Soil chronosequences in Israel

CATENA

Vol. 10, 287-319

Braunschweig 1983

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES IN ISRAEE J. Dan, Bet Dagan ABSTRACT Chronosequences of Israel soils are summarized. Soil development in the coastal plain is related to the time of the dune deposits while those of the inland valley is related to the formation of the sedimentological terraces. Soil development in the mountains is related to the features and stability of the slope. The properties of young soils resemble those of the parent material. With advancing development the soils are affected by various processes, among them also the accretion of aeolian dust. Leaching is significant already at early stages; m some cases like Hamra and Terra-rossa soils the leaching stage is more advanced in earlier stages than in the final stage of soil development. In advanced stages of soil development the effect of the underlying rock on soil properties is reduced. At the final stage soils on moderate relief in the same climatic zone on different bedrocks resemble each other, This is attributed mainly to the effect of the aeolian dust accretion. The final stage of soil development on moderate reliefconsists of Grumusols in the northern parts of Israel, grumic dark Brown soils in the semi-arid parts of central Israel, loessial light Brown clay loam and loessial Serozems in the arid parts of the northern Negev and Regs in.the extremely arid areas of the Southern Negev and Sinai. Petrocalcic horizons are developed on slopes and terraces where the rate of soil erosion equals that of accumulation of aeolian dust. The formation ofpetrogypsic horizons in the extremely arid zones is restricted to areas where erosion is negligible. The final stages of soil development exhibit a clear climatic zonality. This zonality differs from the soil zonality in the USSRand the USA due to the special features of dust accretion on the soils of Israel.

1.

INTRODUCTION

A sequence of soils with time as the only variable factor is designated as a chronosequence (JENNY 1946). Similar sequences were defined for variation in other factors (JENNY 1946, YAALON 1975): soil toposequences or soil catenas, where the major variable is the topography (MILNE 1935); soil climatosequences, where the variable is climate, and lithosequences where the variable is the parent material. Chronosequences have been studied in relation to soil development. Many of these studies were carried out in formerlyglaciated areas where the soil age could be calculated from the time of the glacial or periglacial sediment deposits (RUHE & SCHOLTES 1956, BIRKELAND 1974). Many other chronosequence studies were carried out in volcanic areas where the soil age was related to the time of ash deposition (VUCETICH 1968, RUXSTON 1968, MOHR et al. 1972), while other chronosequence studies were carried out on various depositional surfaces were the soil age was related to the geomorphic terrace formation (GILE 1970, STORIE & WEIR 1953, PARSONS et al. 1970). However, in many studies the soil age could not be correlated with any exact time scale; in these areas a relative soil age was estimated *

Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, the Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel. No. 158-E, 1979 series.

ISSN 0341 - 8162 © Copgright 1983 bg Margot Rohdenburg M. A., CATENA VERLAO. Brockenblmk 8, D-3302 Cremlingen.-Desledt, W. Germang

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Fig. 1: Trends of profile development resulting from continuous interbedding of aeolian clay and silt into the sandy skeleton in the coastal plain of Israel (according to DAN & YAALON 1966).

SOILCHRONOSEQUENCES,ISRAEL

289

according to the intensity of the development of the various soil horizons (KUBIENA 1948, STORIE & WEIR 1953, BIRKELAND 1974, GILE 1975, GILE & GROSSMAN 1979). Chronosequencc studies in Israel usually accompanied soil surveys and regional studies in various parts of the country. DAN & YAALON (1966, 1968, 1971, 1976, 1980) studied various chronosequenccs in the coastal plain and desert fringe areas of Israeland found a good correlation between the time of sand dune deposition and soil maturity on moderate, uneroded stopcs (Fig. 1). DAN & KOYUMDJISKY (1975) summrized the toposequences and chronosequcnces on various carbonate materials in the mountain regions of Israel (Figs. 2-4). This study discovered that the age of the various mountainous soils may be correlated SHALLOW NONCALCAREOUS REDDISH BROWN TERRA ROSSA

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Fig. 2: Soilchronosequence on hard limestone or dolomite in the subhumid pans oflsrael (according to DAN & KOYUMDJISKY1975). CHALKY PALE RENDZlNA

YOUNG SOIL

CHALKY LIGHT BROWN RENDZINA

CHALKY BROWN RENDZINA

GRUMIC BROWN SOIL

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FINAL STAGE OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT

Fig.3: Soilchronosequcnceon chalkinthesub-humid pans oflsrael(accordingtoD A N & K O Y U M D JISKY 1975).

