Socioeconomic effect on perception of urban green spaces in Guangzhou, China

Cities 31 (2013) 123–131

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Socioeconomic effect on perception of urban green spaces in Guangzhou, China C.Y. Jim ⇑, Xizhang Shan Department of Geography, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 6 January 2012 Received in revised form 20 May 2012 Accepted 21 June 2012 Available online 15 July 2012 Keywords: Urban green space Visitor perception Socioeconomic effect Distance-reinforced perception Participatory planning Nature education

a b s t r a c t Visitor perception can influence use pattern and inform planning and management of urban green spaces (UGSs). This study investigated visitors’ views on key UGS variables and socioeconomic effect on UGS perception in Guangzhou, China. A questionnaire survey solicited responses to positive and negative UGS attributes from 595 respondents selected by stratified sampling from visitors in the study area. The results showed good knowledge, positive perception and limited concern about safety. Benefits directly related to individual and family interests were emphasized, such as health enhancement, promotion of children development, and stress reduction. The social role of community development (social interaction) received less support. Significant differences in perception were found across most socioeconomic variables, including gender, age, marital status, education, occupation, and district of residence. The distance-reinforced negative perception of UGS called for the generous provision of proximal sites near homes to satisfy local demands. Future UGS planning could capitalize on the positive views to promote preservation, provision and use of UGS. Local governments could incorporate citizen perception and preference into the relevant decision-making process to meet the diverse and evolving demands for UGS. The findings could be applied to the design and management of UGS in other developing cities. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction Perception of the environment or landscape may influence user behaviors and mirror user motives, preferences and attitudes (Nasar, 2008; Ward Thompson, Aspinall, Bell, & Findlay, 2005; Yuen & Hien, 2005), which could inform planning and management of urban green spaces (UGSs) (Ahern, 1995). Positive perception of natural and social domains of the local environment could encourage physical activities (Poortinga, 2006) and their beneficial outcomes (McGinn, Evenson, Herring, & Huston, 2007). Perceived access to recreational facilities could promote wholesome recreational pursuits (Hoehner, Brennan, Elliott, Handy, & Brownson, 2005). Studies in different cities indicate that people harbor complex and ambivalent ‘‘half sought and half feared’’ perception of UGS (Crewe, 2001; Hunter, 2001). They appreciate and aspire for their multiple benefits, yet they associate them with insecurity and crime. People who find UGS attractive, pleasant and safe are more likely to use them, whereas those especially females who feel unsafe tend to avoid them (Bell, Ward Thompson, & Travlou, 2003; Burgess, 1998; Ward Thompson et al., 2005; Westover, 1985). Therefore, positive perception can promote UGS patronage, whereas negative one can limit visitation and modify use pattern (Bixler & Floyd, 1997). Perception of UGS depends on their intrinsic structure and composition, and extrinsic socioeconomic background of users (Acar, ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2859 7020; fax: +852 2559 8994. E-mail address: [email protected] (C.Y. Jim). 0264-2751/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2012.06.017

Kurdoglu, Kurdoglu, & Acar, 2006; Zube, Sell, & Taylor, 1982). The young and highly educated have higher environmental awareness (Chung & Poon, 1999) and emphasize the beneficial UGS functions (Jim & Chen, 2006a; Tyrväinen, Mäkinen, & Schipperijn, 2007). Women, children and the elderly are more likely to perceive UGS as risky places due to worries of personal safety (Burgess, 1998; Nayak, 2003; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Woolley & Amin, 1995), which would dampen their use (Miles, 2008). People with more experience with nature during childhood are disposed to positive attitude towards UGS (Bell et al., 2003; Burgess, Harrison, & Limb, 1988; Sebba, 1991), and become keen visitors in adulthood (Ward Thompson, Aspinall, & Montarzino, 2008). Understanding the perception of UGS among social groups could throw light on their design and management (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Purcell, 1992). The social and cultural values of UGS echo attitudes towards nature and the desire for contact with it (Ward Thompson, 2002). This research explored the differential user perception amongst the social groups in Guangzhou in south China, the underlying factors that account for the variations, and the application of the findings to park design and management. Study area and methods Study area The study was conducted in Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province and the largest municipality in south China. The

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study area includes eight central districts (Guangzhou Statistical Bureau., 2006). It covers 335.42 km2 and accounts for 23.38% of the city area (Guangzhou Statistical Bureau, 2006), with a high population density of 13,482/km2 (Guangzhou Districts Census Office., 2002). Guangzhou has a typical subtropical oceanic monsoon climate, characterized by plentiful rainfall and sunlight, and a long humidhot summer season. The natural conditions facilitate diverse and fast vegetation growth and nurture a regional landscaping tradition (Zeng, 1991). Its recent rapid urban expansion and socio-spatial restructuring have highlighted the need to increase and improve UGS. In 2005, urban Guangzhou embraced 244.03 km2 of public UGS, constituting 33.2% of the land area and equivalent to 11.32 m2 per capita (Guangzhou Statistical Bureau, 2006). Questionnaire design A questionnaire survey probed user perception of UGS, with reference to some similar studies (Bell et al., 2004; Burgess et al., 1988; Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003; Yuen, Kong, & Briffett, 1999). Local UGS officials were solicited in designing the questionnaire. The first part presented 12 key UGS attributes (seven positive and five negative). The five-point Likert scale was employed, from ‘‘strongly agree’’ (coded as 1) to ‘‘strongly disagree’’ (as 5) to assess opinions. The second part evaluated the socioeconomic profile and perception of respondents, including gender, age, marital status, education level, household monthly income, occupation, place of residence, walking time to reach the nearest UGS, and childhood experience with nature. All questionnaire survey procedures were performed in compliance with relevant laws and institutional guidelines, and that the appropriate institutional committee has approved them. Sampling, questionnaire survey and data analysis Stratified random sampling was adopted based on the latest available census data (Guangzhou Districts Census Office, 2002). The target sample size of 600 was distributed amongst the districts largely according to population size. A pilot test examined the lo-

