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Socio-demographic variation in motives for visiting urban green spaces in a large Chinese city
Habitat International 41 (2014) 114e120
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Socio-demographic variation in motives for visiting urban green spaces in a large Chinese city Xi-Zhang Shan* School of Geographical Sciences, South China Normal University, 55 Zhongshan Avenue West, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
a b s t r a c t Keywords: Age Gender Guangzhou Management Marital status On-site interview
The motives of people for visiting urban green spaces (UGS) mirror their needs and expectations on UGS, which help to ascertain why people patronize UGS in the way they do. Such knowledge can promote effective decision making in satisfying the public needs and anticipations for UGS. However, the efforts to address the motives for visiting UGS are limited, whereby less attention is given to the related sociodemographic variations. This study concentrated on the motives for visiting UGS and the relevant differences across social groups in Guangzhou, China. Data were obtained from the responses of 595 visitors by using stratified random sampling, and in-person questionnaire survey at 24 UGS across the city. The results indicated that the nature- and exercise-dominated multiple motives call for multi-purpose management and multifunctional planning and design of the UGS. The significant variations in the motives for visiting were associated with the socio-demographic factors. Decision-makers should seriously consider the particular needs and expectations of the diverse groups, and consider these factors in the decision-making process concerning UGS. Further work could investigate non-users and associations of age and characteristics of UGS with motives for visiting. With complexities of cities, more attention needs to be given to the use of consistent methodologies in future research to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction Motives denote the internal factors that arouse and give direction to human behavior (Iso-Ahola, 1999), and motives originate from a desire to achieve specific psychological outcomes or benefits (Manfredo, Driver, & Tarrant, 1996). The motives of people to visit urban green spaces (UGS) mirror their needs and expectations (Chiesura, 2004), and are associated with their attachment to these places (Kyle, Mowen, & Tarrant, 2004). Understanding motives for visiting is of great importance in ascertaining why people patronize UGS in the way they do as well as in understanding the consequences of UGS visits (Yuen, 1996). More importantly, knowledge about motives for visiting can assist decision-makers to achieve effective planning, management, and design of UGS to fulfill public requirements and expectations. Studies conducted in different cities consistently show that people hold multiple motives associated with UGS. For example, Singaporean residents typically harbor social interaction, enjoyment of nature, relaxation, and exercise as their main motives * Tel.: þ86 20 8521 1380. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0197-3975/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.07.012
(Yuen, 1996; Yuen, Kong, & Briffett, 1999). In Ankara (Turkey), to while away, to rest and contemplate, to meet and chat with friends, and to escape from the stresses of urban life constitute the main motives for visiting parks (Oguz, 2000). In Amsterdam (the Netherlands), to relax is the most important motive, followed by to listen and to observe nature, and to escape from the city (Chiesura, 2004). UGS visits of Hong Kong people are principally motivated by their need for exercise, clean air, peace, and relaxation (Lo & Jim, 2010). The most important motive of the Swiss for visiting nearby UGS is the restoration associated with nature experience, whereas social bonding is identified as the weakest motive (Home, Hunziker, & Bauer, 2012). An Australian study found that common motives include enjoying nature, escaping various pressures, and enjoying the outdoor climate (Weber & Anderson, 2010). A recent review identified a core set of motives for visiting, which includes contact with nature, attractive environments/landscapes, social contact, recreation and play, privacy, active participation in community design, and a sense of community (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, the motives for visiting UGS vary across cities. For example, exercise is strongly pursued by Hong Kong residents but is lowly ranked by those living in Amsterdam. Social contact is the major motive in Singapore and Ankara but is less common in Amsterdam and
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Hong Kong. More research in other cities remains to be done to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the motive patterns and influence local decision making. People with distinct socio-demographic backgrounds harbor different needs and anticipations for UGS, and thus have varied motives for visiting. Studies have found the associations of the (broadly defined) recreational motives with socio-demographic variables, such as age, gender, and education level (Home et al., 2012; Lee, Scott, & Moore, 2002). Younger people worldwide usually pursue more active activities (e.g., sports), whereas adults and the older tend to enjoy nature (e.g., contemplation) (Chiesura, 2004; Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, this seemingly general motive pattern does not apply to several specific cities (Home et al., 2012; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). Compared to males, more females are motivated by relaxation and intimate interpersonal relationships (Lee et al., 2002). Females are also more likely to accompany children, whereas males typically choose sports activities (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen, 1996). A recent study indicated that respondents with higher education levels tend to be motivated by the aspiration to learn about nature and to socialize with others more than the respondent holding lower education levels (Home et al., 2012). The socio-demographic variations in motives for visiting UGS should be factored into pertinent decision making such that the particular needs of all subgroups of the society can be met. However, only limited research has dealt with motives for visiting UGS, and less attention is given to relevant variations among social groups. The current research investigated the motives for visiting UGS and addressed particularly the sociodemographic differences in China, where urban societies are diversifying and evolving because of rapid urbanization and the high-rise and high-density residences for urban citizens. Chinese cities, particularly large ones, typically feature high population, development density with limited UGS, and fast transformation. These characteristics may induce different motives for visiting UGS than those in Western cities. Guangzhou, one of the largest municipalities in China, was chosen as a case city. Methods The questionnaire design in this research consulted several cognate studies (Chiesura, 2004; Lee et al., 2002; Oguz, 2000; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Ward Thompson, Aspinall, Bell, 2005; Yuen, 1996) and solicited advice from local UGS officials. The respondents were asked to select their (multiple) motives for visiting UGS in general from twelve key motives presented. The socio-demographic variables included gender, age, marital status, education level, income, occupation, place of residence, childhood residence, and walking time from home to the proximal UGS. The sampling and survey processes were reported in detail elsewhere (Jim & Shan, 2013; Shan, 2012). In summary, stratified random sampling was used based on the 2000 Guangzhou census data (Guangzhou Census Office, 2002), which was the latest source available for this study. The predefined sample size (600) was allotted to the eight central districts in Guangzhou in accordance with their respective population size. Following a pretest, the full survey was accomplished in December 2005 through in situ face-to-face interviews with the help of four trained undergraduate students from a local university. A total of 24 UGS were chosen as sampling sites, with the involvement of local UGS managers and experts to ensure inclusion of main UGS types in the city. The sampling sites covered city- and district-
115
level parks, residential green spaces, squares, and greenways. Overall, the city-level parks are typically superior to the districtlevel ones and the other types with the latter having similar quality. On-site visitors aged >15 were randomly selected as respondents at two intervals during the survey. All the questionnaire survey processes complied with relevant laws and institutional guidelines. Frequency statistics described the general motives for visiting UGS, and multivariate logistic regression analysis examined the associations of the socio-demographic factors with the motives for visiting. The (forward) stepwise method based on the likelihood ratio test, which is the most reliable (Zhang & Dong, 2004: 177), was used to screen the significant independent/sociodemographic variables. According to Jin and Cao (2003: 332), for a logistic regression analysis, the smallest frequency of all categories of a dependent variable should be five to ten times more than the number of independent variables included. Hence, the current study analyzed only the motives for visiting with a frequency over 45. For each model, a test for multi-collinearity of independent variables was first performed. The results indicated that in all cases, multiple correlations among the variables were not high (tolerance>0.1). The HosmereLemeshow goodness of fit test (p > 0.05) showed that all the models adequately fit the data. The results were presented as odds ratios (OR) with p values. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 17. Results Response rate and characteristics of the sample A detailed description of this section has been provided elsewhere (Jim & Shan, 2013), and thus, only a brief introduction is presented here. Among the 713 chosen visitors, 606 participated in the questionnaire survey, which generated a response rate of 85%. A total of 11 (1.8%) questionnaires were eliminated because of missing socio-demographic information; hence, 595 were valid and were used in the analysis. More than half of the respondents were males (55.8%) and young. Most of the respondents (31.4%) were 30e49 years old, followed by 15e24 years old (29.6%), and 25e29 years old (23.2%). The respondents aged 50 comprised the age group with the least number of respondents (15.8%). Meanwhile, 42.8% of the respondents had a university or higher degree, whereas only 20.4% obtained lower secondary education, which suggested relatively high education level in the sample. For income, the middle group RMB1000 to 3000/month constituted the most number of respondents (54.1%), followed by
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X.-Z. Shan / Habitat International 41 (2014) 114e120
Table 1 Pattern of the motives for visiting UGS.a Motive for visiting
Frequency of responses
Percent of valid respondents
To enjoy fresh air/scenery To relax To exercise For quietness To have contact with nature To play with children For social interaction To accompany the older To walk pets To watch wildlife To engage in cultural activities Others For adventure Total
373 367 215 180 169 118 57 37 22 19 15 15 6 1593
62.8 61.8 36.2 30.3 28.5 19.9 9.6 6.2 3.7 3.2 2.5 2.5 1.0 268.2
a
Multiple responses were solicited.
