabled a microblog network to market both Chinese and foreign cities in China. Social media’s participative, interactive, open and transparent nature has created an effective channel for city marketing, particularly for implementing a city branding strategy to build city uniqueness and commitment among its customers. Sun (2004) suggested that there are two types of tactics for city branding. One tactic involves constructing the overall brand image of a city that integrates the political, economic, cultural and natural factors to define core city advantages. Another tactic is to build the tourism brand as a functional tactic to promote the exclusive tourism attractions (e.g., natural scenery, cultural customs) of a city (Sun, 2004). Social media provides the platform to build and promote
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the overall brand image of a city. The government image also contributes to the city image; numerous city government microblogs promote the images of both the government and the city (Wang, 2012). Therefore, government microblogs interactively implement an e-governance strategy using the popular and ‘‘people first’’ method by building a professional full-scale information platform to present the new look and overall brand image of the city (e.g., redevelopment conditions, mega-events, news of city, etc.). Social media also establishes the tourism brand of a city by promoting the city as a tourism destination (Yu, 2013). Microblogs, along with other types of social media, such as SNS (social network site), LBS (location based on service) and review (i.e., online comments) websites, can facilitate the tourism brand of a city. The unique UGC created from social media creates a platform for city customers, particularly visitors and tourism investors, to acquire and share information about a city. Microblogs for launching e-governance platforms Since 2009, microblogs have grown in popularity in China. After two years of development, 2011 was called ‘‘The year of MicroblogGovernance’’ in China. The number of government microblogs reached 20,000 (McKinsey, 2012). On October 22, 2012, the Chinese People website calculated that the number of governmental microblog changed to 50,561 in 2012, increasing nearly 776.58% since 2011 (People, 2012). Government microblogs are launched, managed and owned by various governmental departments. They are the new communication and dialogue-oriented platforms connecting the public sector and the general public. The popularity of government microblogs can be attributed to three factors (Chen & Cao, 2012). First, governments can employ a microblog to interactively communicate with the general public. Second, because of the participative, interactive, open and transparent nature, UGC can be a suitable source for the government to collect public opinion (Chen & Cao, 2012). Third, the microblog government–citizen interaction can influence government decisions. The general public can participate in policy decisions and provide recommendations or suggestions for the government through the microblog. The public can even receive a timely response from specific government departments (Xu, 2010). A microblog is also a channel in which a government can publicize its image. Hence, the government microblog is a new e-governance approach for Chinese governmental departments to market themselves (Zhao & Yin, 2012). Numerous Chinese governmental agencies have recently launched official microblogs to pursue public-friendly images. For example, on August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that Guangzhou launched the Guangzhou official microblog. It was also reported that Kunming, the capital city of Yunnan Province in southwest China, highlighted local ecotourism in its official microblog. To promote a good image, Kunming utilized the official city microblog to fulfill the interaction needs of the city government and the general public (Xinhuanet, 2012). On August 7, 2012, the Xinhuanet announced that the official microblog of Chengdu, the capital city of Sichuan Province, provided aspects of city news to the public, which enabled this microblog to become the most popular government microblog in China (Xinhuanet, 2012). The city image is a reflection of the city government’s image. Through a microblog, a city government can maintain and improve upon good relationships with the general public and promote an advantageous city image to its visitors, investors and other potential customers. To some extent, microblog utilization has changed the traditional promotional approach of cities. As a social media tool for the public sector, a microblog is both an official information publishing platform and a networking vehicle that connects a city with its customers and other cities (Chen & Cao, 2012; Mergel, 2010; Zhao & Yin, 2012).
Microblogs to promote the city brand platform As discussed above, a government microblog is an interactive platform for city government and general public communication. To promote a favorable government image, a microblog also affords a wide range of applications to promote the city brand. The city brand is an identity with both functional and symbolic aspects (Hankinson & Cowking, 1993). Because of the convenience, speed and economic advantages, some Chinese cities have advertised their city brand through microblogs. For example, Chengdu named its official city microblog as ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’; it presents an information platform of cultural, historical, geographic and other city characteristics for public audiences. For ‘‘Wei Chengdu’’, a high microblog forwarding rate among its visitors has resulted in a wide transmission of the Chengdu brand (Wei Chengdu, 2013). The government of Xi’an used its Bell Tower as a logo and launched its microblog, which attracted nearly 25,000 fans as of late 2012 (Mu, 2013). The Bell Tower is a famous landmark located in central Xi’an. People forwarding the microblog of the Bell Tower also promote the brand of Xi’an City and enhance the awareness of Xi’an (Mu, 2013). On August 17, 2011, the Ifeng website reported that Wuhan City, the capital city of Hubei Province and the central transportation hub of China, conducted a Wuhan city image poster campaign through microblog transmissions that attracted both local residents and outside visitors to participate in the event (Ifeng, 2011). Celebrity microblogs can also contribute to city brands. For instance, on August 7, 2012, the Chinese Xinhuanet reported that Mr. Wu Hao, a political celebrity from Hani-Yi Autonomous Prefecture of Honghe, Yunnan Province, opened his personal microblog to interact with people and introduce them to the characteristics of the Honghe Prefecture (Xinhuanet, 2012). Celebrity microblogs produce high forwarding rates that also benefit the city’s promotion and reputation. People can also present and discuss various interesting city topics on microblogs. For example, on February 14, 2012, the Chinese Xkb website started a creative microblog event named ‘‘What is the character of your city?’’, labeling Shanghai as a royal sister, Xi’an as an elder uncle, Hangzhou as a fair lady and Guangzhou as an old grandmother (Xkb, 2012). These characterizations led to a heated discussion. People participated in this microblog debate and actively forwarded the microblog all over the country. High forwarding rates led to an increased awareness of the city characteristics and images through the microblog. Microblogs, as the most widespread social media category in China, provide a convenient, economical and swift dialogue platform for use by Chinese cities in city branding and marketing (Cao, 2011; Wang, 2012; Yu, 2011). Using social media to promote tourism destinations In addition to microblogs, there are numerous other social media categories in use in China (Ogilvy China, 2011). Although the popularity of microblogs enables the widest coverage rate in Chinese urban areas, other social media, such as professional SNS (social network site), LBS (location based on service) and review (i.e., online comments) websites, also promote cities as tourism destinations. Social media has a significant influence on city marketing, particularly in promoting cities as tourism destinations (Yu, 2013). It is also a suitable platform for enhancing the experience and loyalty of city visitors. Some Chinese municipal departments have integrated official tourism microblogs and websites and released promotional videos of the city through video sharing websites (e.g., Tudou, Youku websites in China). These Chinese cities have also launched online mobile networking games to promote tourism destinations. For example, on November 8, 2012, Nanjing, the capital city of Jiangsu Province, which is hosting the Youth Olympic Games in 2014, declared through its website that Nanjing
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was going to employ social media, such as online mobile SNS, games and videos, to promote Nanjing as a tourism destination (Wmnj, 2012). The Tourism Bureau of Shandong Province, proposed ‘‘Hospitable Shandong’’ as a tourism slogan to market Shandong cities using social media, including official tourism microblogs and online tourism community websites (Yu, 2013). The UGC from social media can also contribute to the promotion of cities as tourism destinations. There are several online review websites, tourism communities and LBS (location based on service) sites that exist in China. Through these media, social media users can share their own tourism comments about specific places, upload pictures and tourism plans and offer strategies on tourism community websites. Users can also review particular places on online review websites. For example, an online tourism strategy community called ‘‘Honeycomb’’ has launched the online mobile ‘‘Tourism Review’’ software (Zheng, 2012). ‘‘Honeycomb’’ integrates information on tourism routes, places to shop, local snacks, public transportation, hotels, interesting places and even tourist comments on a specific city or place (Zheng, 2012). Users can easily search specific Chinese city tourism information on this website. All of the information from this online community is generated by users, a characteristic that embodies the main attributes of social media (Zheng, 2012). There are other types of social media that contribute to the tourism in Chinese cities, such as LBS websites (location based on service). One typical LBS website is ‘‘Jiepang’’. It is a new SNS community based on the real location (i.e., cities) of users that combines the real and virtual lives of citizens. Users can upload their own city life stories and record their footprints about their living cities. Similar to the ‘‘Honeycomb’’ community, ‘‘Jiepang’’ provides a platform for users to introduce the food, interesting places and experiences related to their own cities (Baidu, 2012). These new types of social media, as discussed above, can provide suitable channels to promote Chinese cities as tourism destinations. Unlike official government microblogs, these new types of social media, such as LBS websites and SNS communities based on a specific city, have content generated by common users, and they more conveniently satisfy and promote identification of city customers. Therefore, new types of social media can also contribute to the promotion of cities as tourism destinations.
Conclusions This paper explores the present developmental level of social media in China, particularly the application of social media tactics by Chinese cities for city marketing. Social media, as the ‘‘new new media’’ with numerous advanced forms, is becoming more popular globally. Firms, organizations and governments can employ this ‘‘new new media’’ to market themselves. Compared with traditional media, social media provides a more convenient, participative, open, transparent and interactive dialogue platform for the general public to express their ideas. Similar to companies and organizations, cities have their own customers and can employ marketing approaches to promote themselves. As a result of the increasing utilization of social media in firms and the public sector, social media is a new promotional instrument that can also be applied in city marketing. Microblog platforms are the most widespread social media category in China, and they have played a vital role in city marketing. Official government microblogs are fulfilling the purpose of promoting both the government and the city image. Microblogs contribute to the publicity of city brands, in part because of high forwarding and transmission rates. This paper also reviews how some new categories of social media, such as LBS, SNS, online tourism communities and online review websites, can promote Chinese cities as tourism destinations. Unlike the government microblogs, the information transmitted from these new
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platforms is generated by users. Based on word-of-mouth communication, they can enhance the satisfaction and identification of city customers. However, some new problems have arisen, such as how to deliberately manage and direct public opinion using this ‘‘new new media’’. Because of the rapid social media transmission rates, it is a serious challenge for the Chinese public sectors to handle negative information during city marketing. For example, negative information is usually the result of people writing about a tourism experience. If one person, particularly an opinion leader, uploads a negative tour experience and comments on a microblog, it will damage that city’s image and brand. In addition, the reliability of information from social media can also present problems. Some types of social media, such as SNS and LBS websites, are launched by third party firms. What are the effective governmental department policies to deliberately manage and integrate social media? Moreover, social media as a ‘‘new new media’’ cannot easily replace traditional media for city marketing. Because of the wide use of social media, this channel is popular among people who can afford the necessary instruments (e.g., smart phones and computers) and access to social media. For disadvantaged groups, with low income and poor education, it is difficult to afford and access the necessary instruments; consequently, they are not familiar with social media. Social media cannot entirely replace traditional media in China, particularly for the disadvantaged groups. How to integrate both the traditional and ‘‘new new media’’ into city marketing strategies needs to be further studied. Future studies should further explore the integration framework of both traditional and social media in city marketing. It is also necessary to make a more robust empirical analysis of practical city marketing social media cases. Acknowledgments This paper is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71272226) and the Post-70s Scholars Academic Development Program of Wuhan University, China. The authors thank Dr. R. Edward Grumbine, Kunming Institute of Botany, the Chinese Academy of Sciences; Prof. Dequn Zhou, Kunming University of Science and Technology; and Mr. Will Feinburg, IES Kunming Center, for their comments and grammar improvements. References Ashworth, G. J., & Voogd, H. (1988). Marketing the city: Concepts, processes and Dutch applications. Town Planning Review, 59(1), 65–79. Ashworth, G. J., & Voogd, H. (1994). Marketing and place promotion. In J. R. Gold & S. V. Ward (Eds.), Place promotion: The use of publicity and marketing to sell towns and regions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Baidu (2012). What is Jiepang website? Baidu encyclopedia.
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