gic, clarity, succinctness of the questions. Four undergraduate students with relevant academic background from a local university were trained as research assistants. They were coached in the procedures and etiquette of questionnaire survey and to balance the gender spread (Gobster, 1995). The full survey was completed in December 2005 through face-to-face interviews at 24 green sites, covering the main UGS types in the study area. Municipal UGS managers and experts were consulted in site selection. During the survey in a UGS, one out of every three visitors over 15 years old was selected as respondents. The respondents completed the questionnaire independently and explanation was provided if necessary. Immediately after completion, each questionnaire was checked in situ by the interviewer and the respondent was forthwith asked to rectify missing or obviously wrong answers. A token gift was presented to respondents to appreciate their kind assistance. The data were analyzed by SPSS version 13, mainly using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to detect the differences between socioeconomic groups. Results Response rate and respondent characteristics Of the 713 selected visitors, 606 were successfully interviewed with a response rate of 85%. The high response rate may reflect Guangzhou residents’ heightened concern about UGS vis-à-vis the poor environmental quality and cramped living space. As their opinions on public affairs are seldom solicited, they relish the chance to express their views (Jim & Chen, 2006b). Eleven (1.8%) questionnaires with missing data mainly on socioeconomic status were discarded. The remaining 595 questionnaires were used in the analyses. The profile of the respondents is denoted by five socioeconomic variables (Table 1). Males (55.8%) slightly exceed female. For age, the 30–49 group (31.4%) outnumbers other groups, followed by 15–24 (29.6%) and 25–29 (23.2%). The more senior 50–59 and P60 groups only account for 7.2% and 8.6% respectively. For education, 42.8% hold a university or higher degree, indicating a relatively high education attainment. Respondents with upper and lower

Table 1 Socioeconomic characteristics of respondents and comparison with 2000 Guangzhou census data. Socioeconomic variablea

Category

Survey (%)

Census (%)

Gender (X2 = 0.41; p = 0.522)

Male Female 15–24 25–29 30–49 50–59 P60 Lower secondary school Upper secondary school University and higher <1000 1000–3000 >3000 Baiyun Dongshan Fangcun Haizhu Huangpu Liwan Tianhe Yuexiu

55.8 44.2 29.6 23.2 31.4 7.2 8.6 20.4 36.8 42.8 28.3 54.1 17.6 12.3 13.1 10.6 17.5 7.9 11.1 19.6 7.9

52.8 47.2 24.5 16.4 39.6 8.1 11.4 53.4 29.3 17.3 34.3 47.9 17.8 14.0 12.3 4.9 21.6 8.0 10.5 21.1 7.6

Age (X2 = 6.41; p = 0.170)

Education level (X2 = 61.09; p = 0.000)

Household monthly income per capita (RMB) (X2 = 1.94; p = 0.380) District (X2 = 8.26; p = 0.288)

Data source: Guangzhou Districts Census Office, 2002; Horizon Research (2001) for comparison of monthly income, cited in Jim and Chen (2006b). a Results of chi-square test are presented in the parentheses under corresponding variables. b Difference is calculated by subtracting census percent from survey percent.

Differenceb (%) 3.0 3.0 5.1 6.8 8.2 0.9 2.8 33.0 7.5 25.5 6.0 6.2 0.2 1.7 0.8 5.7 4.1 0.1 0.6 1.5 0.3

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C.Y. Jim, X. Shan / Cities 31 (2013) 123–131 Table 2 Perception of positive and negative attributes of UGS by respondents (percent of valid respondents).a

a b c

Disagree

Meanb

Strongly disagree

Rankc

UGS attribute

Strongly agree

Agree

Neutral

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction Group average

65.9 58.2 56.0 50.6 49.9 46.6 38.2 52.2

31.1 37.6 41.2 42.4 41.8 41.8 43.9 40.0

2.2 3.4 2.5 5.2 7.1 9.2 14.6 6.3

0.3 0.3 0.2 1.5 0.5 1.8 2.5 1.0

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

1.38 1.47 1.47 1.58 1.59 1.67 1.82 1.57

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time Group average

30.9 23.0 9.4 5.7 3.2 14.4

39.5 38.2 18.3 14.3 3.5 22.8

14.3 25.0 22.7 33.4 5.9 20.3

8.7 10.8 43.7 39.3 55.1 31.5

6.2 2.5 5.5 6.4 31.6 10.4

2.20 2.33 3.18 3.27 4.10 3.01

8 9 10 11 12 10

1 = Strongly agree; 2 = agree; 3 = neutral; 4 = disagree; and 5 = strongly disagree. Interpretation of the mean score: <1.8 = strongly agree, 1.8–2.6 = agree, 2.6–3.4 = neutral, 3.4–4.2 = disagree, and P4.2 = strongly disagree. The mean score was used to rank the 12 items regarding perceptions in ascending order.

secondary education account for 36.8% and 20.4% respectively. The monthly income follows a normal distribution. The modal group RMB1000–3000/month contributes 54.1%, whereas RMB3000/month take 28.3% and 17.6% respectively. For place of residence, compared to the 2000 census data, Fangcun district is overrepresented by 5.7%, and Haizhu underrepresented by 4.1%. Chi-square test indicates no significant differences for gender, age, monthly income and place of residence (Table 1). More respondents (X2 = 61.09; p = 0.000) have university and higher education than the general population. This is because people below 15 years old were not included in the survey, and more educated people were interested in the subject (Loomis & King, 1994; Sims, Hodges, Fly, & Stephens, 2005).