respondents. Moreover, 36.2% of the respondents used UGS “to exercise,” and accounted for the third frequently mentioned motive (Table 1). “For quietness” was a motive for 30.3% of respondents, and occupied the fourth rank. “To have contact with nature” was mentioned by 28.5% of respondents, and nearly 20% of the respondents visited UGS “to play with children”. Each of the other motives for visiting UGS was mentioned by less than 10% of respondents (Table 1). In the descending frequency, these other motives were “for social interaction,” “to accompany the older,” “to walk pets,” “to watch wildlife,” “to engage in cultural/ historical activities,” and “for adventure.” Variation in the motives for visiting UGS across social groups Only the first seven motives in Table 1 were analyzed using the multivariate logistic regression in relation to the sociodemographic factors because of the statistical requirement. The significant variations in these motives were associated with the seven socio-demographic variables (Appendix Table 1). In terms of gender (Appendix Table 1), female respondents were less likely to visit UGS “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.61, p ¼ 0.007) or “for quietness” (OR ¼ 0.62, p ¼ 0.018), but were more likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 4.42, p ¼ 0.000) than their male counterparts. For marital status (Appendix Table 1), single respondents more likely visited UGS “to relax” (OR ¼ 1.52, p ¼ 0.048) or “for quietness” (OR ¼ 2.29, p ¼ 0.000), but were less likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.03, p ¼ 0.000) than their married counterparts. In terms of age (Appendix Table 1), respondents aged 50 were more likely “to exercise” (for the 50 to 59 age group: OR ¼ 4.94, p ¼ 0.000; for those aged 60: OR ¼ 2.87, p ¼ 0.004) compared to respondents who belonged to the 30 to 49 age group. Compared to the reference group, respondents aged 60 were more likely “to have contact with nature” (OR ¼ 2.47, p ¼ 0.014) and to go “for social interaction” (OR ¼ 4.24, p ¼ 0.001). Occupation was significantly associated with the motives for visiting (Appendix Table 1). Compared to the employed, the retired respondents were more likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 2.29, p ¼ 0.010), opt “for quietness” (OR ¼ 2.57, p ¼ 0.002), and were less likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.25, p ¼ 0.005). The unemployed were less likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.004), and were more likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 3.41, p ¼ 0.018). Education played a role in the motives “to relax” and “to play with children” (Appendix Table 1). Compared to those with a
university or higher degree, respondents having lower secondary education were less likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.51, p ¼ 0.010) and “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.25, p ¼ 0.002). Childhood residence was also found to be associated with the motives “to relax” and “to exercise” (Appendix Table 1). Compared to those respondents raised in a city, respondents raised in a town were more likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 2.04; p ¼ 0.006). Respondents who were raised in a town (OR ¼ 0.59; p ¼ 0.038) and in the countryside (OR ¼ 0.50, p ¼ 0.002) were less likely “to exercise” compared to their urban peers. Place of residence (by urban district) was associated with the four motives (Appendix Table 1). Compared to the citizens in Tianhe district, respondents from Yuexiu were less likely to visit UGS “to exercise” (OR ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.006), and those from Fangcun less likely “for quietness” (OR ¼ 0.37, p ¼ 0.015). Meanwhile, respondents from Haizhu were less likely to visit “to have contact with nature” (OR ¼ 0.37, p ¼ 0.009), whereas Huangpu (OR ¼ 2.09, p ¼ 0.048) and Baiyun (OR ¼ 1.99, p ¼ 0.033) more likely for this motive. Respondents from Haizhu (OR ¼ 0.24, p ¼ 0.002) and Liwan (OR ¼ 0.26, p ¼ 0.009) were less likely “to play with children”, compared to those from Tianhe district. The income and walking time were not associated with all the examined seven motives. All the nine socio-demographic variables had no associations with the motive “to enjoy fresh air/beautiful scenery.” Discussion Nature- and exercise-dominated multiple motives for visiting UGS Guangzhou respondents mentioned the multiple motives for visiting UGS (Table 1), which were also found in other studies (Chiesura, 2004; Home et al., 2012; Lo & Jim, 2010; Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008; Yuen, 1996). Visiting experience to UGS tended to be multi-faceted, which simultaneously included several motives and produced several emotions and feelings. In the order of frequency, “to enjoy fresh air and beautiful scenery,” “to relax,” “to exercise,” “for quietness,” “to have contact with nature,” and “to play with children” constituted the top six motives for visiting UGS (Table 1), similar to other findings (Irvine, Warber, Devine-Wright, & Gaston, 2013). These motives also roughly conformed to a local study (Jim & Chen, 2006) that focused on the valuation and use of UGS, and suggested the consistency of the motives for visiting over time. Four of the top six motives were associated with nature, indicating the domination of the nature-related motives. This finding further indicated that escaping from the city to nature were also aspired by Guangzhou respondents, which were similarly reported by previous studies (Chiesura, 2004; Home et al., 2012; Oguz, 2000; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Ward Thompson et al., 2005; Weber & Anderson, 2010; Yuen, 1996). This finding supported the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984), which stated that an affinity with nature is a fundamental human need. More recently, this nature-oriented motive has increasingly been related to the need for stress reduction (van den Berg, Hartig, & Staats, 2007; Ward Thompson et al., 2012). The most frequently selected motive “to enjoy fresh air and beautiful scenery” (Table 1), which was similar to prior studies (Schipperijn et al., 2010), may be associated with the serious air pollution in the city and boring urban landscapes. A hectic rhythm of urban life places and the growing stress on urbanites create the strong push to escape from the city. The UGS can provide urban dwellers with an area to relieve their stresses and to gain mental restoration and physical recharge (van den Berg et al., 2007).