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Fig. 4: Soil chronosequence on hard limestone in the humid parts of Israel (according to DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975).

with the topography since young soils, as a rule, cover steep unstable slopes, while mature soils are confined to mountain plateaus. DAN, MOSHE & ALPEROVITCH (1974) and DAN, YAALON, MOSHE & NISSIM (1982) elucidated a close relationship between soil profile development - especially the formation of saline and gypsum horizons - and the age of various depositional surfaces in desert regions. This article summarizes chronosequences in the various climatic and geomorphic regions of Israel on the various underlying rocks and sediments. It should be mentioned that climatic changes occurred in Israel many times during the Pleistocene era (HOROWlTZ 1979) and affected many of the mature soils to a considerable extent. However, these changes are restricted in space and usually caused only a shift of the soil from a certain climatic zone to the adjacent one. The soils of the semi-arid Pleshet plain, for instance, enjoyed a sub humid climate several times in the past (HOROWITZ 1979, DAN & YAALON 1976) and as a result buried Hamra soils are widespread in this region. This climate shift was always restricted and that may be proved by the soils of the extremely arid area which never enjoyed even a mildly arid climate, as no loess deposits were found in this region (DAN 1980). Moreover, the present soil-forming processes are as a rule, dominant and cover the former ones to a large extent. This may be related especially to the degree of leaching as salt and carbonate accumulation related to the present climate is revealed in all nonburied soils (EISENBERG et al. 1982, DAN et al. 1981). The continuous deposition of aeolian dust also supplies material for new, recent soil formation. It is thus possible to study the soil chronosequences in Israel despite the climatic changes, taking into accunt of course, that some soil characteristics such as texture and in some cases also colour may be related to a former moister climate (DAN et al. 1981, DAN & ALPEROVITCH 1975). Most, if not all, of Israel soils are affected also to a large extent by prolonged cultivation. Many of the soils have been changed due to the destruction of organic material, erosion, leaching due to irrigation, etc. In order to minimize these effects, the soils which were selected for this study were found, as a rule, in areas where accelerated erosion or sedimentation is minimal and which have never been irrigated.

SOIL C H R O N O S E Q U E N C E S , ISRAEL

2.

291

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

Israel is divided from west to east by several parallel physiographic-lithologic regions (DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1963, ORNI & EFRAT 1973) (Fig. 5). These regions include the following: 1. An undulating-to-hilly coastal plain with sandy sediments in the west and finetextured aeolian and alluvial deposits in the east. 2. A central calcareous mountain region, the rocks of which include mainly limestone, dolomite, chalk and marl. 3. An eastern rift valley with various alluvial and chalky lacustrine sediments. In the northeastern part of the country there is a large basaltic region in addition to the above-mentioned regions. The main physiographic lithologic regions are crossed from north to south by various climatic zones, which range from humid and sub-humid Mediterranean to extremely arid (ROSENAN 1970) (Fig. 6); the basaltic region in the north-east is an exception since it is crossed only by the humid, sub-humid, semi-arid and mildly arid climatic belts. Table 1 summarizes the relationship of the various climates and parent materials found in Israel. Various soil toposequences or soil catenas are found in each of these combinations of climatic and physiographic-lithologic belts (DAN 1965); these include mainly the two typical catena types for each zone, i.e., the moderate and the steep catena. Tab. 1: OCCURRENCE OF ROCKS AND SOIL-FORMING SEDIMENTS IN THE VARIOUS CLIMATIC REGIONS OF ISRAEL. Parent material

Climate Mildly arid (220-350 m m rainfall)

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+

+

+

Small area in eastern Samaria

Scoria and other Pyroclastlc materials

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+

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Small areas in eastern Samaria

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Gravel with clay

Gravel with slit and clay

Gravel with silt

Aeolian clay and Loess

Clay; not very significant

Clay

Silty clay in south, clay in north

Alluvial clay and silt

Clay, partly kaolinitic

Sand

Noncalcareous sandstone Calcareous sandstone

and line sand; in North also clay Loess in south,

Arid 80-220 m m rainfall)

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central Israel

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silty clay in

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+

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Fig. 5: Geographic and physiographic-lithologic regions of Israel (according to DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1962).

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES, ISRAEL

293

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3.