Perception of UGS The residents are equipped with good knowledge of UGS and could well recognize the benefits. For the seven positive attributes, most respondents accord a high level of appreciation. The ‘‘strongly agree’’ and ‘‘agree’’ responses range from 82.1% to 97.2%, with an average of 92.2% (Table 2). The mean scores of the seven benefits are all <2.0, with an overall average of 1.57 (<1.8 = strongly agree). For the five negative attributes, mixed responses are expressed.

Two human intrusions record strong agreement by >60%, and the other three attain low agreement of <30% (Table 2). The ranking of attributes reflects the concern for UGS. The contribution to health attracts the top rank, followed by the importance to children development and stress reduction (Table 2). Deterioration of environmental quality, especially air quality, has fostered strong awareness of and concern about health. UGS has the capability to abate air pollution and noise, albeit somewhat limited in dense cities. Under the one-child family-planning policy in China, creating a good living environment to raise children has become the parents’ cardinal consideration. The fast-pace and stressful urban life has generated yearns for relaxation and recharging through contact with nature (Zhang & Gobster, 1998). The enhancement of property value by UGS takes a middle rank, which departs from most previous studies. UGS provides various social and psychological benefits to urbanites, which enrich urban life with meanings and emotions (Chiesura, 2004). They contribute to the positive qualities of urban life through opportunities and physical settings as well as social and cultural diversity (Burgess et al., 1988). The importance to daily life is echoed by Guangzhou users (Table 2). Ranked at the end is the importance to social interaction. Some 14.6% have little interest in or give attention to communication with others in UGS. It reflects the low levels of social exchanges in Guangzhou, partly due to high population and residential mobility (Forrest & Yip, 2007; Li, Wang, & Law, 2005).

Table 3 Difference in perception of UGS by respondent gender and marital status based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

Gender (Pillai’s trace = 0.05; p = 0.005)

Marital status (Pilllai’s trace = 0.08; p = 0.000)

Male

Female

F Value (df = 1)

p

Married

Single

F Value (df = 1)

p

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction

1.40 1.51 1.47 1.55 1.62 1.75 1.87

1.34 1.41 1.46 1.61 1.54 1.56 1.75

1.69 3.02 0.07 0.83 2.17 10.22 3.34

0.194 0.083 0.788 0.362 0.141 0.001 0.068

1.33 1.39 1.45 1.55 1.56 1.55 1.78

1.44 1.56 1.49 1.61 1.61 1.82 1.86

4.96 9.91 0.88 0.95 0.68 18.52 1.28

0.026 0.002 0.350 0.329 0.409 0.000 0.259

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

2.20 2.31 3.24 3.25 4.13

2.17 2.33 3.09 3.30 4.07

0.11 0.06 2.83 0.38 0.68

0.739 0.813 0.093 0.539 0.412

2.13 2.28 3.33 3.38 4.14

2.27 2.38 2.97 3.12 4.05

2.05 1.28 15.48 9.94 1.55

0.152 0.259 0.000 0.002 0.214

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Table 4 Difference in perception of UGS by respondent age based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

Age (Pillai’s trace = 0.16; p = 0.000) 15–24

25–29

30–493

50–59

P60

F Value (df = 4)

p

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction

1.45 1.62 1.54 1.67 1.69 1.84 1.88

1.41 1.42 1.46 1.57 1.54 1.67 1.87

1.34 1.37 1.43 1.54 1.52 1.59 1.75

1.27 1.51 1.56 1.49 1.73 1.54 1.98

1.22 1.33 1.33 1.47 1.49 1.39 1.61

2.17 4.71 1.85 1.44 2.43 5.14 2.08

0.072 0.001 0.117 0.220 0.047 0.000 0.083

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

2.44 2.47 2.97 3.17 4.07

2.10 2.23 3.12 3.23 4.06

1.93 2.16 3.23 3.28 4.09

2.12 2.51 3.32 3.32 4.22

2.51 2.43 3.71 3.63 4.29

5.73 2.77 5.03 2.24 0.88

0.000 0.027 0.001 0.064 0.474

Concerning negative attributes, incivility and vandalism, and commercial encroachment, secure notable agreement amongst the respondents (>60%), suggest an intensified consciousness of these chronic problems. The perceived safety issues do not unduly alarm users, with <30% stating lack of safety, and hence ranking it rather low (Table 2). This result contrasts the findings in the literature. The statement that ‘‘visiting UGS to while away time’’ (spend time in a pleasant lazy way) draws the strongest disagreement. Some 23% find the attack of bugs problematic, as they can breed easily in the city’s humid-hot climate. Overall, the responses in this group mirror appreciation of UGS benefits. Socioeconomic differentiation in perception The gender effect on UGS perception is relatively weak. Among the 12 attributes, gender was associated only with the importance to daily life (F = 10.22; p = 0.001). Females are more likely (1.56 versus 1.75) to emphasize the contribution of UGS to their daily lives (Table 3). Traditional Chinese culture endows women with a family-oriented mindset, to be more responsible for family lives. Females usually take charge of household affairs, and are more sensitive to UGS association with their daily lives. They are typically more dependent on the immediate surroundings as opposed to males. In addition, being in general more hesitant to participate in outdoor recreation than men (Culp, 1998; Johnson, Bowker, & Cordell, 2001), women have more need for and gain more benefits from passive recreational activities in UGS (Björk et al., 2008). Marital status contributes notably to UGS perception, with five attributes showing significant differences between married and

p In the Scheffe comparison

p(1, 3) = 0.006

p(1, 3) = 0.034; p(1, 5) = 0.005

p(1, 3) = 0.002; p(3, 5) = 0.036 p(1, 5) = 0.001; p(2, 5) = 0.028

single groups (Table 3). Married respondents are more concerned about the health-promoting value of UGS (1.33 versus 1.44), contribution to children development (1.39 versus 1.56), and importance to daily lives (1.55 versus 1.82), but they are less concerned about UGS safety issues (3.33 versus 2.97; 3.38 versus 3.12). Such results are tied to distinct life stages (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). Married residents tend to pay more attention to children growth, health and quality of life. For age, four attributes show significant variations in UGS perception (Table 4). The 30–49 group rate children development higher than the 15–24 group (p = 0.006), as most young people are single with no children. Concerning the importance to daily life, the 15–24 age group differs significantly from the 30–49 (p = 0.034) and >60 groups (p = 0.005). The older groups tend to appreciate the benefit more than the young, suggesting an increasing interest with age. The incivility and vandalism attribute attracts divergent responses by age. The 30–49 group (1.93) which is the largest group, expresses stronger agreement, whereas the 15–24 (2.44) and >60 groups (2.51) demonstrate weaker agreement. This result echoes the age effect on UGS use pattern and tolerance of antisocial behavior (Ward Thompson et al., 2005). Regarding bug attack, the >60 group differs significantly from 15–24 (p = 0.001) and 25–29 groups (p = 0.028). The >60 group (3.71) tends to disagree, whereas the two young groups (2.97 and 3.12 respectively) are mainly neutral. Age could enhance understanding and appreciation of UGS functions, and dampen negative feelings. Education level is strongly related to UGS perception, significantly influencing eight of the 12 attributes (Table 5). For positive

Table 5 Difference in perception of UGS by respondent education level based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

a

Education levela (Pillai’s trace = 0.09; p = 0.000) 1

2

3

F Value (df = 2)

p

Positive benefit Promote health Children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction

1.38 1.56 1.51 1.67 1.60 1.69 1.92

1.43 1.53 1.53 1.68 1.71 1.71 1.90

1.32 1.37 1.40 1.45 1.48 1.62 1.71

2.01 5.37 3.13 8.46 6.45 0.94 4.85

0.135 0.005 0.045 0.000 0.002 0.389 0.008

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

2.45 2.62 3.44 3.45 4.14

2.20 2.33 3.21 3.30 4.09

2.05 2.16 3.01 3.15 4.10

4.99 7.98 6.53 4.25 0.10

0.007 0.000 0.002 0.015 0.910

1 6 Lower secondary school; 2 = upper secondary school; AND 3 = university and higher.

p In the Scheffe comparison

p(1, 3) = 0.025; p(2, 3) = 0.025 p(1, 3) = 0.012; p(2, 3) = 0.001 p(2, 3) = 0.002 p(1, 3) = 0.044; p(2, 3) = 0.029 p(1, 3) = 0.007 p(1, 2) = 0.049; p(1, 3) = 0.000 p(1, 3) = 0.002 p(1, 3) = 0.017

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C.Y. Jim, X. Shan / Cities 31 (2013) 123–131 Table 6 Difference in perception of UGS by respondent occupation based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

a

Occupationa (Pillai’s trace = 0.20; p = 0.000) 1

2

3

4

5

6

F Value (df = 5)

p

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction

p In the Scheffe comparison

1.42 1.49 1.49 1.59 1.61 1.71 1.88

1.46 1.46 1.32 1.70 1.51 1.78 1.84

1.22 1.38 1.44 1.46 1.60 1.43 1.69

1.31 1.44 1.53 1.63 1.53 1.53 1.78

1.18 1.41 1.38 1.48 1.44 1.65 1.56

1.60 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.65 2.00

3.71 0.67 1.34 1.17 1.00 2.14 2.49

0.003 0.643 0.244 0.321 0.420 0.060 0.031

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

2.12 2.25 3.22 3.27 4.08

2.41 2.22 3.11 3.27 4.08

2.38 2.44 3.60 3.56 4.31

2.22 2.47 3.16 3.47 3.78

2.18 2.33 2.60 2.83 4.13

2.20 2.80 2.85 3.30 4.40

0.94 1.58 6.36 4.14 2.06

0.458 0.165 0.000 0.001 0.069

p(1, 5) = 0.004; p(3, 5) = 0.000 p(3, 5) = 0.002

1 = Employed; 2 = self–employed; 3 = retired; 4 = unemployed; 5 = student; and 6 = others.

Table 7 Difference in perception of UGS by new and old districts and respondent childhood experience with nature based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

a b

New and old districtsa (Pillai’s trace = 0.07; p = 0.000)

Childhood experience with natureb (Pillai’s trace = 0.09; p = 0.001)

New

Old

F Value (df = 1)

p

1

2

3

F Value (df = 2)

p

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction

1.42 1.48 1.50 1.61 1.62 1.68 1.90

1.27 1.44 1.41 1.50 1.51 1.62 1.67

8.48 0.29 2.63 3.36 3.73 0.82 10.95

0.004 0.588 0.106 0.067 0.054 0.366 0.001

1.34 1.37 1.43 1.46 1.50 1.54 1.72

1.38 1.51 1.46 1.63 1.71 1.68 1.81

1.41 1.54 1.51 1.68 1.60 1.80 1.94

0.88 4.68 0.97 6.24 4.08 7.10 4.42

0.414 0.010 0.379 0.002 0.017 0.001 0.012

Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

2.15 2.29 3.09 3.18 4.09

2.26 2.38 3.35 3.44 4.13

1.15 1.08 7.15 9.04 0.17

0.285 0.299 0.008 0.003 0.684

2.02 2.27 3.12 3.17 4.10

2.14 2.27 3.05 3.22 4.02

2.41 2.41 3.32 3.42 4.18

6.64 1.13 3.15 3.70 1.27

0.001 0.323 0.044 0.025 0.283

p In the Scheffe comparison

p(1, 3) = 0.014 p(1, 3) = 0.004 p(1, 2) = 0.020 p(1, 3) = 0.001 p(1, 3) = 0.013 p(1, 3) = 0.002

p(1, 3) = 0.031

Old districts include Liwan, Yuexiu and Dongshan, and new districts include Baiyun, Fangcun, Haizhu, Tianhe and Huangpu. 1 = City; 2 = town; and 3 = countryside.

attributes, respondents with university and higher degree display stronger appreciation than the less educated. The group also shows stronger agreement with the negative aspects. Education could have deepened and refined perception and understandings of UGS. Occupation significantly affects two attributes about UGS safety (Table 6). For bug attack, the students tend to be neutral (2.60), whereas the employed (3.22) and retired (3.60) disagree. A similar pattern is found for UGS as an unsafe place. Furthermore, for both types of perception, the students present the lowest means among the six occupations, harboring the unsafe perception (Table 4). As 92.3% of the students are in the youngest 15–24 group, increasing age could dilute the view of unsafe UGS. The living environment can affect perception and attitudes towards UGS (Crow, Brown, & De Young, 2006), as indicated by the significant difference between the five new and the three old districts (Table 7). For positive benefits, respondents of old districts accord more importance to the health value (1.27 versus 1.42) and social interaction (1.67 versus 1.90) than new districts. The old districts are beset by poor environmental quality especially air pollution (Zhao et al., 2004) and limited greenery, which have fueled concern about health and desire for more UGS. The inordinately compact urban form in old districts has brought a cramped living environment with meager public spaces, pushing people to seek relief in public open spaces. The existing social cohesion of the registered residents in the neighborhoods of old districts would emphasize the use of UGS

to enhance social interaction. For the negative aspects, the district differentiation is due to perception of UGS safety. Respondents of old districts are less concerned about UGS safety than new districts (3.35 versus 3.09; 3.44 versus 3.18). The notorious ‘‘urban villages’’ in new districts and associated social problems could have triggered the negative feeling. The large floating population, with unstable and low-income jobs, tends to concentrate in such urban villages with low rent but very poor housing and environmental quality. They could be construed by the registered residents as ‘‘strangers’’ especially in the neighborhood UGS to trigger negative feelings such as safety in relation to UGS use in new districts. Childhood experience with nature has strong influence on UGS perception of seven out of 12 attributes (Table 7). For positive benefits, respondents who grew up in urban areas surprisingly show strong agreement. For two negative attributes, they also agree more than their rural counterparts. Better education would equip urban children with appropriate social etiquette and behavior, hence heightened sensitivity towards incivility and vandalism in their adult lives. On the other hand, the lack of free play outdoors (Valentine & Mckendrick, 1997; Ward Thompson et al., 2008) may frustrate development of child independence and courage as individuals and reduce confidence in using UGS (Cornell, Hadley, Sterling, Chan, & Boechler, 2001; Prezza, Alparone, Cristallo, & Luigi, 2005). For the UGS nearest to home, the marked difference in perception is attributed to three negative variables (Table 8). Respondents

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Table 8 Difference in perception of UGS by walking time to the UGS nearest to respondent home based on MANOVA test. UGS attribute

Positive benefit Promote health Promote children development Reduce stress Increase property value Contact with nature Importance to daily life Space for social interaction Negative aspect Incivility and vandalism Commercial encroachment Bug attack Unsafe place Whiling away time

Walking time to UGS nearest to home (Pillai’s trace = 0.15; p = 0.000) <10 min 1

10–20 min 2

20–30 min 3

30–60 min 4

P60 min 5

F Value (df = 4)

p

1.35 1.44

1.37 1.51

1.43 1.52

1.52 1.48

1.27 1.27

0.86 0.92

0.486 0.452

1.47 1.52 1.55 1.61 1.79

1.51 1.67 1.64 1.69 1.97

1.48 1.66 1.66 1.79 1.83

1.36 1.61 1.61 1.87 1.65

1.33 1.33 1.40 1.27 1.40

0.69 1.99 1.08 2.69 2.94

0.601 0.095 0.367 0.030 0.020

2.13 2.33 3.30 3.38 4.22

2.41 2.43 3.23 3.32 4.11

2.08 2.17 2.90 3.12 3.84

2.16 2.29 2.97 2.97 4.00

1.80 1.80 2.07 2.13 3.20

2.30 1.78 6.72 7.48 7.04

0.058 0.131 0.000 0.000 0.000

with the nearest UGS situated beyond one-hour walking distance indicate less security (2.07 and 2.13 respectively) than others. The same group has less agreement towards the perception of visiting UGS to while away time. The distance-from-home or availability of UGS has exerted influence on perception. Discussion Positive perception and sense of safety Previous studies have ascertained the environmental, economic and social benefits of UGS. Recently, the health-related benefits such as stress reduction and physical activity have been emphasized (Cohen et al., 2007; Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003). However, few studies have addressed the extent to which urban dwellers understand and appreciate such benefits (Ho et al., 2005). Our study indicates that most respondents highly value UGS benefits (Table 2). For negative attributes, except two human-induced disturbances, the rest have limited agreement. Guangzhou users hold good knowledge and overall positive perception of UGS, and negative perceptions are mainly associated with human intrusions. The positive perception in Guangzhou lends support to cognate studies (Bell et al., 2004; Jim & Chen, 2006a; Tyrväinen, 2001; Tyrväinen & Väänänen, 1998; Weaver & Lawton, 2008; Yuen et al., 1999). For example, in the East Midlands, UK, green spaces were widely perceived as an intrinsic element of people’s lives (Bell et al., 2004). In Amsterdam, people associated various positive feelings, such as freedom, unity with nature and happiness, with their UGS experience (Chiesura, 2004). The pleasant feeling and experience were shared by Singaporean residents (Yuen et al., 1999). In Los Angeles, 89% of the residents expressed access to UGS on a daily basis as very important or important (Pincetl & Gearin, 2005). The positive perception of UGS seems to be universal, transcending geographical and cultural divides. Among the seven UGS benefits, those directly concerning individual and family interests are more appreciated, such as health enhancement, promotion of children development, and stress reduction. This echoes a US nationwide survey (Godbey, Graefe, & James, 1992), where the foremost benefits recognized by users were personal. In Guangzhou, the contribution to health attracts the most attention due to serious and chronic pollution (Jim & Chen, 2006a). The perception about promoting children development and stress reduction echoes other studies (Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). For example, in the nationwide