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The current study identified relaxation as the second frequently mentioned motive (Table 1), which echoed the findings of previous research (Irvine et al., 2013; Schipperijn et al., 2010). UGS or large parks in particular, can temporarily provide a quiet environment to escape the noisy urban life, especially in a highly populated city like Guangzhou. “To exercise” is the most frequently selected motive for visiting UGS (Table 1), which was found in other cities (Lo & Jim, 2010; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen et al., 1999). However, this finding differs from a study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004), which recorded only 11% for the said motive. Few outdoor places available for exercises in the dense city with high-rise high-density housing may be responsible. This condition highlighted the necessity of providing adequate UGS or other public open areas (suitable for exercise) in a compact city like most Chinese urban areas. “To play with children” constituted another most frequently mentioned motive for visiting UGS, affirming the findings of other studies (Chiesura, 2004; Lo & Jim, 2010; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). This result reflected a widespread recognition of the benefits of UGS to children development (Johnson & Hurley, 2002). The respondents seldom mentioned social interaction as their motive for visiting (Table 1) as this motive was more frequently mentioned by the older respondents. Although a similar result was found in other studies (Home et al., 2012; Irvine et al., 2013), social contact, inter alia, was the main motive for visiting UGS in most cities (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008; Oguz, 2000; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Yuen, 1996), and was among the most important activities in UGS (Schipperijn et al., 2010). Furthermore, social interaction associated with UGS has been positively associated with community development, social cohesion, and well-being (Cattell, Dines, Gesler, & Curtis, 2008; Coley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1997). According to Matsuoka and Kaplan (2008), proper design can promote social interaction in urban spaces, especially in UGS. For example, comfortable and integrated seating could support desirable socializing opportunities (Refshauge, Stigsdotter, & Cosco, 2012). For the other motives seldom mentioned, the reduction in family size from a traditional extended family to nuclear ones typically comprising parents and their children has greatly reduced the chances frequently “to accompany the older”. Pet breeding, cultural or historical activities, and adventure in UGS were not popular in the city, whereas wildlife was hardly encountered in urban Guangzhou, which may weaken the motive “to watch wildlife”. Socio-demographic variation in the motives for visiting UGS “To play with children” as a more frequently mentioned motive of females (Appendix Table 1) was also mentioned in other studies (Kong, Yuen, Briffett, & Sodhi, 1997; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006), and was attributed to the ethics of care (Day, 2000). However, the finding that males more frequently mentioned “to relax” and “for quietness” as their motives for visiting departs from prior studies (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen, 1996), where males visited a park typically for active activities. Furthermore, no gender-related differences in the motives for visiting parks were found in other cities (Chiesura, 2004; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005). The disparities among results may be a function of cultural differences (e.g., lifestyle), and warrant local research in this respect. The motives of the singles tended to be more passive. This implied their following passive visit behaviors of UGS, which produce modest (health-related) benefits compared to active use
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(Kaplan, 2001; Pretty, 2004). Close attention should be given to the passive motives of the singles. The emphasis of the married on the motive, “to play with children”, echoed a local study on the perceptions of UGS (Jim & Shan, 2013), which mentioned that married interviewees highlighted the contribution of UGS to children development. Not surprisingly, “to play with children” was one of the main motives of the married respondents in visiting UGS, which supported previous studies (Kong et al., 1997). In visiting the UGS, the motive of older respondents “to exercise” was largely different from the study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004), in which the youngest respondents were more likely to do so, whereas adults and older visitors intended to relax, stay with children, and enjoy nature. Furthermore, this finding notably departed from the general finding regarding the relationship between age and the motive for visiting (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). According to the general finding, younger people generally assumed to seek more active recreation, whereas adults and the older enjoyed nature (e.g., contemplation). The emphasis of visitors aged over 60 on social interaction was similar to a study in Switzerland (Home et al., 2012), but was different from that mentioned in a study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004). The latter cited that meeting others applied more to the youngest respondents. Furthermore, in a recent Danish study, interaction with family or friends was found to lose importance with increasing age (Schipperijn et al., 2010). The current finding implied the rather complex association between age and the motives for visiting UGS. Surprisingly, more retired respondents chose “to relax” as their motive for visiting UGS as opposed to those who were employed (Appendix Table 1). This finding clearly contradicted a general lower stress level after retirement. A Danish study found that relaxation as a motive for visiting was notably less important for people over 65 years (Schipperijn et al., 2010). In Chinese cities, the official retirement age is 55 for females and 60 for males. This unexpected finding may have resulted from a sense of increasing loss and loneliness after retirement due to more spare time and lack of the frequent company of their children. The latter is becoming increasingly difficult in Chinese urban societies because of a decomposition of the traditional extended family and the hectic rhythm of life. This finding could also explain that (only) those aged over 60 more frequently mentioned social interactions as their motive for visiting. The retired also chose quietness more, which echoed the finding that the older citizens tended to pursue passive recreation (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, other studies found that quietness lost importance with age (Schipperijn et al., 2010). Education level was associated with the only two motives, “to relax” and “to play with children” (Appendix Table 1). Likewise, a study (Home et al., 2012) also found that education level was associated with only 2 out of 16 motives (learning about nature and socializing with others). Despite the difference in the motives concerned in both studies, the findings implied the weak associations of levels of education with motives for visiting UGS. Similarly, childhood residence had weak associations with the motives for visiting UGS. The less interest in exercise of respondents who were raised in a town and the countryside may be related to their life habits established from their growth experiences in which both exercise and green spaces (e.g., parks) were rare. In towns and the countryside in China, fewer people have habits of exercise compared to urban residents, and less attention is given to provision of green spaces than other public facilities, e.g., electricity and water supply.