DAN

METHODS

Soil profile development on various surfaces was compared. The soils for comparison were chosen mainly from soil data that have been collected by the Division of Pedology of the Agricultural Research Organization. Many of these data are from various detailed soil studies all over the country and have been published in numerous papers and reports (ALPEROVITCH et al. 1971, DAN 1965, 1975, DAN & ALPEROVITCH 1971, 1975, DAN et al. 1970, DAN, EISENBERG & BENNODIZ 1981, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1971, 1975, DAN, MARISH & SALTZMAN 1975, DAN, MOSHE & ALPEROVITCH 1974, DAN, MOSHE & NISSIM 1972,DAN&NISSIM 1972,1973,1975,1976, DAN, SALTZMAN &NISSIM 1972, DAN & SINGER 1973, DAN & YAALON 1968, 1976, DAN, YAALON& KOYUMDJISKY 1968, 1972, DAN, YAALON,MOSHE & NISSIM 1982, DAN, GARSON, KOYUMDJISKY & YAALON 1981, EISENBERG et al. 1982, KOYUMDJISKYet al. 1975, LITI'AUER 1980, MARISH et al. 1978, RAVIKOVITCH, PINES & DAN 1957, WlEDER 1977, ZEIDENBERG & DAN 1978). Some of these data were based on the general soil survey of the country on a scale of 1:50,000 which was carded out by the Division of Pedology of the Agricultural Research Organization, together with the Mapping Division of the Department of Soil Conservation and Drainage (DAN & RAZ 1970,1974,1975). Other data are based on the survey of soil catenas which was carried out by the author several years ago (DAN 1965). Different methods of comparison were applied for the various geomorphic and climatic regions of the country, since soil maturity may depend on different factors in the various regions. In the coastal plain the soil age was related mainly to the time of the dune deposition. After deposition these dunes were affected by fine aeolian dust (DAN & YAALON 1966,1968, 1971, 1976, 1980, YAALON & DAN 1974, YAALON & GANOR 1975). A clear trend of soil development was detected in this region (DAN & YAALON 1966, 1968, 1976, 1980) (see Fig. 1). The youngest soils were found here on recent Holocene sand while the more mature ones were found on the western, late Pleistocene, Kurkar and Hamra ridges. The oldest soils were found in the eastern part of the coastal plain, on old sand dunes which were related to early Pleistocene (ISSAR 1961, ITZHAKI 1961). In non-eroded areas the sand is covered by layers of claysand siltyclays,the thickness ofwhich ranges from about 23 meters in the Sharon to about 12 meters in the northern Negev (DAN & YAALON 1971, YAALON & DAN 1974). Soils on slightly undulating upland areas were used here as samples for comparison. The soils on unstable steep slopes are, as a rule, much younger, because of erosion (DAN, MARISH & SALTZMAN 1975) and their age cannot be correlated with the time of deposition of the original sand dune. On stable steep slopes soil development follows a different trend. The soils ofthese slopes were also studied but the soil features in this case could not be related so well with the time of dune deposition. In the mountains, slopes ofdiflerent degrees were used as samples for comparison, since a close relationship usually exists in these regions of Israel between soil maturity and slope features (DAN 1965, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975). This holds true especiallyfor areas of soft rocks where the soil is developed, at least in its initial stages, from the underlying rocks. The study is more complicated in areas of hard rocks, especially limestones and dolomites, where the soil formation history is more complicated and the initial stages cannot always be detected. Many of these soils are also polygenetic as revealed from soil material that was found in deep crevises among the rocks (DAN 1980). In the desert, soil development can usually be correlated with the time ofthe depositional surface or the terrace (DAN et al. 1973, DAN & YAALON 1976, DAN et al. 1981) (Fig. 7),

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES, ISRAEL

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Tab. 2:

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES IN THE COASTAL PLAIN OF ISRAEL.

Parent material

Climate

First stage (on recent sand)

Second stage (on Holocene sand)

Third stage (usually on late Pleistocene sand dunes)

Sand with aeolian dust accretion

sub-humid

sandy Regosol (32)

sandy Hamra (32)

AC typic Quartzipsamment

A(B)C typic Xerochrept

sandy clay-loam Hamra (32, 36) ABC typic Rhodoxeralf

sandy Regosol (34)

sandy Hamra and quartzic dark Brown sand (15, 19, 34) A(B)C.ca typic and calcixerollic Xerochrept

medium textured quartzic dark Brown soil (15, 19, 34) ABCca calcic Haploxemlf

quarlzte light Brown sand

quartzic light Brown loam (35)

semi-and

AC typic Quartzipsamment mildlyarid

sandy Regosol (15, 35)

(35)

Sand with only sub-humid slight aeolian dust accretion (on steep slope where equilibrium between erosion and dust deposition exists)

semi-arid

AC typic Quartzipsamment

A(B)caCca calcixerollic Xerochrept

sandy Regosol (32)

sandy Hamra and shallow quartzic dark Brown quartzlc dark Brown soil** sand; on soft Kurkar, light colored Pararendzina (32) A(B)C, ACR ABC/Rea typic and calcixerollic calcic Haploxemlf Xerochrept

AC typic Quartzipsamment

sandy Regosol* (19, 34) AC typic Quanzipsamment

mildlyarid

sandy regosol* (35, 61) AC typic Quartzipsamment

arid

sandy Regosol* (25, 35) AC typic Quartzipsamment

* **

ABcaCca calcic Haploxemlf

quartzic dark Brown sand* (19, 34) A(B)CCa calcixerollic Xerochrept

loamy quartzic dark Brown soil usually shallow* (19, 34) ABC/Rca calcic Haploxemlf

quartzic light Brown sand* (35, 61) A(B)caC.ca calcixerollic Xerochrept

loamy quartzie light Brown soil* (35, 61, 79) ABC,caCca calcic Haploxemlf

quartzlc light Brown sand* (25, 35) A(B)caCca calcixerollic Xerochrept

loamy quartzic argillic Serozem* (25, 35) ABcasaCcasa typic Haplargid

Found also on recent dissected calcareous sandstone hills of various ages - sandy soils on most severe eroded sites, loamy soils on less eroded areas (19, 34, 35, 41, 61). Checked in the field but not published.

