Social support networks and the crisis of bereavement

SOCIAL

SUPPORT NETWORKS AND THE CRISIS OF BEREAVEMENT*

KENNETH N

WALKFR

Commumty

ARLENF MACBRIDF

and

MARY

Resources Service Clarke lnstltute Toronto Ontario Canddd

L

S

VAcHoNt

of Psychiatry

Abstract--Selected social network and urban commumty literature IS revlewed and vdrlous models of support structure are then assessed m terms of theu adequacy m meeting the diverse needs of mdlvlduals under stress The role of support networks during the bereavement crlsls IS examined spectfitally and a brief descrlptlon of the Communny Resources Service’s project “A Preventive lnterventlon for the Newlv Bereaved” Illustrates how understandmg of network supports can ald the mental he&h

professlonal in crisis intervention

most relevant to its serving as a personal support structure are the followmg [2.3] (1) SZX The number of people with whom an mdlvldual maintains some social contact mcludmg those contacts he can renew m case of need (2) Strength of tzes This refers to a combmatlon of charactenstlcs likely tp be highly mtercorrelated “The amount of time. the emotional intensity the mtlmacy (mutual confiding). and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie” [4. p 13611 (3) Denslt~ The extent to which the members of an mdlvldual’s social network know and contact one another independently of the mdlvldual High density describes a network m which a high proportion of all possible independent contacts are m fact made, low density describes one m which a low proportion are made (see Fig 1) (4) Homogenelrj of memhershzp The extent to which network members share social attributes. mcludmg demographic characterlstlcs such as age. sex. ethrnclty and social class. and attltuchnal and behavloural characterlstlcs such as social values and hfe styles (5) Dlsp>rslon of memhershlp The ease with which network members can make face-to-face contact This 1s a function of geographical distance as well as adequate transportation

The outcome of a psychosoclal crlsls IS influenced by several factors such as the ego strength of the mdn+ dual and the specific nature of the cnsls event Caplan [l] states that the most Important factor affecting such an outcome 1s “the quality of the emotional support and task-onented assistance provided by the social network within which the mdlvldual grapples with the crlsls event” (p 4) The mental health professlonal who intervenes m a crlsls srtuatlon should be acquainted with the general charactenstlcs of support networks. the needs such networks fulfill during a crisis and the umque support structure available to the mdlvldual or group m cnsls The present paper reviews social network and urban community literature m a search for suggestive models of network structure which are then shown to be differentially supportive for various types and during various stages of crlsls A theoretical and a practical apphcatlon of these models IS then made to the crlsls of bereavement and its outcome for widows

MODELS OF SUPPORT STRUCTURE

An mdlvldual’s support network may be defined as that set of personal contacts through which the mdlvldual mamtams his social identity and receives emotional support. matenal aid and services. mformatlon and new social contacts Although this network may include relatives. fnends, nelghbours, fellow employees or professionals paid for their services. the present dlscusslon will focus on non-professional contacts

Relatlonshlp between mdmdual charactemtlcs

The followmg assertions are hypotheses inferred from a large body of social psychological research literature Examples from the relatively scarce body of network research are provided where relevant (1) Matntenance of a social rdenq A relatively simple and unchanging identity 1s best maintained by a network of a small size. strong ties. high density,

Nemorh ckaractemtm The characterlstlcs

of an mdlvldual’s

social network

* The authors wish to express their appreclatlon to colleagues in the Community Resources Service Clarke lnstltute of Psychiatry especialI> Dr S J J Freeman. for their assistance and support In the preparation of this paper t Research Associate Department of Psychiatry Unlverslty of Toronto and Prmclpal Researcher of the prolect ‘A Preventive Intervention for the Newly Bereaved’* supported as a Demonstration Model Grant by the Ontano Mmlstr)