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The result supported the finding by Asah, Bengston, and Westphal (2012) that childhood participation in nature-based activities positively influenced adulthood motives for such activities. Place of residence had associations with the four motives for visiting UGS (Appendix Table 1). The associations may concern specific characteristics of the survey sites and the individual districts because on-site interviews were used in this study. For example, because of lack of large parks, the selected UGS in Fangcun were typically smaller and noisier than those in the other districts, which may dampen the respondents’ aspirations “for quietness”. With more parks included, the sampled green sites in Huangpu and Baiyun had more nature than those in Haizhu (including only one district-level park). This condition may contribute to the more frequent mention of the motive “to have contact with nature” by the respondents in Huangpu and Baiyun, compared to those in Haizhu. As a newly developed district, Tianhe generally accommodates more families with children than Haizhu and Liwan. This may explain that the respondents in Tianhe visited UGS “to play with children” more than those from Haizhu and Liwan. However, the present study failed to document the characteristics of the selected UGS and in which UGS each respondent was interviewed. The factors limited further discussion in this regard. The monthly income and walking time from home to the proximal UGS had no associations with all the motives examined. Visits of UGS generated few expenses and were affordable for almost all the respondents. The finding about income supported previous studies indicating no effect of income on the use of parks (Yilmaz, Zengin, & Yildiz, 2007). The unexpected result regarding the walking time warranted its revision. Alternatively, for an in situ interview, walking time from home to a site where an interview was conducted or to a place where respondents frequently visited may be more relevant, because people do not always visit the nearest UGS from home or compensate for lack of green space available in the local surroundings (Maat & de Vries, 2006). In Guangzhou, a spatial leap-frogging of small gardens near homes was found in the visits of UGS because of their poor quality (Jim & Chen, 2006). All the socio-demographic factors were not associated with the motive “to enjoy fresh air/beautiful scenery.” Only the respondents aged over 60 and those from the three districts were associated with the motive “to have contact with nature,” which indicated the consistent mention of these nature-related motives. The present research investigated only users of UGS. Further research could probe non-users’ needs and motives, and barriers to their use of UGS. This could complement the current findings and provide useful information for management and provision of UGS. The highly complex associations between age (the older in particular) and the motives for visiting UGS justified further research, especially in relation to an increasingly aging society. Aside from socio-demographic factors, characteristics of UGS (e.g., composition, size, and location) may be associated with motives for visiting. For example, large parks (e.g., the city-level ones in the current study) typically have more nature and facilities for exercise, and more likely attract people to go “to enjoy fresh air/scenery”, “to have contact with nature”, and “to exercise”. Because of the specific location, the small UGS were used mainly “for social interaction” and “to relax/rest” on the way home (Peschardt, Schipperijn, & Stigsdotter, 2012), and the residential green spaces more likely “to play with children” and “to walk pets” in
daily life. This study, however, could not document that all the 24 green sites included here truly represented all UGS in the city. More importantly, comparisons among cities across the globe, especially the interpretations of related differences, were highly difficult because of the complexity of cities and diverse methodologies (e.g., definitions of UGS) used in different studies. Cultural differences (e.g., lifestyle) between cities, among other things, could considerably contribute to the complexity and thus the disparities in relevant findings. Future efforts should address various types of UGS within a city. The same types of UGS among different cities with consistent approaches are needed to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations. Conclusions The current research examined the motives for visiting UGS in a large Chinese city and particularly the relevant sociodemographic variations. The results indicated that the multiple motives for visiting were harbored in general, and highlighted the importance of multi-purpose management and multifunctional planning and design of UGS. Nature-related and exercise motives dominated the multiple motives, and called for more attention to be given to natural elements and facilities that promote exercise in the provision and design of UGS. The significant variations in the motives for visiting UGS were associated with the socio-demographic factors. The married, highly educated, and female respondents frequently mentioned the motive, “to play with children.” In contrast, the male and single respondents frequently identified the motives, “to relax” and “for quietness”. The older respondents held complex or diverse motives, “to relax”, “to exercise”, “for quietness”, and “for social interaction”. The socio-demographic variations should be factored into the decision-making process of the UGS, calling for a participatory management approach to be adopted or an interactive decision-making mechanism to be established. Decision-makers should seriously consider the recreational needs and expectations of the particular groups, collect their opinions in a proactive way, and manage UGS correspondingly in a diversified way such that the varied needs and expectations can be more effectively satisfied. Tailored methods and strategies of communications, e.g., personal contacts or public meetings, could help to achieve effective participation and fully integrate the variations in the decisionmaking. Future efforts could consider non-users and further investigate associations of age and characteristics of UGS with motives for visiting UGS. Most importantly, to facilitate comparisons among cities worldwide, more attention needs be given to the use of consistent methodologies in future research to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations, for example, consistent definitions of UGS and survey methods. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their in-depth review of the manuscript and Professor C.Y. Jim, at Department of Geography, University of Hong Kong, for his valuable comments on the earlier version of this manuscript. The New Teachers Fund of Ministry of Education of China (No. 20104407120005) in part supported this research.
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Appendix A
Table 1 Association between the motives for visiting UGS and the socio-demographic variables using multivariate logistic regression.a Variableb
Gender (male) Marital status (married) Age (30e49 age group) 15 to 24 25 to 29 50 to 59 60 Occupation (employed) Self-employed Retired Unemployed Student Others Education level (university or higher) Lower secondary school Upper secondary school Childhood residence (city) Town Countryside Place of residence (Tianhe district) Dongshan Fangcun Haizhu Huangpu Liwan Baiyun Yuexiu
N (578)
252 (326) 252 (326) 183 171 134 42 48 356 38 72 31 61 20 248 118 212 236 130 212 115 77 62 101 45 63 71 44
Motive for visiting UGS To relax
To exercise
For quietness
To have contact with nature
To play with children
For social interaction
p
OR
p
p
OR
p
p
OR
p
OR
0.007 0.048
0.61 1.52
0.018 0.000
0.62 2.29
0.000 0.000
4.42 0.03 0.468 0.263 0.169 0.001
0.73 0.57 2.02 4.24
0.248 0.372 0.000 0.004 0.511 0.010 0.004 0.844 0.502
0.79 2.29 0.28 1.07 1.39
0.010 0.338
0.51 0.82
0.006 0.522
2.04 1.14
OR
0.75 0.80 4.94 2.87
0.091 0.103 0.213 0.014 0.280 0.002 0.998 0.960 0.447
0.038 0.002
0.59 0.50
0.108 0.766 0.490 0.060 0.813 0.490 0.006
1.70 1.11 0.81 0.41 0.92 1.26 0.28
0.253 0.015 0.470 0.054 0.176 0.437 0.427
OR
1.54 1.56 0.52 2.47
0.64 2.57 0.00 1.02 0.60
1.45 0.37 0.80 0.43 0.60 0.77 0.72
0.261 0.993 0.009 0.048 0.552 0.033 0.528
1.45 1.00 0.37 2.09 0.80 1.99 0.76
0.085 0.005 0.018 0.997 0.188
2.35 0.25 3.41 0.00 2.20
0.002 0.106
0.25 0.60
0.362 0.719 0.002 0.789 0.009 0.412 0.911
1.52 0.85 0.24 1.16 0.26 0.64 0.94
a OR ¼ Odds Ratio; The blank spaces in this summary table mean “Not Applicable” because the stepwise method used retains only the significant independent variables in the final models. b A category in the parenthesis refers to the reference group of the corresponding independent variables.
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Jin, P., & Cao, S. (Eds.). (2003). Medical statistical methods (2nd ed.). Shanghai: Fudan University Press. (in Chinese). Johnson, J. M., & Hurley, J. (2002). A future ecology of urban parks: reconnecting nature and community in the landscape of children. Landscape Journal, 21(1), 110e115. Kaplan, S. (2001). Meditation, restoration, and the management of mental fatigue. Environment and Behavior, 33(4), 480e506. Kong, L. L. L., Yuen, B., Briffett, C., & Sodhi, N. S. (1997). Nature and nurture, danger and delight: urban women’s experiences of the natural world. Landscape Research, 22(3), 245e266. Kyle, G. T., Mowen, A. J., & Tarrant, M. (2004). Linking place preferences with place meaning: an examination of the relationship between place motivation and place attachment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(4), 439e454. Lee, J.-H., Scott, D., & Moore, R. L. (2002). Predicting motivations and attitudes of users of a multi-use suburban trail. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 20(3), 18e37. Lo, A. Y., & Jim, C. Y. (2010). Willingness of residents to pay and motives for conservation of urban green spaces in the compact city of Hong Kong. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 9(2), 113e120. Maat, K., & de Vries, P. (2006). The influence of the residential environment on greenspace travel: testing the compensation hypothesis. Environment and Planning A, 38, 2111e2127. Manfredo, M. J., Driver, B. L., & Tarrant, M. A. (1996). Measuring leisure motivation: a meta-analysis of the recreation experience preference scales. Journal of Leisure Research, 28, 188e213. Matsuoka, R. H., & Kaplan, R. (2008). People needs in the urban landscape: analysis of landscape and urban planning contributions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 84(1), 7e19. Oguz, D. (2000). User surveys of Ankara’s urban parks. Landscape and Urban Planning, 52, 165e171. Peschardt, K. K., Schipperijn, J., & Stigsdotter, U. K. (2012). Use of small public urban green spaces (SPUGS). Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11(3), 235e244. Pincetl, S., & Gearin, E. (2005). The reinvention of public green space. Urban Geography, 26(5), 365e384. Pretty, J. (2004). How nature contributes to mental and physical health. Spirituality and Health International, 5(2), 68e78.