since no dust accretion occurs in this region. In the less arid parts of Israel, the soil age may be well correlated with the depositional surface only on young terraces since the older terraces have already been affected by accretion of aeolian dust. However, on older terraces in some areas, this dust deposition is negligible, so that mature soil may be formed from the alluvium.

S O I L C H R O N O S E Q U E N C E S , ISRAEL

297

Tab. 2: continued Fourth stage (usually on middle Pleistocene sand dunes)

Fifth stage (on middle Pleistocene sand dunes)

Final stage (on early Pleistocene sand dunes or on Neogane sand)

Nazaz (25, 32)

leached, fine-textured quartzie dark Brown soil (25, 32)

slightly calcareous Grumusol 1) Argillization followed by

(25, 32)

pedoturbation

ABgBC typicAlbaqualf

ABBbcaC typic and vertic Palexeralf

ABrBbr typic Chromoxerert

2) Lime leaching and some kanlinization followed l~ysome recalcification and roontmorillonite clay formation. 3) Continuous slow accretion of aeolian dust.

fine textured quartzic dark Brown soil (15, 19, 34) ABcaC caleie and vertic Haploxeralf

calcareous Grnmusol (northern part) grumie dark Brown soil (southern part) (l, 15, 19, 34) ABrBbr typic Chromoxerert (northern part)

vertic Palexeralf(southero part)

loessial light Brown clay loam (6, 14, 15, 35, 61) ABcaBbca calcic Haploxeralf petrocalcic dark Brown soil and shallow Hamra on hard Kurkar; after erosion, dark Parorondzina (6, 8, 25, 32)

ABKC/R, after erosion AKC/R petrocaric Palexeralf (after erosion lithic Haploxeroll and ruptic lithic Xerochrept, considering the petroealcic layer as bedrock) loamy petrocalcic dark Brown soil; after erosion dark Pararandzina (19, 34) ABKC/R after erosion AKC/R petrocalcic Palexeralf (after erosion lithic Haploxeroll and ruptic lithic Xerochrept, considering the petrocalcic layer as bedrock) loamy petrocalcic light Brown soil (after erosion light Pararandzina and brown Lithosol) (35, 61, 79) ABcaKC, ABcaKC/R after erosion AKC, AKC/R petrocalcic Palexeralf (after erosion ruptic lithle Xerochrapt and lithic xeric Torriorthent petrocalcic Serozem; after erosion, brown Lithosol

(25, 35) ABcasaKC, aftereroslon AKC typic Paleorthid (aftererosion lithicTorriorthant)

Major pedoganic processes

I) Argillization followed by pedoturbation 2) Lime accumulation in deeperlayers 3) continuous accretion of aeolian dust 1) Slight argillization 2) Lime accumulation in B; followed also by some sodium concentration in deeper layers. 3) continuous quite fast accretion of aeolian dust 1) Argillization 2) Continuous lime accumulation in the same layer 3) Equilibrium between dust accretion and erosion

1) Argillization 2) Continuous lime accumulation in the same layer 3) Equilibrium between dust accretion and erosion 1) Slight argillization

2) Continuous lime accumulation in the same layerat relative shallow depth 3) Equilibrium between dust accretion and erosion 1) Slight argillization 2) Continuous lime accumulation at shallow depth 3) Automorphic salinization 4) Equilibrium between dustaccretion and erosion

Therefore, two different trends of soil development have been compared: i.e., soils developed on terraces that have been covered by aeolian dust and others on terraces that have not been covered by it. As gravelly soils on footslope positions resemble to a large extent similar soils on terraces, especially in northern and central Israel, they were mentioned together with the terrace soils. In this case it is possible to distinguish between younger soils underneath unstable slopes and more developed soils underneath stable slopes.

298

4.