of Health

needs and network

High

Low

density

FQ

(D M 158) 35

1

density

36

KE~UETH N

WALKER

ARLELE MCBRIDE

a high level of cultural homogeneity and a low degree of dlsperslon of membership These characterlstlcs are slmllar to those Identified by Toenmes [S] m his deplctlon of the Gememschaft. typified by the premdustrlal rural village of ethmc and cultural homogeneity A more complex Identity open to change would best be maintained by a larger network with a greater number of weak ties. lower density and greater cultural heterogeneity and dlsperslon of membership. closer to Toenmes’ Gesellschaft model of urban. mdustrlal society The Gememschaft-Gesellschaft dlstmctlon has been utlhzed for a typology of urban lifestyle. expressed m the terms local-cosmopolitan Conslderable research has been done ut:hzmg this typology [e g 61 Locals tend to be those whose mam concerns, Interests and personal assoclatlons are restricted to their local community and workplace Their ties m the community tend to be long-lasting and numerous Cosmopohtans on the other hand tend to be oriented to the larger soctety and to have Interests and mamtam personal contacts outside the local commumty This typology 1s suggestive for the study of support systems as these serve to mamtam a soctal Identity, but specific research on this remains to be done (2) Emotronol slrpport Emotional support refers here to behavlour which assures an mdlvldual that his personal feelmgs are understood by others and consldered normal m his sttuatlon Such support 1s of course especially significant when the mdlvldual IS experlencmg emotional distress Density and homogenelty of a network should increase the hkehhood that network members are aware of and discuss the problems of members and agree concernmg the best means for provldmg emottonal support Laumann’s study [7] of the personal networks of urban males showed that mterlockmg or dense networks were more hkely than “radial” or low density networks to share ethnorehglous group membershtp and pohtlcal to mvolve greater feehngs of mparty preference. ” tlmacy and emotlonal mvolvement” to have more frequent contact and to discuss specific topics of an mttmate character (pp 124-S) Such emotional support 1s contingent. however, on slmllarlty of experience between the mdlvtdual suffermg distress and his network members Where such experience 1s lackmg. as for example when a husband IS bereaved and none of his male friends have suffered such bereavement the dense. homogeneous network may be unable to provide empathic support A relatively large and heterogeneous network would provlde a greater probablhty of at least one member hdvmg had a slmllar experience A wider age range for example would Increase the hkehhood of there bemg a widow or widower m the network Low dlsperslon of a network IS especially conducive to emotlonal ds well ds other forms of support when a member 15 physlcaily or emotlonally mcapacltated and unable to communicate easily with others An example would be the widow whore children have left home and who IS sufermg the first shock of bereavement Network members among her nelghbours would Increase the hkehhood of people droppmg m to see how she IS domg wlthout the necessity of her makmg contact by phone or gomg out herself The \tud\ hq Wellman (‘r ol [8] of social networks clb sup-

and MAR)

L

S \CHO\

port systems m n suburban commumty shoned that the expectation of both emergency ’ and “elerlday ’ support tended to increase the closer the resldentlJ proxlmlty of network members to the mdnldual (3) Mtrre~ rtrl rr~/ ~rr~tl \PI I ICY\ The a\allablhty of everyday dnd emergency supplies such as the lo&n of tools food or money and ser\lces such as help with housework or babyslttmg should Increase alth the size of a network The hkehhood of It being made available m an emergency to an mdlvidual who IS phystcally or emotionally mcapacltated should mcrease with the density of the network since this quality should facilitate commumcdtlon within the network The study by Wellman er trl [S] dlsco\ered a higher expectClnc\ of both everyday and emergency support with an rncrease m network range (size) as well as density These relatlonshlps were stronger with respect to emergency support mdlcatmg the special Importance of a support structure for crisis resolution Barton’s [9] review of disaster literature provides further support for the hypothesis that a dense network of strong ties provides an optimum orgamzatlonal basis for supplymg emergency needs He found that voluntary agencies or commumty government agencies recrmted on the basis of prestige or favourltlsm were of httle help m a disaster The Salvation Army. on the other hand comprlsmg a close-knit rehglous congregation of famlhes sharing common bonds and sentiments and a consensus about what to do m time of crlsls were most effective m provldmg emergency supplies and services m disasters (4) InformL~rron Dlverslty of mformatlon. mcludmg access to new knowledge. IS most likely m a network mcludmg at least some weak ties which constitute “brldgmg” ties to other networks [4] Weak ties dre less likely than strong ones to increase the density of a network smce the low intensity Intimacy and smaller amount of time spent m the weak tie relatlonship tends to keep It Insulated from strong tie relationships If the tie remains weak and remote from strong ties m the mdlvldual’s network Its hkehhood of bemg or becoming d “bndgmg” tie IS Increased smce the recipient of the relatlonshlp IS likely to have ties to other networks Figure 2 illustrates this pomt Lme AB shows a weak tie connecting two networks of strong ties Both A and B serve as connecting links with their respective personal networks made up predommantly of strong ties Such networks dre likely to circulate the same mformatlon and attitudes among thetr members. but one or more weak ties to other networks