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Refshauge, A. D., Stigsdotter, U. K., & Cosco, N. G. (2012). Adults’ motivation for bringing their children to park playgrounds. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11(4), 396e405. Sanesi, G., & Chiarello, F. (2006). Residents and urban green spaces: the case of Bari. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 4, 125e134. Schipperijn, J., Ekholm, O., Stigsdotter, U. K., Toftager, M., Bentsen, P., KamperJørgensen, F., et al. (2010). Factors influencing the use of green space: results from a Danish national representative survey. Landscape and Urban Planning, 95(3), 130e137. Shan, X.-Z. (2012). Attitude and willingness toward participation in decisionmaking of urban green spaces in China. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 11(2), 211e217. Ward Thompson, C., Aspinall, P., Bell, S., & Findlay, C. (2005). “It gets you away from everyday life”: local woodlands and community usedwhat makes a difference? Landscape Research, 30(1), 109e146.
Ward Thompson, C., Roe, J., Aspinall, P., Mitchell, R., Clow, A., & Miller, D. (2012). More green space is linked to less stress in deprived communities: evidence from salivary cortisol patterns. Landscape and Urban Planning, 105(3), 221e229. Weber, D., & Anderson, D. (2010). Contact with nature: recreation experience preferences in Australian parks. Annals of Leisure Research, 13(1e2), 46e49. Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Yilmaz, S., Zengin, M., & Yildiz, N. D. (2007). Determination of user profile at city parks: a sample from Turkey. Building and Environment, 42, 2325e2332. Yuen, B. (1996). Use and experience of neighborhood parks in Singapore. Journal of Leisure Research, 28(4), 293e311. Yuen, B., Kong, L., & Briffett, C. (1999). Nature and the Singapore resident. GeoJournal, 49, 323e331. Zhang, W., & Dong, W. (Eds.). (2004). An advanced course on statistical analysis with SPSS. Beijing: Higher Education Press (in Chinese).
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Socio-demographic variation in motives for visiting urban green spaces in a large Chinese city Xi-Zhang Shan* School of Geographical Sciences, South China Normal University, 55 Zhongshan Avenue West, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510631, PR China
a b s t r a c t Keywords: Age Gender Guangzhou Management Marital status On-site interview
The motives of people for visiting urban green spaces (UGS) mirror their needs and expectations on UGS, which help to ascertain why people patronize UGS in the way they do. Such knowledge can promote effective decision making in satisfying the public needs and anticipations for UGS. However, the efforts to address the motives for visiting UGS are limited, whereby less attention is given to the related sociodemographic variations. This study concentrated on the motives for visiting UGS and the relevant differences across social groups in Guangzhou, China. Data were obtained from the responses of 595 visitors by using stratified random sampling, and in-person questionnaire survey at 24 UGS across the city. The results indicated that the nature- and exercise-dominated multiple motives call for multi-purpose management and multifunctional planning and design of the UGS. The significant variations in the motives for visiting were associated with the socio-demographic factors. Decision-makers should seriously consider the particular needs and expectations of the diverse groups, and consider these factors in the decision-making process concerning UGS. Further work could investigate non-users and associations of age and characteristics of UGS with motives for visiting. With complexities of cities, more attention needs to be given to the use of consistent methodologies in future research to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction Motives denote the internal factors that arouse and give direction to human behavior (Iso-Ahola, 1999), and motives originate from a desire to achieve specific psychological outcomes or benefits (Manfredo, Driver, & Tarrant, 1996). The motives of people to visit urban green spaces (UGS) mirror their needs and expectations (Chiesura, 2004), and are associated with their attachment to these places (Kyle, Mowen, & Tarrant, 2004). Understanding motives for visiting is of great importance in ascertaining why people patronize UGS in the way they do as well as in understanding the consequences of UGS visits (Yuen, 1996). More importantly, knowledge about motives for visiting can assist decision-makers to achieve effective planning, management, and design of UGS to fulfill public requirements and expectations. Studies conducted in different cities consistently show that people hold multiple motives associated with UGS. For example, Singaporean residents typically harbor social interaction, enjoyment of nature, relaxation, and exercise as their main motives * Tel.: þ86 20 8521 1380. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0197-3975/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2013.07.012
(Yuen, 1996; Yuen, Kong, & Briffett, 1999). In Ankara (Turkey), to while away, to rest and contemplate, to meet and chat with friends, and to escape from the stresses of urban life constitute the main motives for visiting parks (Oguz, 2000). In Amsterdam (the Netherlands), to relax is the most important motive, followed by to listen and to observe nature, and to escape from the city (Chiesura, 2004). UGS visits of Hong Kong people are principally motivated by their need for exercise, clean air, peace, and relaxation (Lo & Jim, 2010). The most important motive of the Swiss for visiting nearby UGS is the restoration associated with nature experience, whereas social bonding is identified as the weakest motive (Home, Hunziker, & Bauer, 2012). An Australian study found that common motives include enjoying nature, escaping various pressures, and enjoying the outdoor climate (Weber & Anderson, 2010). A recent review identified a core set of motives for visiting, which includes contact with nature, attractive environments/landscapes, social contact, recreation and play, privacy, active participation in community design, and a sense of community (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, the motives for visiting UGS vary across cities. For example, exercise is strongly pursued by Hong Kong residents but is lowly ranked by those living in Amsterdam. Social contact is the major motive in Singapore and Ankara but is less common in Amsterdam and
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Hong Kong. More research in other cities remains to be done to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the motive patterns and influence local decision making. People with distinct socio-demographic backgrounds harbor different needs and anticipations for UGS, and thus have varied motives for visiting. Studies have found the associations of the (broadly defined) recreational motives with socio-demographic variables, such as age, gender, and education level (Home et al., 2012; Lee, Scott, & Moore, 2002). Younger people worldwide usually pursue more active activities (e.g., sports), whereas adults and the older tend to enjoy nature (e.g., contemplation) (Chiesura, 2004; Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, this seemingly general motive pattern does not apply to several specific cities (Home et al., 2012; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). Compared to males, more females are motivated by relaxation and intimate interpersonal relationships (Lee et al., 2002). Females are also more likely to accompany children, whereas males typically choose sports activities (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen, 1996). A recent study indicated that respondents with higher education levels tend to be motivated by the aspiration to learn about nature and to socialize with others more than the respondent holding lower education levels (Home et al., 2012). The socio-demographic variations in motives for visiting UGS should be factored into pertinent decision making such that the particular needs of all subgroups of the society can be met. However, only limited research has dealt with motives for visiting UGS, and less attention is given to relevant variations among social groups. The current research investigated the motives for visiting UGS and addressed particularly the sociodemographic differences in China, where urban societies are diversifying and evolving because of rapid urbanization and the high-rise and high-density residences for urban citizens. Chinese cities, particularly large ones, typically feature high population, development density with limited UGS, and fast transformation. These characteristics may induce different motives for visiting UGS than those in Western cities. Guangzhou, one of the largest municipalities in China, was chosen as a case city. Methods The questionnaire design in this research consulted several cognate studies (Chiesura, 2004; Lee et al., 2002; Oguz, 2000; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Ward Thompson, Aspinall, Bell, 2005; Yuen, 1996) and solicited advice from local UGS officials. The respondents were asked to select their (multiple) motives for visiting UGS in general from twelve key motives presented. The socio-demographic variables included gender, age, marital status, education level, income, occupation, place of residence, childhood residence, and walking time from home to the proximal UGS. The sampling and survey processes were reported in detail elsewhere (Jim & Shan, 2013; Shan, 2012). In summary, stratified random sampling was used based on the 2000 Guangzhou census data (Guangzhou Census Office, 2002), which was the latest source available for this study. The predefined sample size (600) was allotted to the eight central districts in Guangzhou in accordance with their respective population size. Following a pretest, the full survey was accomplished in December 2005 through in situ face-to-face interviews with the help of four trained undergraduate students from a local university. A total of 24 UGS were chosen as sampling sites, with the involvement of local UGS managers and experts to ensure inclusion of main UGS types in the city. The sampling sites covered city- and district-