DAN

RESULTS

Tables 2-5 summarize the stages of soil development from the different primary parent materials in the various climatic regions of Israel on various pedomorphic surfaces. Table 2 summarizes the soils of the coastal plain; in this case the soil age is mainly related to the time of the sand deposition. In Tables 3 and 4 the various mountain soils are listed and in this case soil maturity is correlated with slope degree and stability since these are the factors that affect soil erosion. In Table 5 the soils on terraces and footslope positions are summarized. In Tables 2-5 the soil names, according to the Israeli soil classification (COMMITTEE ON SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN ISRAEL 1979) are given. Most of the guidelines for the classification of Israeli soils at the various levels are identical to those used in the U.S. classification. Great groups are defined mainly according to the features of the diagnostic horizons, the leaching stage, and in lithic soils, also soil depth. Subgroups are defined according to the similarity of the various soils of one great group to those of another group. At the family level, the nature and origin of the parent materials are stressed. Soil types are defined according to the texture of the B horizon, differences in carbonates content, etc. (COMMITIEE ON SOIL CLASSIFICATION IN ISRAEL 1979). The soil names are descriptive; they include the great group name (capitalized) with the addition, on the subgroup level, of the intergrade great group as an adjective, and with some more adjectives for the family (usually parent material), and type names (usually texture of B horizon, carbonates, etc.). The descriptions and analytical data of the various soils may be found in the already cited publications. Tables 2-3 are actually based on the above-mentioned works; the references to these works are cited in these tables by their numbers in the reference list. The soil designations mentioned in these tables were correlated with the sub-group level of the American soil classification (SOIL SURVEY STAFF 1975): this correlation appears in ordinary letters underneath the local soil names. The various soil horizons were mentioned underneath the soil names in order to present more data on the various soil features. The codes for the soil horizons usually follow the internationally accepted letters; however, in certain cases some more detailed information was needed and some new symbols were introduced. The symbols in the tables include the following: A - A horizon (B) - cambic B B - argillic B B - very thick argillic B Br - grumic B* Bg - B with gley Bb - buried B Bb - very thick buried B (up to several meters)

C - C horizon R - hard rock C / R - soft rock like aeolinite ca - calcic horizon or accumulation of secondary lime K - petrocalcic horizon sa - saline or gypsic horizon S - petrogypsic horizon Rca - lime accumulation in the rock crevices

The features of the main soil-forming processes that characterize the various soil chronosequences are presented on the right side of the various tables. *

A fine textured B horizon with high CEC values (more than 30 meq/100 g soil) that is characterized by wide cracks and slickensides in the deeper parts.

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5.

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DISCUSSION

5.1.

INITIAL STAGES OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT

The initial stages of soil development are usually related to the parent material. Very young soils on the same parent material may resemble each other even ifthey are found in different climatic regions. This holds true mainly for soils on sand in the coastal plain (DAN & YAALON 1966) and soft parent materials in the mountains (chalk, marl and apparently also to some extent volcanic scoria) (DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975). The effect of the climate is still very small or even negligible, and the soils are as a rule azonal (mainly Regosols and Lithosols). In some cases, the soil in its initial stage resembles more mature soils; this is mainly the case in alluvial soils where the parent material consists of eroded material of more mature upland soils.

5.2.

SOIL CHANGES DURING THE MORE ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT STAGES

The climatic effect may be recognized already at relatively early stages of soil development as in the Hamra, shallow Terra rossa, basaltic Protogrumusols, etc. At this stag~s the soils are affected to a large extent by both climate and the underlying parent material. This seems to be the reason for their great diversity. The processes which are well marked at these stages include movement of solutes, accretion of aeolian dust, argilization and, in some cases, also pedoturbation.

5.2.1.

Movementofsolutes

and leaching stage

The climatic effect at this stage is expressed mainly by the leaching degree. Some soils may even exhibit leaching degrees that are more advanced than that of the final stage. This holds true mainly for soils that have been developed either on parent material that contains much quartz (DAN, YAALON & KOYUMDJISKY 1968) or on hard rocks where the soil mass of the pedon is small (DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975). In both cases the water-holding capacity of the soil is of limited extent (Fig. 8) and thus it enables a relatively stronger leaching of the soil profile (DAN 1965, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975, DAN & SINGER 1973). This feature characterizes all soils on hard limestone like Red Terra rossa in the humid or even in the sub-humid parts of Israel; Reddish-brown Terra rossa in the subhumid and semi-arid parts of the country; and Brown Lithosols in the arid areas. The soils on dolomite and Nari are similar to those which are found on limestone, except for those in the more humid parts of the country. The leaching of the soils on Nari in these areas is usually somewhat restricted due to the impervious feature of the underlying chalk and marl, while the breakdown of the montmorillonite in soils on dolomite in the humid areas is retarded due to the liberation of magnesium from the underlying rocks (KOYUMDJISKY 1972). The soils of the arid regions are affected by a slow accumulation of gypsum and soluble salts (YAALON 1963). These salts are nearly absent on the young coarse desert Alluvium (DAN et al. 1982) or on young loessial alluvium (DAN, MOSHE & ALPEROVITCH 1974). The content of these salts rises gradually in the soils of the older terraces due to the accumulation of salts from dust and rainwater (YAALON 1963). In the loessial areas this process may continue until it reaches an apparent equilibrium with the leaching intensity (related mainly to

310

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the years with highest rainfall), and with the cumulic feature of the loessial soils in the northern Negev*. In the extremely arid region this process may actually continue endlessly (DAN et al. 1982). However, even here some changes in the soil leaching occurred as a result of somewhat more rainy periods during the Pleistocene (DAN et al. 1982, DAN, MOSHE & ALPEROVITCH 1974, DAN et al. 1981, HOROWITZ 1979).