p In the Scheffe comparison

p(1, 5) = 0.001; p(2, 5) = 0.003 p(1, 5) = 0.000; p(2, 5) = 0.000; p(3, 5) = 0.012 p(1, 3) = 0.025; p(1, 5) = 0.001; p(2, 5) = 0.006

survey in the Netherlands, 95% of the respondents believed nature visits could relieve stresses (van den Berg, Hartig, & Staats, 2007). In another survey in Sweden, most respondents recommended a walk in the forest to their friends to reduce stress (Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003). The UGS contribution to the quality of life and contact with nature is widely shared by residents in other cities (Crow et al., 2006; Pincetl & Gearin, 2005; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). The promotion of social interactions in UGS received little support in our study. Guangzhou residents are inclined to a utilitarian perception of UGS, which is shared by their Singaporean peers (Yuen et al., 1999). It also implies the failure of park design to foster social interactions amongst user groups, and the corollary of failing to cultivate social integration. Residents are less concerned or have limited understanding about the more subtle high-level social value of UGS. A local survey on the attitude towards the respondents’ neighborhoods yielded similar results, with little interest in interpersonal interactions and an emphasis on physical attributes such as shopping, transportation, schools and entertainment (Forrest & Yip, 2007). The contribution of UGS to property value is well recognized in Guangzhou (Table 2). This finding conforms to the study in Mandeville city, New Orleans (LAs) (Lorenzo, Blanche, Qi, & Guidry, 2000). However, in most other studies (Tyrväinen, 2001; Tyrväinen et al., 2007), this benefit was accorded less importance. The difference may be explained by the housing reform since 1998 in urban China (Wang & Li, 2006). The transition from the previous welfare allocation to marketization has pushed citizen to purchase housing from the property market. This behavioral overhaul has focused attention on housing issues, which has been accentuated by recent sharp rise in property prices. Residential properties with internal UGS could command a premium price, as reported by a hedonic pricing analysis of housing transactions in Guangzhou (Jim & Chen, 2006c). Most Guangzhou residents have confidence in UGS security and bug problems (Table 2). This result departs from other cities, where UGS was often perceived to be unsafe (Burgess et al., 1988; Hunter, 2001; Jorgensen & Anthopoulou, 2007; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006; Westover, 1985; Yuen et al., 1999). For instance, 58% of Singaporean respondents worried about being attacked by insects or animals when visiting UGS (Yuen et al., 1999). Almost half of Bari (Italy) residents felt unsafe in UGS (Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). A survey in Atlanta and Philadelphia, USA, indicated deep concern about park safety and strong agreement that parks attracted crimes and created unsafe conditions (Ho et al., 2005).

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The general feeling of safe UGS in Guangzhou may be linked to distinct site characteristics. Unlike western cities, high-density urban development in most Chinese cities has left little natural green space or wilderness for recreation (Jim & Chen, 2003), which are the major source of safety concern in the literature (Bixler & Floyd, 1997; Nassauer, 1995; Talbot & Kaplan, 1984). UGS in Guangzhou are intensively developed and managed (Jim & Chen, 2006a), which could nurture perception of security (Schroeder & Anderson, 1984; Talbot & Kaplan, 1984). The landscape design of Guangzhou UGS is dominated by the parkland style with manicured lawns and dispersed trees and sparse tree cover with little understory, resulting in high visibility and an enhanced sense of safety (Burgess, 1998; Jorgensen, Hitchmough, & Calvert, 2002). Moreover, the compact urban form and high population density have induced intensive use of UGS (Jim & Chen, 2006b) to counteract the safety concern (Kong, Yuen, Briffett, & Sodhi, 1997).