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level parks, residential green spaces, squares, and greenways. Overall, the city-level parks are typically superior to the districtlevel ones and the other types with the latter having similar quality. On-site visitors aged >15 were randomly selected as respondents at two intervals during the survey. All the questionnaire survey processes complied with relevant laws and institutional guidelines. Frequency statistics described the general motives for visiting UGS, and multivariate logistic regression analysis examined the associations of the socio-demographic factors with the motives for visiting. The (forward) stepwise method based on the likelihood ratio test, which is the most reliable (Zhang & Dong, 2004: 177), was used to screen the significant independent/sociodemographic variables. According to Jin and Cao (2003: 332), for a logistic regression analysis, the smallest frequency of all categories of a dependent variable should be five to ten times more than the number of independent variables included. Hence, the current study analyzed only the motives for visiting with a frequency over 45. For each model, a test for multi-collinearity of independent variables was first performed. The results indicated that in all cases, multiple correlations among the variables were not high (tolerance>0.1). The HosmereLemeshow goodness of fit test (p > 0.05) showed that all the models adequately fit the data. The results were presented as odds ratios (OR) with p values. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS version 17. Results Response rate and characteristics of the sample A detailed description of this section has been provided elsewhere (Jim & Shan, 2013), and thus, only a brief introduction is presented here. Among the 713 chosen visitors, 606 participated in the questionnaire survey, which generated a response rate of 85%. A total of 11 (1.8%) questionnaires were eliminated because of missing socio-demographic information; hence, 595 were valid and were used in the analysis. More than half of the respondents were males (55.8%) and young. Most of the respondents (31.4%) were 30e49 years old, followed by 15e24 years old (29.6%), and 25e29 years old (23.2%). The respondents aged 50 comprised the age group with the least number of respondents (15.8%). Meanwhile, 42.8% of the respondents had a university or higher degree, whereas only 20.4% obtained lower secondary education, which suggested relatively high education level in the sample. For income, the middle group RMB1000 to 3000/month constituted the most number of respondents (54.1%), followed by
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Table 1 Pattern of the motives for visiting UGS.a Motive for visiting
Frequency of responses
Percent of valid respondents
To enjoy fresh air/scenery To relax To exercise For quietness To have contact with nature To play with children For social interaction To accompany the older To walk pets To watch wildlife To engage in cultural activities Others For adventure Total
373 367 215 180 169 118 57 37 22 19 15 15 6 1593
62.8 61.8 36.2 30.3 28.5 19.9 9.6 6.2 3.7 3.2 2.5 2.5 1.0 268.2
a
Multiple responses were solicited.
respondents. Moreover, 36.2% of the respondents used UGS “to exercise,” and accounted for the third frequently mentioned motive (Table 1). “For quietness” was a motive for 30.3% of respondents, and occupied the fourth rank. “To have contact with nature” was mentioned by 28.5% of respondents, and nearly 20% of the respondents visited UGS “to play with children”. Each of the other motives for visiting UGS was mentioned by less than 10% of respondents (Table 1). In the descending frequency, these other motives were “for social interaction,” “to accompany the older,” “to walk pets,” “to watch wildlife,” “to engage in cultural/ historical activities,” and “for adventure.” Variation in the motives for visiting UGS across social groups Only the first seven motives in Table 1 were analyzed using the multivariate logistic regression in relation to the sociodemographic factors because of the statistical requirement. The significant variations in these motives were associated with the seven socio-demographic variables (Appendix Table 1). In terms of gender (Appendix Table 1), female respondents were less likely to visit UGS “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.61, p ¼ 0.007) or “for quietness” (OR ¼ 0.62, p ¼ 0.018), but were more likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 4.42, p ¼ 0.000) than their male counterparts. For marital status (Appendix Table 1), single respondents more likely visited UGS “to relax” (OR ¼ 1.52, p ¼ 0.048) or “for quietness” (OR ¼ 2.29, p ¼ 0.000), but were less likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.03, p ¼ 0.000) than their married counterparts. In terms of age (Appendix Table 1), respondents aged 50 were more likely “to exercise” (for the 50 to 59 age group: OR ¼ 4.94, p ¼ 0.000; for those aged 60: OR ¼ 2.87, p ¼ 0.004) compared to respondents who belonged to the 30 to 49 age group. Compared to the reference group, respondents aged 60 were more likely “to have contact with nature” (OR ¼ 2.47, p ¼ 0.014) and to go “for social interaction” (OR ¼ 4.24, p ¼ 0.001). Occupation was significantly associated with the motives for visiting (Appendix Table 1). Compared to the employed, the retired respondents were more likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 2.29, p ¼ 0.010), opt “for quietness” (OR ¼ 2.57, p ¼ 0.002), and were less likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.25, p ¼ 0.005). The unemployed were less likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.004), and were more likely “to play with children” (OR ¼ 3.41, p ¼ 0.018). Education played a role in the motives “to relax” and “to play with children” (Appendix Table 1). Compared to those with a
university or higher degree, respondents having lower secondary education were less likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 0.51, p ¼ 0.010) and “to play with children” (OR ¼ 0.25, p ¼ 0.002). Childhood residence was also found to be associated with the motives “to relax” and “to exercise” (Appendix Table 1). Compared to those respondents raised in a city, respondents raised in a town were more likely “to relax” (OR ¼ 2.04; p ¼ 0.006). Respondents who were raised in a town (OR ¼ 0.59; p ¼ 0.038) and in the countryside (OR ¼ 0.50, p ¼ 0.002) were less likely “to exercise” compared to their urban peers. Place of residence (by urban district) was associated with the four motives (Appendix Table 1). Compared to the citizens in Tianhe district, respondents from Yuexiu were less likely to visit UGS “to exercise” (OR ¼ 0.28, p ¼ 0.006), and those from Fangcun less likely “for quietness” (OR ¼ 0.37, p ¼ 0.015). Meanwhile, respondents from Haizhu were less likely to visit “to have contact with nature” (OR ¼ 0.37, p ¼ 0.009), whereas Huangpu (OR ¼ 2.09, p ¼ 0.048) and Baiyun (OR ¼ 1.99, p ¼ 0.033) more likely for this motive. Respondents from Haizhu (OR ¼ 0.24, p ¼ 0.002) and Liwan (OR ¼ 0.26, p ¼ 0.009) were less likely “to play with children”, compared to those from Tianhe district. The income and walking time were not associated with all the examined seven motives. All the nine socio-demographic variables had no associations with the motive “to enjoy fresh air/beautiful scenery.” Discussion Nature- and exercise-dominated multiple motives for visiting UGS Guangzhou respondents mentioned the multiple motives for visiting UGS (Table 1), which were also found in other studies (Chiesura, 2004; Home et al., 2012; Lo & Jim, 2010; Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008; Yuen, 1996). Visiting experience to UGS tended to be multi-faceted, which simultaneously included several motives and produced several emotions and feelings. In the order of frequency, “to enjoy fresh air and beautiful scenery,” “to relax,” “to exercise,” “for quietness,” “to have contact with nature,” and “to play with children” constituted the top six motives for visiting UGS (Table 1), similar to other findings (Irvine, Warber, Devine-Wright, & Gaston, 2013). These motives also roughly conformed to a local study (Jim & Chen, 2006) that focused on the valuation and use of UGS, and suggested the consistency of the motives for visiting over time. Four of the top six motives were associated with nature, indicating the domination of the nature-related motives. This finding further indicated that escaping from the city to nature were also aspired by Guangzhou respondents, which were similarly reported by previous studies (Chiesura, 2004; Home et al., 2012; Oguz, 2000; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Ward Thompson et al., 2005; Weber & Anderson, 2010; Yuen, 1996). This finding supported the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984), which stated that an affinity with nature is a fundamental human need. More recently, this nature-oriented motive has increasingly been related to the need for stress reduction (van den Berg, Hartig, & Staats, 2007; Ward Thompson et al., 2012). The most frequently selected motive “to enjoy fresh air and beautiful scenery” (Table 1), which was similar to prior studies (Schipperijn et al., 2010), may be associated with the serious air pollution in the city and boring urban landscapes. A hectic rhythm of urban life places and the growing stress on urbanites create the strong push to escape from the city. The UGS can provide urban dwellers with an area to relieve their stresses and to gain mental restoration and physical recharge (van den Berg et al., 2007).