5.2.2.

Aeolian dust accretion, argillization andpedoturbation

The soils slowly become enriched in clays in northern Israel, or in clays and silts in the semi-arid and arid parts of central and southern Israel (DAN 1965, DAN & YAALON 1968, 1976, 1980, YAALON & DAN 1974, YAALON & GANOR 1973), as a result of slow accmulation of aeolian dust. This clay enrichment affects the soil profile in three different ways, depending on the kind of underlying parent material (YAALON & GANOR 1973). In the sandy areas of the western parts of the coastal plain, the clay slowly mixes with the sand. In the primary stages this clay is illuviated into the B horizon, thus forming a typical argillic B (DAN & YAALON 1966, DAN, YAALON & KOYUMDJ1SKY 1968). In the more advanced stages the high concentration ofmontmorillonite clay in the B horizon may cause some pedoturbation, a process which finally dominates the clay profile characteristics in the humid parts of the country. On chalks or marls the aeolian silt and clays are gradually mixed with the weathered rock material; as a result the soil slowly turns less calcareous than the parent rock. With continuing soil evolution a stage may be reached in the humid parts of the country where pedoturbation affects the soil (DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975); at the final stage this may determine the textural homogeneity in the soil profile. The soils on hard rocks are affected in a different way by the enrichment of the clay and silt. In these cases, the soils are fine textured from the beginning, since they are either formed mainly from aeolian dust (in the case of limestone and dolomite), or from the weathered *

Both leaching and aeolian accumulation are affected by climatic changes in the long run. However, the present soil leaching stage may be related mainly to the present climate. (EISENBERG et al. 1982)

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES, ISRAEL

311

material of basalt or basic pyrodastic materials that weather rather fast to form clays (DAN & SINGER 1973, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975, SINGER 1975). The main difference between relatively young soils and more mature ones is expressed ma!nly by soil depth. In northern Israel, soil development in these cases commences with shallow clays (Protogrumusols, Terra rossa or Brown Rendzina) and passes through some stages ofgrumicsoils, till at the end the Typical Grumusol stage is reached (see Fig. 2). In the south, the various stages indude shallow Brown Lithosols, some transition soil from Lithosols to deep loessial soils and, in the final stage, loessial light Brown clay loam or loessial Serozems (DAN & YAALON 1980). The silt-clay ratio represents an important property and affects the feature of the clay distribution in the soil. In northern Israel where clay is the dominant fraction, pedoturbation characterizes most mature soils while in the south where the silt and fine sand fractions dominate, argillization is more pronounced (DAN & YAALON 1966). The kaolinitic soils of the most humid part of Israel exhibit here an exception as they are also characterized by strong argillization.

5.3.

THE FINAL STAGE OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT ON MODERATE RELIEF

According to Tables 2-5, it becomes apparent that the final stage of soil development on fiat areas and slightly undulating topography is characterized by a certain soil type for eacla of the various climatic zones. These soils include Brown Grumusols for the sub-humid climatic region, grumic dark Brown soils for the semi-arid climatic region, loessial light Brown clay loam for the mildly arid region, loessial Serozems and to some extent stony Serozems for the typical arid semi-desert areas, and deep, very saline Reg soils with a petrogypsic horizon for the extremely arid climatic zone. The final soil stage for the humid zone depends on the nature of the underlying rock (KOYUMDJISKY 1972, DAN& SINGER 1973). It consists either of noncalcareous Grumusols or of some type of red, slightly acid kaolinitic soil. This final stage is apparently affected by the earlier stages of the soil history. The presence of kaolinitic soils may favor better leaching due to the relatively lower water holding capacity, so that any fresh dust deposition will probably be leached and weathered to form kaolinite. The presence ofmontmorillonite, on the other hand, may hinder excessive leaching due to the higher water holding capacity and the pedoturbation; thus, the fresh dust will also be preserved mainly as montmorillonite. Another, somewhat different final stage is exhibited by the soils on basalt and calcareous rocks in the semi-arid and arid parts of northern Israel. Calcareous reddish brown Grumusols characterize these areas, while grumic dark Brown soils and loessial light Brown clay loam are found in the same climatic belt in southern Israel. This difference may be related to the distance from the main desert regions (YAALON & DAN 1974). The semi-arid areas of northern Israel occupy only an enclave among the more moist areas and the distance to the main source of the aeolian dust is great. It thus seems that only the finest dust particles that form clay similar to the dust that reaches the more humid areas in the same vicinity reach this enclave. However, it is also possible that these differences are partly the result ofa moister climate in the past, as the aeolian deposition in most parts of Israel was then more clayey due to the greater distance from the desert (HOROWITZ 1979). With increasing dryness loess deposits cover these clays nowadays in the northern Negev. In northern Israel, however, the amount of dust is smaller due to the great distance from the great desert and, as a result, the former clays are only partly mixed with fresher, somewhat coarser textured material. It seems that in certain soils in the sub-humid and the relatively dry parts of the humid region, a shift from kaolinite towards montmorillonite, derived from the new dust does occur.