Negative perception of human intrusion Guangzhou residents are concerned about two human intrusions into UGS, namely incivility and vandalism, and commercial encroachment (Table 2). Similar problems were highlighted elsewhere (Bell et al., 2003; Tyrväinen, 2001). Vandalism is largely associated with young people, particularly teenage boys (Bell et al., 2003; Ward Thompson et al., 2005). Vandalism in public spaces, however, is a complex issue due to differential perception of use and abuse (Ward Thompson et al., 2005) respectively by children, adults and managers (Bell et al., 2003). Free exploration and creative play in the natural milieu are conducive to cognitive, mental and physical development of children (Burgess et al., 1988; Cornell et al., 2001; Wells & Evans, 2003). However, some behaviors are considered by adults and managers as undesirable, causing nuisance or threat to other users (Bell et al., 2003). An additional source of human incursion is related to Guangzhou’s huge transient population of over 3 million near the study time (Guangzhou Census Office., 2002), mainly less educated and low-income migrant workers from rural areas. To escape from abject living condition, these temporary residents visit parks frequently and impose some deleterious impacts. The floating population has since increased well above the 2002 figure, with corresponding accentuation in the negative effects. Incivility and vandalism impose negative impacts on UGS (Schroeder & Anderson, 1984; Shaffer & Anderson, 1985), which may generate fears and deter some users (Bell et al., 2003; Ward Thompson et al., 2005), and are perceived as a threat to personal safety (Tucker and Matthews, 2001). As a result, a green wall around degraded UGS may gradually emerge as social divides (Solecki & Welch, 1995). To achieve socially inclusive access, UGS should embrace the migrant workers and teenagers, who are often excluded or marginalized in public spaces designed mainly as adult spaces (Owens, 2002; Valentine, 1996; Ward Thompson et al., 2005). This high-level objective poses a novel challenge to UGS planners and managers in Guangzhou and other Chinese cities. UGS land in Guangzhou has been eroded by commercial encroachment or illegal appropriations (Table 2), which occasionally beset other places (Bell et al., 2004). The high awareness reflects public anxiety on the territorial integrity and quality of UGS. The underlying causes are the lax exercise of administrative discretion, inadequate coordination of relevant government units on UGS management (Ng & Xu, 2000), over-emphasis of economic growth (Li, Yeung, & Seabrooke, 2005), and illegal construction. In the transition from a centrally-planned to a market-led economy, urban planning has become marginalized and ineffective in development control including UGS preservation. As a result, UGS land could be relegated as a grey area with slack control, and exploited by opportunistic and illegal developments. Urban planning legisla-

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tion could incorporate a component to zone new UGS sites and protect existing ones from non-conforming intrusion. Socioeconomic effect on perception Socioeconomic variables significantly influence the perception of UGS in Guangzhou. Several findings contrast with those in the literature, notably the lack of gender effect on perception of UGS safety (Table 3). This result diverges from similar studies (Burgess, 1998; Burgess et al., 1988; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006), where women are more concerned about security. Except landscape characteristics (high visibility design), intensive management and heavy use could forestall gender-related crimes and enhance women’s sense of safety (Kong et al., 1997). The perception associated with age also deviates from other studies (Jorgensen & Anthopoulou, 2007; Sanesi & Chiarello, 2006). The older, especially >60, group holds more positive perception and less concern about safety issues (Table 4). Such mentality may be fostered by frequent UGS visit experience or childhood contact with natural environment. The present generation of children has notably fewer chances to play outdoors because of parental worries about safety (Miles, 2008; Prezza et al., 2005; Valentine & McKendrick, 1997). As the survey only included on-site visitors, the elderly non-users were omitted (Lee, Scott, & Floyd, 2001; Payne, Mowen, & Orsega-Smith, 2002) as indicated by the respondent profile (Table 1). Elderly users are more likely to hold positive views and are less worried about safety. Some studies evaluated the association between UGS visit frequency and distance, showing a distance-decay trend (Grahn & Stigsdotter, 2003; Ward Thompson et al., 2005). Few researches address the effect of distance on UGS perception. In Guangzhou, distance to the UGS nearest to home breeds negative UGS perception including feeling of insecurity (Table 8). More importantly, they are inclined to remain neutral regarding ‘‘visiting UGS to while away time’’. Such perception signals their increasing estrangement from and losing interest in UGS. Sites situated near homes could be provided as far as possible to suppress such negative feelings. The effect of childhood experience with nature on UGS perception lends support to previous studies (Table 7). Respondents raised in a city are predisposed to a positive perception than their rural peers (Sebba, 1991; Ward Thompson et al., 2008). This result may be associated with the difference of exposure to nature education between cities and rural areas in China. Nature education in cities has received more attention and has been integrated into formal educational programs. The early education has successfully inculcated urban children with a positive attitude and an enduring effect on adulthood behavior (Harrison, Limb, & Burgess, 1987; Sebba, 1991). For negative attributes, residents with a rural background are less worried about safety, which matches other studies. Compared to their urban peers, rural children have more opportunities to freely explore and play in natural sites due to less concern about danger (Bell et al., 2003; Miles, 2008). Also, the childhood wildland sojourns are less influenced by fragmentation of local ecological and social networks by urbanization (Johnson & Hurley, 2002). Such encounters could foster an affinity with nature and develop their independence and courage as individuals (Cornell et al., 2001; Prezza et al., 2005). Knowledge about nature could dispel unfounded fears about natural domains. Such valuable childhood experience with nature and associated positive impacts on mental-intellectual development (Johnson & Hurley, 2002) may bequeath lingering effect to boost their confidence as adult UGS users (Ward Thompson et al., 2008). Other studies indicate that income level has a bearing on outdoor recreational participation level, especially for the need to purchase facilities such as fishing and camping. However, in our study, income level has no significant effect on UGS perception. This is be-

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cause most UGS visitors walk to the nearby sites and the recreational consumption does not incur transport or other expenses (Tyrväinen & Väänänen, 1998).

Conclusion The study has explored Guangzhou residents’ perception of UGS with reference to key socioeconomic variables. The overall positive perception, which upholds general findings in the literature, could promote UGS use and lend public support to UGS preservation and provision in the course of intensive development. Most Chinese cities have recently experienced massive expansion, intensification, redevelopment and socio-spatial restructuring, and a transition from a centrally-planned to a market economy. Findings of UGS studies could inform the development of an adequate, user-oriented and socially inclusive UGS program that is responsive to citizen expectations and could fulfill the quest for sustainable cities. UGS governance at different stages of the stream could evolve from a patronizing approach dominated by official and professional input, to a more enlightened community–participatory planning and management mode. The key benefits attract strong support, indicating wide recognition of UGS as multifunctional places and the need to adopt a multi-purpose planning strategy. UGS is a valuable resource for individual well-being as well as community development. The social interaction function should be factored into UGS design to foster the sense of community (Cattell, Dines, Gesler, & Curtis, 2008), nurture social cohesion and neighborhood attachment. Compared to other benefits (especially the utilitarian ones), however, Guangzhou users place less emphasis on social value. This perception gap calls for education and publicity programs to facilitate wider recognition of the value, and realize the social sustainability role of UGS. The rapidly transforming municipality with a large population and high residential mobility could benefit from a UGS system that can cultivate social integration and harmony. The high sense of UGS safety of Guangzhou residents, including women, differs notably from other studies. It indicates that the open and manicured landscape style and intensive patronage have deterred criminal activities and improved perceived safety. Future design and management could adopt the best practices to maintain the safe-park features and encourage use by the whole spectrum of social groups. The enhanced sense of safety could promote use of UGS to improve physical and mental health of citizens. Increasing age brings more positive perception of UGS benefits and safety. This finding has far-reaching implications for benefits to mental and physical health of the generations to come. More in-depth research can employ a telephone survey or household visit to reach non-users of UGS to acquire a holistic picture of citizen preferences for UGS. The findings could offer a community-responsive basis to develop future parks or revamp existing ones. The common recognition of undesirable human intrusions in the form of incivility and vandalism and commercial encroachment demand resolute and effective preventive measures. The territorial and facility integrity of parks could be more assiduously defended. Besides the universal teenage factor, the huge transient population has exerted a unique pressure on the sites. Education, publicity, intense supervision and zonal management could provide relief. The invasion by commercial land uses is beyond the jurisdiction of UGS management. It calls for a fundamental reform in land use zoning and planning, and its effective adherence and enforcement. Previous studies indicated an inverse relationship between distance and UGS use. Our study adds a new dimension of distancereinforced negative effect on perception. This finding fortifies the critical importance of proximity and highlights the value of neighborhood green spaces, calling for readily accessible UGS in the ur-

ban fabric (Harrison, Burgess, Millward, & Dawe, 1995). Thus UGS planning should steer away from the present preoccupation with quantity, and embrace a spatial match between resource and population distribution. Such proximal UGS are available on a daily basis, especially for children and the elderly. This is especially relevant to Guangzhou and most Chinese cities, where the overwhelming majority of the population dwells in high-rise and high-density housing with no private open spaces. It is pertinent to preserve and provide small but highly accessible sites, whether formal or informal, in the UGS system. The mixed result of childhood effect suggests the importance of childhood contacts with nature and early environmental education to adulthood perception of UGS. Nature education could provide children with more opportunities to interact with nature, such as studying wildlife, tree planting and gardening. In this regard, forest and nature schools established in other countries could provide valuable references for Chinese cities (O’Brien and Murray, 2007). Innovations in pedagogic policies are required to reconnect children with nature through the medium of safe and accessible UGS (Johnson & Hurley, 2002). Overall, UGS has to fulfill a crucial role in nurturing future generations that embrace the protection of nature as second nature. Acknowledgments We are grateful for the Government Matching Fund, Dr Stanley Ho Alumni Challenge, and our university’s internal grant for funding this study. The field survey assistance offered by students of the Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou, China, is warmly appreciated. References Acar, C., Kurdoglu, B. C., Kurdoglu, O., & Acar, H. (2006). Public preferences for visual quality and management in the Kackar Mountains National Park (Turkey). International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 13, 499–512. Ahern, J. (1995). Greenways as a planning strategy. Landscape and Urban Planning, 33, 131–155. Bell, S., Morris, N., Findlay, C., Travlou, P., Montarzino, A., Gooch, D., et al. (2004). Nature for people: The importance of green spaces to east midlands communities. Research report no. 567, Peterborough, England: English Nature. Bell, S., Ward Thompson, C., & Travlou, P. (2003). Contested views of freedom and control: Children, teenagers and urban fringe woodlands in Central Scotland. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 2, 87–100. Bixler, R. D., & Floyd, M. F. (1997). Nature is scary, disgusting, and uncomfortable. Environment and Behavior, 29, 443–467. Björk, J., Albin, M., Grahn, P., Jacobsson, H., Ardö, J., Wadbro, J., Östergren, P. O., & Skärbäck, E. (2008). Recreational values of the natural environment in relation to neighborhood satisfaction, physical activity, obesity and wellbeing. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(4), 1–7. Burgess, J. (1998). But is it worth taking the risk? How women negotiate access to urban woodland: A case study. In R. Ainley (Ed.), New Frontiers of Space, Bodies, and Gender (pp. 115–128). London: Routledge. Burgess, J., Harrison, C. M., & Limb, M. (1988). People, parks and the urban green: A study of popular meanings and values for open spaces in the city. Urban Studies, 25, 455–473. Cattell, V., Dines, N., Gesler, W., & Curtis, S. (2008). Mingling, observing, and lingering: Everyday public spaces and their implications for well-being and social relations. Health and Place, 14, 544–561. Chiesura, A. (2004). The role of urban parks for the sustainable city. Landscape and Urban Planning, 68, 129–138. Chung, S. S., & Poon, C. S. (1999). The attitudes of Guangzhou citizens on waste reduction and environmental issues. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 25, 35–59. Cohen, D. A., McKenzie, T. L., Sehgal, A., Williamson, S., Golinelli, D., & Lurie, N. (2007). Contribution of public parks to physical activity. American Journal of Public Health, 97(3), 509–514. Cornell, E. H., Hadley, D. C., Sterling, T. M., Chan, M. A., & Boechler, P. (2001). Adventure as stimulus for cognitive development. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 219–231. Crewe, K. (2001). Linear parks and urban neighborhoods: A study of the crime impact of the Boston south-west corridor. Journal of Urban Design, 6, 245–264. Crow, T., Brown, T., & De Young, R. (2006). The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perception of the urban landscape, and their effects on people. Landscape and Urban Planning, 75, 282–299.

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