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The current study identified relaxation as the second frequently mentioned motive (Table 1), which echoed the findings of previous research (Irvine et al., 2013; Schipperijn et al., 2010). UGS or large parks in particular, can temporarily provide a quiet environment to escape the noisy urban life, especially in a highly populated city like Guangzhou. “To exercise” is the most frequently selected motive for visiting UGS (Table 1), which was found in other cities (Lo & Jim, 2010; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen et al., 1999). However, this finding differs from a study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004), which recorded only 11% for the said motive. Few outdoor places available for exercises in the dense city with high-rise high-density housing may be responsible. This condition highlighted the necessity of providing adequate UGS or other public open areas (suitable for exercise) in a compact city like most Chinese urban areas. “To play with children” constituted another most frequently mentioned motive for visiting UGS, affirming the findings of other studies (Chiesura, 2004; Lo & Jim, 2010; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). This result reflected a widespread recognition of the benefits of UGS to children development (Johnson & Hurley, 2002). The respondents seldom mentioned social interaction as their motive for visiting (Table 1) as this motive was more frequently mentioned by the older respondents. Although a similar result was found in other studies (Home et al., 2012; Irvine et al., 2013), social contact, inter alia, was the main motive for visiting UGS in most cities (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008; Oguz, 2000; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Yuen, 1996), and was among the most important activities in UGS (Schipperijn et al., 2010). Furthermore, social interaction associated with UGS has been positively associated with community development, social cohesion, and well-being (Cattell, Dines, Gesler, & Curtis, 2008; Coley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1997). According to Matsuoka and Kaplan (2008), proper design can promote social interaction in urban spaces, especially in UGS. For example, comfortable and integrated seating could support desirable socializing opportunities (Refshauge, Stigsdotter, & Cosco, 2012). For the other motives seldom mentioned, the reduction in family size from a traditional extended family to nuclear ones typically comprising parents and their children has greatly reduced the chances frequently “to accompany the older”. Pet breeding, cultural or historical activities, and adventure in UGS were not popular in the city, whereas wildlife was hardly encountered in urban Guangzhou, which may weaken the motive “to watch wildlife”. Socio-demographic variation in the motives for visiting UGS “To play with children” as a more frequently mentioned motive of females (Appendix Table 1) was also mentioned in other studies (Kong, Yuen, Briffett, & Sodhi, 1997; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006), and was attributed to the ethics of care (Day, 2000). However, the finding that males more frequently mentioned “to relax” and “for quietness” as their motives for visiting departs from prior studies (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Yuen, 1996), where males visited a park typically for active activities. Furthermore, no gender-related differences in the motives for visiting parks were found in other cities (Chiesura, 2004; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005). The disparities among results may be a function of cultural differences (e.g., lifestyle), and warrant local research in this respect. The motives of the singles tended to be more passive. This implied their following passive visit behaviors of UGS, which produce modest (health-related) benefits compared to active use
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(Kaplan, 2001; Pretty, 2004). Close attention should be given to the passive motives of the singles. The emphasis of the married on the motive, “to play with children”, echoed a local study on the perceptions of UGS (Jim & Shan, 2013), which mentioned that married interviewees highlighted the contribution of UGS to children development. Not surprisingly, “to play with children” was one of the main motives of the married respondents in visiting UGS, which supported previous studies (Kong et al., 1997). In visiting the UGS, the motive of older respondents “to exercise” was largely different from the study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004), in which the youngest respondents were more likely to do so, whereas adults and older visitors intended to relax, stay with children, and enjoy nature. Furthermore, this finding notably departed from the general finding regarding the relationship between age and the motive for visiting (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). According to the general finding, younger people generally assumed to seek more active recreation, whereas adults and the older enjoyed nature (e.g., contemplation). The emphasis of visitors aged over 60 on social interaction was similar to a study in Switzerland (Home et al., 2012), but was different from that mentioned in a study in Amsterdam (Chiesura, 2004). The latter cited that meeting others applied more to the youngest respondents. Furthermore, in a recent Danish study, interaction with family or friends was found to lose importance with increasing age (Schipperijn et al., 2010). The current finding implied the rather complex association between age and the motives for visiting UGS. Surprisingly, more retired respondents chose “to relax” as their motive for visiting UGS as opposed to those who were employed (Appendix Table 1). This finding clearly contradicted a general lower stress level after retirement. A Danish study found that relaxation as a motive for visiting was notably less important for people over 65 years (Schipperijn et al., 2010). In Chinese cities, the official retirement age is 55 for females and 60 for males. This unexpected finding may have resulted from a sense of increasing loss and loneliness after retirement due to more spare time and lack of the frequent company of their children. The latter is becoming increasingly difficult in Chinese urban societies because of a decomposition of the traditional extended family and the hectic rhythm of life. This finding could also explain that (only) those aged over 60 more frequently mentioned social interactions as their motive for visiting. The retired also chose quietness more, which echoed the finding that the older citizens tended to pursue passive recreation (Matsuoka & Kaplan, 2008). However, other studies found that quietness lost importance with age (Schipperijn et al., 2010). Education level was associated with the only two motives, “to relax” and “to play with children” (Appendix Table 1). Likewise, a study (Home et al., 2012) also found that education level was associated with only 2 out of 16 motives (learning about nature and socializing with others). Despite the difference in the motives concerned in both studies, the findings implied the weak associations of levels of education with motives for visiting UGS. Similarly, childhood residence had weak associations with the motives for visiting UGS. The less interest in exercise of respondents who were raised in a town and the countryside may be related to their life habits established from their growth experiences in which both exercise and green spaces (e.g., parks) were rare. In towns and the countryside in China, fewer people have habits of exercise compared to urban residents, and less attention is given to provision of green spaces than other public facilities, e.g., electricity and water supply.
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The result supported the finding by Asah, Bengston, and Westphal (2012) that childhood participation in nature-based activities positively influenced adulthood motives for such activities. Place of residence had associations with the four motives for visiting UGS (Appendix Table 1). The associations may concern specific characteristics of the survey sites and the individual districts because on-site interviews were used in this study. For example, because of lack of large parks, the selected UGS in Fangcun were typically smaller and noisier than those in the other districts, which may dampen the respondents’ aspirations “for quietness”. With more parks included, the sampled green sites in Huangpu and Baiyun had more nature than those in Haizhu (including only one district-level park). This condition may contribute to the more frequent mention of the motive “to have contact with nature” by the respondents in Huangpu and Baiyun, compared to those in Haizhu. As a newly developed district, Tianhe generally accommodates more families with children than Haizhu and Liwan. This may explain that the respondents in Tianhe visited UGS “to play with children” more than those from Haizhu and Liwan. However, the present study failed to document the characteristics of the selected UGS and in which UGS each respondent was interviewed. The factors limited further discussion in this regard. The monthly income and walking time from home to the proximal UGS had no associations with all the motives examined. Visits of UGS generated few expenses and were affordable for almost all the respondents. The finding about income supported previous studies indicating no effect of income on the use of parks (Yilmaz, Zengin, & Yildiz, 2007). The unexpected result regarding the walking time warranted its revision. Alternatively, for an in situ interview, walking time from home to a site where an interview was conducted or to a place where respondents frequently visited may be more relevant, because people do not always visit the nearest UGS from home or compensate for lack of green space available in the local surroundings (Maat & de Vries, 2006). In Guangzhou, a spatial leap-frogging of small gardens near homes was found in the visits of UGS because of their poor quality (Jim & Chen, 2006). All the socio-demographic factors were not associated with the motive “to enjoy fresh air/beautiful scenery.” Only the respondents aged over 60 and those from the three districts were associated with the motive “to have contact with nature,” which indicated the consistent mention of these nature-related motives. The present research investigated only users of UGS. Further research could probe non-users’ needs and motives, and barriers to their use of UGS. This could complement the current findings and provide useful information for management and provision of UGS. The highly complex associations between age (the older in particular) and the motives for visiting UGS justified further research, especially in relation to an increasingly aging society. Aside from socio-demographic factors, characteristics of UGS (e.g., composition, size, and location) may be associated with motives for visiting. For example, large parks (e.g., the city-level ones in the current study) typically have more nature and facilities for exercise, and more likely attract people to go “to enjoy fresh air/scenery”, “to have contact with nature”, and “to exercise”. Because of the specific location, the small UGS were used mainly “for social interaction” and “to relax/rest” on the way home (Peschardt, Schipperijn, & Stigsdotter, 2012), and the residential green spaces more likely “to play with children” and “to walk pets” in
daily life. This study, however, could not document that all the 24 green sites included here truly represented all UGS in the city. More importantly, comparisons among cities across the globe, especially the interpretations of related differences, were highly difficult because of the complexity of cities and diverse methodologies (e.g., definitions of UGS) used in different studies. Cultural differences (e.g., lifestyle) between cities, among other things, could considerably contribute to the complexity and thus the disparities in relevant findings. Future efforts should address various types of UGS within a city. The same types of UGS among different cities with consistent approaches are needed to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations. Conclusions The current research examined the motives for visiting UGS in a large Chinese city and particularly the relevant sociodemographic variations. The results indicated that the multiple motives for visiting were harbored in general, and highlighted the importance of multi-purpose management and multifunctional planning and design of UGS. Nature-related and exercise motives dominated the multiple motives, and called for more attention to be given to natural elements and facilities that promote exercise in the provision and design of UGS. The significant variations in the motives for visiting UGS were associated with the socio-demographic factors. The married, highly educated, and female respondents frequently mentioned the motive, “to play with children.” In contrast, the male and single respondents frequently identified the motives, “to relax” and “for quietness”. The older respondents held complex or diverse motives, “to relax”, “to exercise”, “for quietness”, and “for social interaction”. The socio-demographic variations should be factored into the decision-making process of the UGS, calling for a participatory management approach to be adopted or an interactive decision-making mechanism to be established. Decision-makers should seriously consider the recreational needs and expectations of the particular groups, collect their opinions in a proactive way, and manage UGS correspondingly in a diversified way such that the varied needs and expectations can be more effectively satisfied. Tailored methods and strategies of communications, e.g., personal contacts or public meetings, could help to achieve effective participation and fully integrate the variations in the decisionmaking. Future efforts could consider non-users and further investigate associations of age and characteristics of UGS with motives for visiting UGS. Most importantly, to facilitate comparisons among cities worldwide, more attention needs be given to the use of consistent methodologies in future research to obtain comparable findings and further generalizations, for example, consistent definitions of UGS and survey methods. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their in-depth review of the manuscript and Professor C.Y. Jim, at Department of Geography, University of Hong Kong, for his valuable comments on the earlier version of this manuscript. The New Teachers Fund of Ministry of Education of China (No. 20104407120005) in part supported this research.
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Appendix A
Table 1 Association between the motives for visiting UGS and the socio-demographic variables using multivariate logistic regression.a Variableb
Gender (male) Marital status (married) Age (30e49 age group) 15 to 24 25 to 29 50 to 59 60 Occupation (employed) Self-employed Retired Unemployed Student Others Education level (university or higher) Lower secondary school Upper secondary school Childhood residence (city) Town Countryside Place of residence (Tianhe district) Dongshan Fangcun Haizhu Huangpu Liwan Baiyun Yuexiu
N (578)
252 (326) 252 (326) 183 171 134 42 48 356 38 72 31 61 20 248 118 212 236 130 212 115 77 62 101 45 63 71 44
Motive for visiting UGS To relax
To exercise
For quietness
To have contact with nature
To play with children
For social interaction
p
OR
p
p
OR
p
p
OR
p
OR
0.007 0.048
0.61 1.52
0.018 0.000
0.62 2.29
0.000 0.000
4.42 0.03 0.468 0.263 0.169 0.001
0.73 0.57 2.02 4.24
0.248 0.372 0.000 0.004 0.511 0.010 0.004 0.844 0.502
0.79 2.29 0.28 1.07 1.39
0.010 0.338
0.51 0.82
0.006 0.522
2.04 1.14
OR
0.75 0.80 4.94 2.87
0.091 0.103 0.213 0.014 0.280 0.002 0.998 0.960 0.447
0.038 0.002
0.59 0.50
0.108 0.766 0.490 0.060 0.813 0.490 0.006
1.70 1.11 0.81 0.41 0.92 1.26 0.28
0.253 0.015 0.470 0.054 0.176 0.437 0.427
OR
1.54 1.56 0.52 2.47
0.64 2.57 0.00 1.02 0.60
1.45 0.37 0.80 0.43 0.60 0.77 0.72
0.261 0.993 0.009 0.048 0.552 0.033 0.528
1.45 1.00 0.37 2.09 0.80 1.99 0.76
0.085 0.005 0.018 0.997 0.188
2.35 0.25 3.41 0.00 2.20
0.002 0.106
0.25 0.60
0.362 0.719 0.002 0.789 0.009 0.412 0.911
1.52 0.85 0.24 1.16 0.26 0.64 0.94
a OR ¼ Odds Ratio; The blank spaces in this summary table mean “Not Applicable” because the stepwise method used retains only the significant independent variables in the final models. b A category in the parenthesis refers to the reference group of the corresponding independent variables.
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