--A----B

Strong Tie Weok Tie Brldglng Tie between two personal networks F&7 3*

*

From Granovetter [J]

Sod

\upporl

permit different attitudes and mformatlon to enter the network As Granovetter [4] puts it “the fewer mdirect contacts one has the more encapsulated he ~111 be in terms of knowledge of the world beyond hts ” (p 1371) own frlendshlp circle Strengthenmg such brldgmg ties would probably mcrease the homogeneity of attitudes and mformatlon avallable through the likely merger of the two separate networks mto one [4] Laumdnn’s study of urban male networks [7] reported that radial (low densrty) networks were less likely to include close personal friends (strong ties) than were close kmt (high density) networks Two network studies reported that new mformatlon was more likely to become available through weak than through strong contacts Granovetter’s [lo] study of Job changes m Boston reports that those who found jobs through personal contacts had relatlvelq weak ties with the contact persons Lee’s [l l] study of women’s search for an abortlomst at a time when abortlons were largely Illegal m the U S. revealed that “mbreedmg” or mutual selection among a woman’s network members led to the choice of poorly quahfied or expensive abortlomsts due to the lack of awareness of more attractive alternatlves among the Inbred dense network members Two studies provide specific evidence that a support network made up of a dlverslty of kmds of members IS more effective for obtammg appropriate mformatlon than IS a more restrlcted one McKmlay [12] studied the social networks of workmg-class women durmg pregnancy Those characterized as “utlhzers” of a matermty chmc appeared more hkely to have or dlfferentlated km and frIendship “separate networks” (p 287) while the “underutlhzers” appeared to rely more on undlfferentlated km-friend networks The author Indicates that the dlfferentlated network provided the utlhzers with “varymg or no advlce from different sectors” and left them “freer to accept or reJect any advlce” (p 288) The second study [I31 examined the utlhzatlon of networks by women whose husbands had suffered a heart attack Those whose husbands had a more successful outcome one year after the heart attack were more hkely to have utilized a larger number of types of sources of help. than did those whose husbands had a less successful outcome Women with non-manual husbands were more likely than those with manual husbands to utlhze a wide range of sources but within each occupatlonal class the relattonshlp between dlverslty of the source of emotional support and mformatlon. and the outcome for the husband was observed (5) New social co~~tacts Like new mformatlon. new social contacts are most hkely to become available through networks with brldgmg ties to other “local” networks [4] An important difference between mformatlon and social contacts however IS that the latter are sought as potential sources of strong tie relatlonships and not Just for instrumental purposes Thus It may be important to make such contacts through a screening process that increases the likelihood of finding compatible people among the neu contacts Singles bars for example may prollde a large number of potential new contacts but as Weiss [14] suggests one s own intimate network pro\ ides a more reliable basis for making neu relatlonshlps of a trustworth) and lasting character