312

DAN

This is probably connected with the reduction of leaching due to the increase in clay content in soils like Hamra, some basaltic Brown Mediterranean soils and Terra rossa (ifthe rocks and stones are considered as inert parts ofthe soil with very low water-holding capacity) (DAN & SINGER 1973, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975). However, in the most humid parts of the country there are sites where rainfall is apparently high enough to leach the soil to such an extent that kaolinite may form all the time and may dominate the soil characteristics in the final stage (KOYUMDJISKY 1972). The reduction of leaching due to higher water-holding capacity causes also recalcification in many soils of the sub-humid and semi-arid regions (DAN & YAALON 1968, DAN & SINGER 1973, DAN &KOYUMDJISKY 1975). As a result, noncalcareous Hamra, Terra rossa and shallow, noncalcareous brown Grumusols were followed by slightly calcareous and calcareous Grumusols. Similar reduction in leaching which was mainly expressed by high ESP values was found in the soils of the mildly arid climatic zone (MARISH et al. 1978, ZEIDENBERG & DAN 1978); here are included some fine-textured loessial light Brown soils that formed from quartzic light Brown soils in the Negev, and various Natric Grumusols and Grumicnatric Brown soils that have been formed from shallow, mountainous soils (like Protogrumusols, Terra rossa and Brown Rendzina) in the eastern part of the mountain region of northern and central Israel. The reduction of leaching with time may be referred to as a typical example for the ideas of CROMPTON (1960) who stressed the differences between leaching degree and weathering. It should be stressed that the final stage of soil development actually includes not only the recent soil but the whole soil-paleosol column which includes the original soil that had been formed on the rock or the primary deposit and the various paleosols derived from the fine aeolian dust (DAN & YAALON 1971). The age of the various cumulic soils is expressed by the continuous thickening of this soil-paleosol column. However, if only the uppermost soil profile is considered, a condition may be reached when a certain stage of dynamic equilibrium between soil-forming processes and dust accretion occurs; the soil maturity from that stage on will remain constant if no considerable climatic changes occur. This stage is reached when the soil is formed entirely from the aeolian dust; it is reached relatively fast in the northern Negev where the dust accretion is very pronounced. In these areas even the final soils are relatively young and do not reveal features of advanced profile development such as cemented calcic horizons. With increasing distance from the desert the time for reaching the final stage of soil development increases gradually but even in northern Israel the soils on cumulic upland surfaces do not reveal horizons which characterize long continuous development of certain features like cementation by iron or silica.

5.4. SOIL DEVELOPMENT ON STABLE STEEP SLOPES AND ON THE REG PLAINS (IN AREAS OF DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM BETWEEN EROSION AND DEPOSITION) A close relationship between soil maturity, slope stability and aeolian accretion characterizes most of Israel. Young soils are found on unstable steep slopes where erosion is rapid (DAN 1965, DAN & YAALON 1968), while cumulic mature soils cover moderate slopes and fiat plateaus in the sub-humid, semi-arid and mildly arid areas of Israel, which are characterized by a continuous, slow accumulation of aeolian material (YAALON & DAN 1974, DAN 1965). However, it seems that on stable steep slopes some kind of dynamic equilibrium between erosion and dust deposition occurs. This includes stable steep pedomorphic surfaces

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES, ISRAEL

SAND

313

SANDY

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of various mountain slopes on hard rocks covered by Terra rossa and dark Rendzinas (DAN & YAALON 1968, DAN & KOYUMDJISKY 1975, DAN, YAALON & KOYUMDJISKY 1972). These soils are mature, but generally not deep, and usually confined to pockets and cracks among the rocks (DAN et al. 1975). The processes that affect these soils are thus in apparent

314

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SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES, ISRAEL