network\ 1Ht

37 ROLF 01 4l’PPORl DlrRlNC

\TRl:Cll

RI.5

CRISES

Gerald Caplan [l]. m his dlscusslon of support networks views dn mdlvldudl’s social support system as d shield protectmg him from direct p%ychlc exposure to the complexity and disorder of modern urban life Therefore he emphasizes the role of the support system m reducing “absent or confusmg feedback” and the deslrablhty of mdlvlduals being “effectively smaller social networks that provide embedded m consistent commumcatlons of what IS expected of them, supports and assistance with tasks. evaluations of their performance. and appropriate rewards” (pp 3 and 4) As pointed out m the dIscussIon of network characteristics and functions however. a network structure which effectively meets one need may be mapproprlate to another Although a small. dense network structure of predommantly strong ties might indeed be most effective m reducmg confusmg feedback and mamtammg an mdlvldual’s simple unchangmg social Identity it should be recognized that such a network would also be least likely to meet other possible needs such as the supplymg of new mformatlon or social contacts Thus to suggest that one specific type of network IS universally most supportive m a crisis situation IS to ignore the dlverslty of needs that can be experienced by an mdlvldual under stress Three factors Influence the type of needs most salient to a person m crlsls The first IS the nature of the crisis A crlsls such as a severe Illness which does not necessarily mvolve a major change of role or loss of personal or material resources may be met quite effectively by the small. dense network of strong ties advocated by Caplan During such a crlsls the mdlvldual IS sustained through his temporary mablhty to fulfill his role obhgatlons and once the crlsls has passed he returns to his roles relatively unchanged However. when the crisis mvolves a major psychosocial transition [15]. m which the mdlvldual loses his capacity to fulfill such role obligations (as in long term unemployment) or loses a crucial member of his support network (as m bereavement of a spouse). a small dense network may entrap the mdlvldual wlthm a hmlted set of normative expectations. mformatlon and social contacts. rather than fulfill his need to make a transition to new social roles The kmd of normative consistency recommended by Caplan may not be as supportive as he suggests for an mdlvldual experlencmg a severely stressful hfe transition and its attendant dlsonentations For example, relaxation of some normative expectations could be more supportive for the bereaved spouse who feels unable to carry on normal actlvmes or to conceal prolonged emotions of grief or anger In dlscussing prmclples of therapeutic intervention m a crisis situation Tyhurst [ 161 states “the acceptance of disordered affect irrational attitudes and negative responses IS essential The placmg of such emotions and behavlour m some rational context by means of an understanding of the natural hlstorq of such reactions m relation to the stress IS Important” (p 165) The knowledge and ablht> requlslte to such an orientation may be rare among the non-professional members of

KENNETH N

38

WALKER

ARLENE MACBRIDE and MAR\ L

d distressed person’s network but diversity of expenperlence and social background of network members Increases the hkehhood that some members ~111 have had or observed a similar crlsls reactlon and thus be better eqmpped to treat it as a normal counterpart of severe stress In addltlon to the nature of the crisis time 1s an important factor m determining the most appropriate type of support system durmg a crisis Throughout the course of a psychosocial transltlon [15] a person’s needs can change and thus a network structure which fulfills these needs at the onset of a crisis may be mapproprlate or even maladaptlve during a later stage m the transition process A third group of factors mvolves the mternal and external resources of the mdlvldual m crlsls For example even when bridging ties leading to new mformation and social contacts are available. If the mdlvldual’s personality IS not receptive to making use of such mformatlon or if his financial or physical situation does not permit him the moblhty to follow through on such contacts. then these network characteristics ~111 be of httle utlhty To Illustrate the imphcabons of the precedmg dlscusslon at both a theorectlcal and practical level the crlsrs of bereavement ~111 be examined Bereavement has been selected for exammatlon because of its lmpact and severity and because it clearly demonstrates the complexity and diversity of needs that can be experienced by different bereaved persons and by a smgle bereaved person over an extended period of time

THEORETICAL

APPLICATION

OF NETWORK

CONCEPTS TO THE CRISIS OF BEREAVEMENT

Bereavement IS especially relevant to a dlscusslon of social networks since It constitutes a major dlsruptlon of the survlvmg spouse’s mtlmate network and severely tests the supportlveness of that network As Boswell [17] states m a dlscusslon of crisis and networks m Central Afrtca. At any one time the members of the social network are m the potential positIon of bemg moblhzed to deal with a problem-sltuatlon Dependmg on the gravity and type of the latter Imks long dormant may be brought mto dn mstrumental relatIonshIp agam An underctandmg of the ways m which the set of re~dtlonshlps analysed as the social network, may be used IS crucial to the understanding of how problems are met and solutions reached (p 255)

The focus here IS primarily on the bereavement experience of women whose husbands have died. due to the considerably larger research literature on wldowhood and to our own research focus on widows [IS]

Several authors have discovered that the bereavement process tends to move through dlstmct phases Typically bereavement begms with shock often accompamed by denial of the loss then passes through d period of Intense grief and frustrated searchmg for the lojt person followed by depresslon and apathy as the bereaved person become\ reslgned

S V~CHON

to the loss. and a final stage of reorgamzatlon and resumption of normal mo\ ement toward a life [l&20] During the period of Intense grief soon after the death of a spouse the most sahent need 1s usually for empathy and strong emotional support Akallable research and clmlcal experience place a heavy emphasis on the widow’s need for help with grief work m this stage of bereavement both m glvmg permlsslon to express the depth of feeling associated with the lost person and m settmg a hmlt to the time spent m grlevmg [18-211 Failure to receive appropriate help of this sort may result either m pathologlcal avoidance of the Intense feelings associated with the loss or m pathological mourning [18 19 221 Our discussion of network characterlstlcs as they relate to the supply of social supports suggests that where there IS a clearly defined and positively evaluated widow role. a dense. homogeneous network with strong ties and low dlsperslon would be most likely to fulfill these early needs Available evidence mdlcates 5uch netHorh\ ‘Ire mogt common m stable workmg class nelghbourhoods of the kmd studled by Young and Wlllmott [23] Marrls [21] Town
Social

support networks

empathy and other emotlonal support and more need for mformatlon and new social contacts to help her reintegrate her life as a smgle person Thus a less dense network which mcludes weak or “bndgmg” ties 1s most likely to satisfy the needs of the widow m this later stage of bereavement Durmg this period the widow begins to reorgamze her life around her new status and a closely kmt network made up predominantly of relatives could become a disadvantage if she seeks to make new fnends. find a Job. or develop a new life style As suggested earlier such networks tend to restrict access to new mformatlon and social contacts Such networks are also most appropriate for mamtammg a static social identity and during this later stage of bereavement the social identity of the widow IS anything but static The widow IS making the transItIon from bemg half of a married couple to being a single person again The nature of her support network can greatly influence the ease with which she makes this transition Widows often report that their married couple friends are uncomfortable m the presence of the newly single bereaved woman The couple society appears to attach some stigma to the role of the single adult person, whether this role IS due to never havmg been marned or to separation. divorce or bereavement [31] Imtlal acceptance m a couples network 1s usually contingent on bemg a member of a coupleonce that couple no longer exists, the remaining member of the couple lacks a social ldentlty acceptable for membership m the network In addltlon widows serve as a reminder that death and wldowhood are a real posslblhty Furthermore, the wdow IS seen as sexually avallable. hence a threat to the integrity of other marriages The very investment a married couple makes m such a network. especially a dense network which excludes single members. may be a costly one for the bereaved member who finds herself cut off from significant emotional support, mcludmg support for her changing social identity If the widow has maintained ties to single people outside her couple-oriented network these people may continue to relate to the widow on a personal or mdlvldual basis. unaffected by her role changes Such ties can provide mformatlon and resources that might facilitate the transition and also introduce the widow to members of new networks more supportive to her newly acquired needs as a single person Dtflerences

between

mfrr duals

The needs of the bereaved differ widely according to the circumstances surrounding the death, the relationship between the widow and the deceased, the widow’s coping capacities and her previous expenences with severe cnsls The social class of the widow will be exammed m some depth as a factor which crmcally influences not only the structure of the sup port network but also the widow’s ability to make use of it Although research speclfically applying network concepts and methods to bereavement 1s scarce. a fairly large hterature hnks social class mlheux to various network charactenstlcs Stable working class nelghbourhoods tend to generate homogeneous. dense strongly tied networks of low dlsperslon with a high proportlon of members connected through km-

39

ship [23.25.32-341 MIddIe class networks appear to be more widely dispersed. with a higher proportion of non-km members with and more weak links [25.32,35] When working class people reside m mixed class commumtles their networks appear to be more like those of the mlddle class. with less emphasis on km as sources of friendship and more voluntary orgamzatlon membershlps C23.36.371 This latter observation may explain the failure of two community studies of personal networks to find a slgmficant relatIonship between social class and network charactenstlcs [7,8] Gorer’s [19] survey of Bntlsh attitudes toward bereavement suggests the workmg class SubJects were better able to provide and accept emotional support for grief work than were the middle class sublects m part because the lower class were more likely to accept the need for and to mamtam traditional funeral observances It appears that the lower class widow who I\ more apt to he part of a closely kmt network mdde up of relatives. receives support appropnate to her emotional needs during the early stages of bereavement, but may be particularly hampered by her support system m the long-term adJustment to a new social IdentIty other than that of “widow” Whether or not workmg class women are immersed m such networks, research suggests they are more dependent upon their local environment for fnendship than are rmddle class women In a study of friendship patterns among the aged, Rosow [38] found that the number of fnendshlps increased with the concentration of aged households m residential bulldmgs, challengmg the notion that mixed age group residential settings are beneficial to an aged population But this dependence upon the Immediate residential setting for fnendshlps was much stronger among working than mlddle class people. and strongest among working class single women, both the widowed and the never married Another study supports this finding, reportmg that higher status widows had more friendship partlclpatlon than higher status married women. while lower status widows had fewer friendships than lower-status marned women [39] To the extent that widows are dependent upon relatives for then personal networks they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of geographical moblhty. which tends to disrupt extended km networks regardless of social class C40.413 One study reported that young marned couples are less likely to mamtam close contact with their widowed mothers than with their marned mothers This disadvantage was mcreased for working class widows when their married children moved away, Smce the latter were less likely than rmddle class couples to maintain km contact by mail or telephone [42] We may add to these findings Lopata’s [43] concluslons about the outcomes of the later stages of wdowhood for women over age 50 She noted that the higher status, better educated women has a broader perspective and an mmatmg manner of role mvolvement which permits her to change her hfe to meet new needs The (p 70) lower-class women have not been soclahzed mto preplanned and event-centered contact The) are dependent upon spontaneous encounters which are less and less hkelq

KE\~ETH

40 to occur

as restrxtlve

forces

N WALKER ARLENE MACBRIDE and MAR\

begin to hmlt moblhty

m

a terruory (p 242) Thus dependence upon km networks and the local residential environment for members of a support network. combined with a lack of social skills for mmating and exploltmg new social contacts. increases the likelihood of social lsolatlon for the widow These characterlstlcs appear more likely among working class than middle class widows. and then consequences more severe with increasing age PRACTICAL

APPLICATION

CONCEPTS

OF NETWORK

TO THE CRISIS

OF BEREAVEMENT

The preceding dIscussion suggests that appropriate intervention by the mental health professional should include assessment and posnbly, modlficatlon of the support system of patients experiencing severe crisisinduced stress Our own and other research cited here indicates the relative absence m the widow’s social network of members able to identify with her ntuatlon and willing to offer her the opportunity to vent feelmgs concerning her loss In addition, widows report that then own networks fall to validate their social and personal identities as single women m need of new social contacts and a new hfe style Their own networks often shrink as couples no longer mvlte them to social occasions, and these contacts fall to be replaced by network members who fully accept their new social status and offer unequivocal frlendship Individual therapy by the professional expert IS clearly not enough to satisfy these needs [44] One solution. tried m our own and other proJects [18,45&l IS to tram and organize a group of widows as widow contacts. to provide what Caplan terms “mformal careglvmg” The widows chosen for this task are first given a brief course m counsellmg, which offers a chance to explore their own feelings about their bereavement and provides them with some simple guldelmes to assist the widows they ~111 contact This seems to enhance their natural skills rather than make them “mm+professionals” They are then provided with names of recent widows whom they contact by telephone. identify themselves. and indicate their wlllmgness to be of help Such help may vary from hstenmg and empathizing over the phone to personal assistance m making contacts with other agencies. provldmg mformatlon regarding finances and Job opportunities and meeting other widows Recently the widow contact group has organized large and small group actlvltles It IS at present a community agency financed independently of our own research proJect* This method of intervention has the advantage of provldmg an alternatlve perspective on widowhood to the wtdow, by someone who serves as a model because she IS mtlmately acquainted with the feelings and problems widows expenence The widow contact can serve as both a strong, emotionally supportive tie m the early stage of bereavement. and later if *This research proJect “A Preventive Intervention for is supported as d Demonstratton the Newly Bereaved”. Model Grdnt by the Ontario Mtmstry of Health (DM 158)

L S V~CHOX

necessary can fulfill the role of a bridging tie faclhtatmg the widow’s social transltlon The existence of such a person m the wldou s natural support network IS rare indeed COUCLL SIO\S

The preceding dlscusslon suggests there IS often a lack of fit between the social and psychological needs of the mdlvldual m crisis and the mdlvldual’s social support network Such networks vary m then capacity to provide social and psychological supplies for their members and members’ needs vary over time. especially during a crisis Unless the person experlencmg bereavement or other crisis IS severely stressed and m need of intensive treatment the mental health professional may be most effective by adJustmg the fit between mdlvldual needs and network support structure Such work requires a careful assessment of needs and network characterlstlcs as well as skill m intervening m the network structure to enhance its supportive character [4749] More work 1s needed to apply network concepts to other types of crlsls and to test the viability of this conceptuahzatlon REFERENCES

1 Caplan Health

G Support Systems cmd Commumt\ Menttrl Let tuj es on Concept Del elopment Behavloural

Pubhcatlons New York 2 Craven P and Wellman Commumt\

4pproo~Ize\

1974 B The network

city In The (Edited by New York. 1974

cmd Applrcattons

Effrat M P) p 57 Free Press 3 Mitchell J C The concept and use of aoclal networks In Soctnl NetMorLy m U,htm Sttuatton, (Edited by Mltchell J C ), p 1 Manchester Umverslty Press 1969 4 Granovetter M S The strength of weak ties Am J Soc~oloy~ 78, 1360 1973 mul Sot let\-Gememcchaft und 5 Toenmes F Communrtl Gesellschafi (Translated annd edlted by Loomis C P ) Mlchlgan State University Press East Lansing Mlch 1957 local and cosmo6 Merton R K Patterns of Influence politan influentlals In Soc& Tl~ror \ tmd Socur/ Structure Revised and enlarged editIon (Edlted by Merton R K) p 387 Free Press New York. 1957 7 Laumann E 0 Bond, ofPlura/~sm Tile Form and Substance of UI ban Social Yctwor ks Wtlev New York 1973 M DuTolt S and 8 Wellman B Craven P Whltaker Stevens H The uses of community community ties and support systems Research Paper No 47 Umversity of Toronto Centre for Urban dnd Community Studies Toronto 1971 (Mlmeo) 9 Barton A The emergency social system In Man and Soclef, m Dlvrcter (Edited by Baker G W and Chapman D W ) I) 222 Bdalc Books. New York. 1962 h S Grttmc] A Job 4 Slud\ oj Contacts 10 Granovetter and Career, Harvard Umverslty Press, Cambrldge. Mass. 1974 Umverslty 11 Lee N H 7% Svlrrth for ml 4hortlonrst of ChIcago Press 1969 ldy consultation and 12 McKmidq J B Social networks help-seekmg behdviour SOL Forces 51. 275, 1973 Idy 13 Fmlayson A Social networks ‘1s copmg resources help and consultation patterns used by women m husbands’ post-mfarctlon career Sot Scr & Mrtl 10, 97 1976 Tire Eupei ~t’me of Emotromrl cmd 14 Weiss R Lot~r/~nr\\ SOCrtrl I\o/~rtro,l bl I T Precs Cdmbrldse Mass 1973

Socldi wpporl

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