315

dynamic equilibrium with the environment (YAALON 1971). A similar equilibrium between erosion and dust deposition is found also on various quite steep slopes on sandy and gravelly parent materials (see Table 2 and Figs. 9 and 10). In these cases soil development may continue and even reach advanced stages that are usually expressed by the formation ofa petrocalcic horizon. This petrocalcic horizon can be formed even on noncalcareous parent material like quartz sand or gravelly sand (DAN 1977). In this case most of the dust that settles on the soil is apparently re-eroded later on but some of the lime may, meanwhile, be leached into the soil and concentrate in the ca horizon. The continuous carbonate concentration in the same layer may, at an advanced stage, cause the induration of that horizon. This induration does not occur in the cumulic soils as the dissolved lime in these soils is redeposited in different layers as a result of the slow accumulation of dust on the topsoil, and the slow upward shifting of the various soil horizons (DAN & YAALON 1971,1976,1980). The formation of Nari and Brown Rendzina from Pale Rendzina may also be the result of equilibrium between deposition and erosion; a ca horizon may be formed in the deeper layers of the Pale Rendzina when erosion decreases (Fig. 11), and as a result a petrocalcic layer or Nari crust is formed (DAN 1977). When this crust is subsequently exposed, erosion is reduced to negligible rates; and shallow, mature Brown Rendzina is formed in the pockets between the exposures of Nari. It should be stressed that in these cases the soil reaches usually a more advanced development stage than that of the cumulic soils. This is usually expressed by an advanced development of a certain soil horizon, like the formation of the petrocalcic or petrogypsic horizon. Some type of dynamic equilibrium between erosion and deposition apparently exists also in the Reg soils (see Fig. 7). Dust does not accumulate in these areas, due to the absence of a vegetative cover (YAALON & DAN 1974, DAN et al. 1981), but erosion is negligible due to the protection afforded by the desert pavement. As a result, the Regs on high terraces reveal advanced stages of solutes concentration; these are expressed by the formation ofpetrogypsic horizons and by the high salinity due to the dry climate (DAN et al. 1982, DAN & YAALON 1976, DAN et al. 1981). Regs'on high terraces may be thus considered as old soils and their ages may be related to that of the depositional surfaces which are several hundred thousand years old or even more (DAN et al. 1982, DAN et al. 1981).

5.5.

THE ZONALITY CONCEPT IN RELATION TO ISRAEL SOILS

The final stage of soil development in Israel may actually follow somewhat the zonality concept of soil formation (DOKUCHAIEV 1899, SIBIRZEV 1898, MARBUT 1928, 1951). However, there are some differences between these two concepts. Most of the final stage soils in Israel are related to the aeolian dust which characterizes mainly desert fringe areas. This dust slowly changes the nature of the soil landscape until, finally, a dynamic equilibrium is reached between soil formation and dust accretion. This dynamic equilibrium may sometimes occur even in relatively young soils such as in the desert fringe areas, where the calcic horizon is not yet strongly developed like in the loessial Brown clay loam or loessial Serozems. The accretion of the aeolian dust also hinders excessive leaching of the soils. As a result, the final soil profile will not always be the expression of its actual climatic leaching factor; in this case the influence of climate is modified by the distance from the great desert belt (YAALON & DAN 1974). With increased distance from the desert this dynamic equilibrium will be expressed by ever older soils until, in the humid area, the most advanced stages of soil development may be reached like in the old landscape of Africa (MOHR et al. 1972).

316

DAN

Moreover, the soil zonality of Israel is considerably different from that which has been defined by DOKUCHAIEV(1899), SIBIRZEV(1898), (according to GLINKA 1931) and MARBUT (1951) for the Great Plains of Russia and America. Most of the soils of the abovementioned large plains developed from glacial till or loess which was deposited during the last ice age. The soils of these areas were all more or less of the same age. Most of them are not affected nowadays by accretion of fresh parent material, and their profile development- at least of the soils in the humid regions - may still continue to form a somewhat different profile. This may also be the reason why the zonality concept failed to work for the old humid tropical areas where landscape age and soil history became more important (MULCAHY 1960, RUHE 1956, JESSUP 1960, FAO-UNESCO 1971, 1977). Another discrepancy with the soil zonality concept may be exhibited by the Grumusols in the Mediterranean sub-humid climatic region of Israel. It is considered that the Red and Brown Mediterranean soils (DUDAL et al. 1966) and non-calcic Brown soils (HARRADINE 1963, BALDWIN, KELLOG & THORP 1938) are the typical zonal soils for this climatic belt, while the Grumusols are considered as some type ofintrazonal soils that are connected with basic parent material. The Red and Brown Mediterranean soils (i.e., mainly the various Hamra soils) are also found in Israel, in the sub-humid coastal plain, but they do not exhibit the final stage although here they are considered as quite mature soils. Thus, the concept of final stage of soil development in Israel is not equivalent to the zonality concept. The final stage may rather be referred to as a certain stage of soil development when soil formation is in an apparent dynamic equilibrium with the environment, due to a certain combination of time, relief and climatic factors and, to some extent, the general geographic surroundings, which are mostly expressed by the rate of aeolian dust accretion. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writer is greatly indebted to Dr. Hanna Koyumdjisky of the Institute of Soils and Water, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, for her suggestions, advice and help during the preparation of this paper. REFERENCES

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Address of author: J. Dan, Institute of Soils and Water, ARO, The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel