Soil development on marine terraces near Metaponto (Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy)

Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

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Soil development on marine terraces near Metaponto (Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy) Daniela Sauer a, *, Stephen Wagner b, Helmut Bru¨ckner c, Fabio Scarciglia d, Giuseppe Mastronuzzi e, Karl Stahr a a

Institute of Soil Science and Land Evaluation, Hohenheim University, Emil-Wolff-Str. 27, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation, Soil Science Division, University of Bonn, Nussallee 13, D-53115 Bonn, Germany Faculty of Geography, University of Marburg, Deutschhausstr. 10, D-35032 Marburg, Germany d Earth Sciences Department, University of Calabria, Via Pietro Bucci – Cubo 15B, I-87036 Arcavacata di Rende (CS), Italy e Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona 4, I-70125 Bari, Italy b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 4 December 2009

For decades, the marine terraces in the Metaponto area have been the subject of discussions concerning their number, sedimentology, genesis and age. This paper contributes to landscape history reconstruction from a pedogenetic view. The marine terraces are generally covered by loamy sediments, which have been interpreted in previous works as lagoonal and/or alluvial sediments, deposited shortly after the emergence of the land surface above sea level. Pedogenetic investigation, including field observations (e.g. soil colour, intensity of weathering, precipitation of secondary carbonates) and Fed/Fet ratio, silt/clay ratio and carbonate content, reveals that the usual sedimentation history on the terraces includes a period of soil formation between the deposition of the marine and that of the alluvial sediments. Most likely, soil formation began after the relative sea level maximum within the same interglacial during which the marine terrace formed. Later, alluvial sediments accumulated during a time of periodic flooding, while soil development in the underlying marine sediments probably continued at reduced rates. One central question of this study is whether soil formation indicates progressive ages of the terraces. The complex landscape history involving several sedimentation and erosion phases makes the correlation of soil development stages with terrace ages difficult. Nevertheless, maximum Fed/Fet ratios and (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al ratios of the soils developed in the different sediments plotted vs. assumed terrace age indicate increasing soil development. The relationship between Fed/Fet ratios and terrace age can be best described by power (R2 ¼ 0.89) or logarithmic functions (R2 ¼ 0.72), both describing a strong increase in pedogenic iron in the first 100 ka which slows down afterwards. (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al ratios follow a logarithmic decrease with time (R2 ¼ 0.99), indicating progressive silicate weathering, associated with element release and leaching. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

This paper is dedicated to Prof. Dr. h.c. Arno Semmel, who contributed to the landscape history reconstruction in Basilicata in the 1970s, on the occasion of his 80th birthday.

1. Introduction The impressive staircase of Pleistocene marine terraces, which stretches with a width of about 25 km along the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy, has drawn the attention of geomorphologists and sedimentologists for almost a century (e.g. Gignoux, 1913; Gigout, 1960; Vezzani, 1967; Boenzi et al., 1976; Bru¨ckner, 1980, 1982; Fuchs, 1980; Hearty and Dai Pra, 1992; Amato et al., 1997; Belluomini et al., 2002; Bentivenga et al., 2004; Zander et al., 2006; Cilumbriello et al., 2008). However, no complete consensus has

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 711 459 229 35; fax: þ49 711 459 23117. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Sauer). 1040-6182/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.09.030

been achieved to date, either about the number, the genesis, or the age of the terraces. Mostardini et al. (1966) and Vezzani (1967) distinguished six terraces, whereas Cotecchia and Magri (1967) described seven and Bru¨ckner (1980) reported 11 terraces in the area. Bentivenga et al. (2004) interpret the whole terrace sequence as one middle Pleistocene terrace, assuming that tectonic activity disrupted a single terrace body and moved the terrace fragments to different elevations. All other authors interpret the terrace sequence as a result of the interaction between regional Quaternary land uplift and glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations. Unfortunately, the development of a solid chronology of terrace formation in the area is impeded, because dateable material is rare. Some time pegs are provided by the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary, which occurs between the terraces T10 and T11 according to

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Bru¨ckner (1980), and a tephra layer in terrace T8 that could be attributed to an eruption of the Phlegraean Fields that took place 500–600 ka (Table 1). Amino acid racemization (AAR) chronology enabled the distinction of MIS 5 substages in several sites (Hearty and Dai Pra, 1992). The identification of Senegalese fauna in some places, e.g. Ponte del Re (Boenzi et al., 1985), provided evidence for the sea level during MIS 5.5. However, correlation between different sites is often difficult, because the number and elevations of the different terraces varies from southwest to northeast. U-series dates on molluscs (Bru¨ckner, 1980) were also applied in some locations. However, molluscs tend to behave as open systems, which makes U-series ages questionable (McLaren and Rowe, 1996; Hearty and Dai Pra, 2003), while corals, which would be suitable for U-series dating, are very rare. Zander et al. (2003, 2006) carried out OSL age determinations with some success. However, the OSL dating method requires sufficient exposure of the mineral grains to sunlight, which is not always provided in the case of marine sediments, and, moreover, the ages of most terraces in the area are out of the OSL dating range. The study presented in this paper investigates the soils developed on the marine terraces between Metaponto and Pisticci in the central part of the Gulf of Taranto (Fig. 1). The aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of processes involved in the middle Pleistocene to Holocene landscape history in the area and their chronology from a pedogenic perspective. One of the main research questions is whether soil development stages indicate progressive land surface ages from the lower to the higher terraces. Soil development stages have been successfully correlated to land surface ages in other coastal areas (e.g. Merritts et al., 1991; Sauer et al., 2007, 2008, 2009), although in southern Italy such studies are complicated by erosion and sedimentation as well as possible tectonic activity during the later history of the marine terraces (Scarciglia et al., 2006; Wagner et al., 2007). Thus, it seemed worthwhile to examine soil development in the coastal area of the Gulf of Taranto, whose landscape history and chronology is still an object of discussion. Bru¨ckner (1980) mapped the marine terraces in the whole area between Rocca Imperiale in the southwest and Taranto in the northeast, and moreover carried out detailed sedimentological analyses on the terraces in the area between

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Metaponto and Pisticci. The terraces in this section are particularly clearly expressed and well preserved. 2. Regional setting The study area is located in the eastern central part of the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy (Fig. 1). Geologically, it is situated in the Bradanic Trough, which is framed by the Apennines in the Southwest and the Apulian foreland area in the Northeast. The formation of the Bradanic Trough is related to that of the southern Apennines, which began to rise during the late Oligocene, when the Adriatic Plate started to subduct under the European Plate. The Bradanic Trough is the southern sector of the Apennine foredeep. Since the Early-Middle Pliocene, it has been filled with 3,4 km thick sediments (Tropeano et al., 2002). During the middle Pleistocene, the area became subject to uplift with values decreasing from SW (in proximity of the Apennine chain) to NE (Westaway, 1993; Dai Pra and Hearty, 1988; Caputo et al., 2007). The interaction between uplift and glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations led to the present sequence of marine terraces. The study presented in this paper distinguishes the terraces according to Bru¨ckner (1980, 1982) and uses his nomenclature, naming the Holocene coastal area T0 and counting from the lowest Pleistocene terrace T1, to the highest terrace T11. The ongoing study is focussing mainly on the area between the Cavone River in the Southwest and the Basento River in the Northeast (Fig. 2). The terrace bodies show a characteristic vertical sediment sequence which consists, according to Bru¨ckner (1980), from bottom to top of: (i) clay and silt (deposited on the deeper shelf); (ii) the terrace base, composed of intermittent layers of loam, sand and gravel (deposited on the middle shelf and sublittoral); (iii) the main gravel body (deposited in beach environment); (iv) a fine-textured cover sediment (Fig. 3). The nature of the cover sediment has been interpreted as lagoonal or alluvial (Bru¨ckner, 1980). 3. Materials and methods On each of the terraces T0 to T9, one or two exposures were selected that showed the typical vertical sediment sequence of the

Table 1 Existing time pegs within the terrace sequence. Terrace T0

Terrace T1

Terrace T2

Terrace T3

Terrace T8

Terrace T10

Lido di Metaponto:

Petrulla:

San Teodoro I:

San Teodoro II:

OSL on feldspars: 190  50 a BPa

OSL of loess in 60 cm depth: 16 ka BPb; OSL of loess in 90 cm depth: 20.3 ka BPb; OSL of loess in 170 cm depth: 24.9 ka BPb; OSL of upper main gravel body: 55.4 ka BPc; OSL of terrace base: 50.7 ka BPc in 30 cm below upper boundary and 73.8 ka BPc in 90 cm below upper boundary; U/Th of molluscs in upper main gravel body:63  3 ka BPd; U/Th of molluscs in terrace base: 75  7 ka BPd; Cozzo Marziotta:U/Th of molluscs in the lowest layer of the main gravel body: 110  10 ka BPd

OSL of loam in ca. 250 cm depth: 53.5 ka BPb;

OSL of main gravel body: 69.6 ka BPc in 2.4 m depth; 81.8 ka BPc in 3 m depth; 80.8 ka BPc in 4 m depth;

near Montalbano Ionico: Tephra layer of Phlegraean Fields indicates a terrace age of 500–600 ka BP (Bru¨ckner, 1980).

Brunhes-Matuyama boundary lies between terraces T10 and T11 (Bru¨ckner, 1980). Hence, terrace T10 formed later than 780 ka BP.

a

OSL of central part of main gravel body: 81.4  7.2 ka BP (SAR) and 59.8  5.5 ka BP (MAA on feldspars)

All OSL dates are from Zander et al., 2003, 2006. Averages of 3 values: 1. single aliquot datings (SAR) on feldspars, 2. multiple aliquot datings (MAA) on feldspars, 3. multiple aliquot datings (MAA) on polymineral fine-grained samples. c Averages of 2 values: 1. single aliquot datings (SAR) on feldspars, 2. multiple aliquot datings (MAA) on feldspars. d 230Th/234U ages from Bru¨ckner, 1980. b

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D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Fig. 1. Location of the study area (grey rectangle) in the central part of the Gulf of Taranto. a: Apulian foreland; b: Apennine carbonate platform; c: Molise–Sannio–Lagonegro pelagic basin; d: Laga Fm; e: Umbria Marche pelagic basin; f: Liguride units; g: Magmatic units; h: Pliocene and Quaternary deposits; 1: Front of the southern Appenine orogenic wedge 2: main thrust front; 3: main faults.

terraces in the Metaponto area (Fig. 3) and the soils developed therein. Usually, the fine-grained cover sediments and the upper part of the main gravel body were exposed in the selected exposures. Altogether 12 soil profiles were described according to FAO (2006), classified according to IUSS Working Group WRB (2006), and sampled horizon-wise. The samples were air-dried and passed through a 2 mm sieve. All analyses were carried out on air-dried fine earth with one replicate. The results were then referred to 105  C dried soil

including rock fragments. pH was measured in de-ionized water and in 1 M KCl solution with a glass electrode using a soil:solution ratio of 1:2.5. The electrical conductivity (EC) was measured using a soil:water ratio of 1:5. The suspension was shaken overnight, centrifuged for 10–15 min at 3000 rpm and decanted. The EC was measured in the clear solution. Contents of organic carbon (OC) and carbonate–carbon (Ccarb) were measured pyrolytic–coulometrically by use of a LECO RC 412 analyser with a heating program that allows for analysis of both

Fig. 2. Study area with terraces according to Bru¨ckner (1980) and location of studied soil profiles.

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Fig. 3. Generalized sedimentary composition of the marine terrace bodies in the Gulf of Taranto according to Bru¨ckner (1980).

carbon fractions in one measurement. Organic matter contents were calculated as OC * 1.72 and CaCO3 equivalent contents as Ccarb * 8.33. Particle size analysis was done by sieving the sand fractions (2000–630 mm, 630–200 mm, 200–63 mm) and separating silt (63–20 mm, 20–6.3 mm, 6.3–2 mm) fractions and clay (<2 mm) by the pipette method (ISO/CD 11277). Prior to particle size analysis, carbonates were dissolved by HCl, and samples with OM contents >1% were treated with H2O2. Iron was extracted by dithionite (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) in order to determine the amounts of iron in pedogenic iron oxides/hydroxides (Fed). Iron contents of the extracts were analysed by inductive coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP–OES). The total element composition was determined by X-ray fluorescence analysis of fused discs using a Siemens SRS 200 instrument (without replicate). (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al molar ratios were calculated from the total element composition as a measure for progressive feldspar weathering with time. Ca bound in calcium carbonate was previously subtracted to calculate the ratio for calcium carbonate-free soil. Thus, decalcification and re-calcification processes were eliminated from the data, because both processes were observable in the soils, so that carbonate dynamics could not be used as soil age indicator. Clay mineral composition was analysed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) of oriented clay specimen on ceramic plates using a Siemens D-500 instrument with Cu Ka radiation. Treatments included Kþ and Mg2þ saturation, and heating to 110  C, 220  C, 400  C and 600  C. Clay mineral amounts were estimated semiquantitatively by use of the computer package DIFFRAC AT V3.3. 4. Results 4.1. General observations The soils developed on the lower terraces T0 and T1 are weakly to moderately developed and have greyish- or yellowish-brown colours (Fig. 4a–c). The soils on the terraces T2 and T3 are more reddish (Fig. 4d–e), and some of the soils on the higher terraces,

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especially the one on T7, are deeply developed (soil depth on T7: 338 cm) and red (Fig. 5d). A general trend of increasing redness and increasing weathering intensity of pebbles from the lower to the higher terraces has previously been reported by Fuchs and Semmel (1974) and Bru¨ckner (1980). However, the trend in redness is not perfect, because the sedimentological situation differs among the sites and the sediments forming the land surface are often younger than the respective marine terrace. The locations, field, chemical and mineralogical data of the 12 profiles are presented in Tables 2–4. The profile on the recent beach (T0 – Lido di Metaponto) has very high pH (H2O) values, ranging between 9.0 and 9.7 (Table 4). The soils on the higher terraces have high pH values as well, but values >pH 9 occur only below 200 cm depth. The high pH values are assumed to be mainly due to input of soluble salts through sea spray. The pH is thus not related to soil age but mainly to the distance from the coast. However, none of the soils is saline (see EC1:5 in Table 4). Leaching of the salts from the upper to the lower parts of the soils may explain the observed pH increase with depth. Clay mineral composition does not reflect progressive soil development, because the fresh sediments (C horizons) already contain very variable amounts of smectite, vermiculite and kaolinite, so that clay minerals cannot be used as age indicators (Table 4). The reason for the presence of these clay minerals even on the youngest terraces is probably that some proportion of the fluvial and marine deposits consists of soil sediment which was eroded from the upper (older) terraces, carried towards the coast by the Basento River, and deposited on the newly formed terrace. 4.2. Terrace T0: soil profile Lido di Metaponto The soil profile is located in the recent cliff, which cuts into subrecent sandy beach sediments (Fig. 4a). The texture is dominated by medium sand (Fig. 6a), and the soil is thus classified as a Brunic Arenosol (Calcaric). Soil development is still in a very early stage. It is most intense at 31–46 cm depth, as reflected by Fed/Fet maxima (Table 4) and silt/clay minima (Fig. 7a). It is therefore assumed that the upper, less intensely weathered, 31 cm of the profile consists of younger aeolian sand. 4.3. Terrace T0: soil profile Basento/Metaponto This soil profile is located on the Basento floodplain, and is composed of alluvial silty clay loam (Figs. 4b, 6b). However, there is no ‘fluvic material’ according to IUSS Working Group WRB (2006) in the soil profile. Distinct carbonate accumulation occurs at 45–85 cm depth (Table 3). The soil is thus classified as a Hypocalcic Calcisol (Siltic). Fed/Fet ratios range between 0.23 and 0.29 (Table 4), which indicates that pre-weathering of the alluvial sediments is moderate. 4.4. Terrace T1: soil profile Petrulla The site of La Petrulla has been subject of several previous studies (e.g. Bru¨ckner, 1980; Zander et al., 2003, 2006). The upper part consists of loamy sediment, which is 185 cm thick where the profile has been described (Fig. 4c). The soil developed in this sediment is a Calcic Luvisol; its clay content increases from 16.3% in the upper 30 cm to 24.4% at 120–150 cm depth (Table 3; Fig. 6c). Below the loamy sediment, the main gravel body follows. Slightly increased Fed/Fet (Table 4) and distinctly decreased silt/clay ratios (Fig. 7c) point to increased weathering intensity in the upper part of the gravel (185–240 cm depth). The gravel has moreover been at least partly decalcified, in contrast to the overlying sediment (Table 3). These data indicate that there was a period of soil

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D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Fig. 4. Soil profiles on the five lower terraces T0–T4.

formation in the gravel before the loamy sediment has been deposited. The loamy sediment in the Petrulla site has been interpreted in previous studies either as lagoonal sediment (Bru¨ckner, 1980) or loess (Fuchs and Semmel, 1974; Fuchs, 1980). The interpretation of Bru¨ckner (1980) was based on the occurrence of marine micro fossils and the high sand content (Fig. 6c). Recent luminescence dates indicate that the sediment was deposited between 24.9 and 16 ka BP (Table 1; Zander et al., 2003, 2006), during the last glacial maximum (LGM), and thus support the loess hypothesis. Alluvial sediments could not be deposited at that time, because the glacial sea level low stand favoured fluvial erosion over sedimentation. The occurrence of marine micro fossils suggests that the shelf area of the Gulf of Taranto, which fell dry during the last glacial, was a significant source of the loess in this area. The high fine sand content may be explained by the short distance to the source area. Up to now, the authors have found loess only on the lower terraces, T1–T3. This observation confirms the above assumption that a significant proportion of the loess was blown out from the shelf and subsequently trapped on the lower terraces (<100 m a.s.l.). The higher terraces (100 m a.s.l.) received substantially smaller

amounts of loess, which were thus not preserved as distinct layers, but mixed into the existing soils. A second potential source for the loess is west of the study area: it is well known that local glaciations occurred in the Southern Apennines during the last glacial period (Klebelsberg, 1932; Boenzi and Palmentola, 1971). In addition, periglacial phenomena have been described, e.g. by Fuchs and Semmel (1974) in the Sila area and by Scarciglia et al. (2003a, 2003b) in the Cilento. 4.5. Terrace T2: soil profile San Teodoro I In this profile, 180 cm thick sandy clay loam with high fine sand and significant coarse silt contents overly 100 cm sandy clay loam with increased medium sand and decreased fine sand and coarse silt contents (Fig. 6d). Below 280 cm depth, there is a 45 cm thick layer of gravelly sandy loam, overlying the main gravel body (Fig. 4d). The fine sediment in the upper 180 cm is similar to the loess in the Petrulla site, but has a lower coarse silt and higher medium sand content (Fig. 6d). It is hence interpreted as alluvial sediment with a significant proportion of loess. The colour of the soil developed in this sediment is more reddish, clay coatings in the

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

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Fig. 5. Soil profiles on the terraces T5–T9.

Bt horizons are more distinct, and maximum Fed/Fet ratios are higher than in the loess of the Petrulla site (0.39 vs. 0.30; Table 4) which points to a greater age of the fine sediment compared to the loess deposited in the LGM and/or mixing with pre-weathered alluvial material. Both, Fed/Fet (Table 4) and silt/clay ratios (Fig. 7d) indicate a distinct boundary in weathering intensity at 180 cm depth. Above this depth, Fed/Fet ratios show the expected downward decrease and silt/clay ratios the expected increase (except for the Ap horizon). Both parameters point to a significant increase in weathering intensity below 180 cm. It is concluded that the sediments at 180–325 cm depth were deposited soon after the main gravel body, and that there was a period of soil formation before the upper sediment accumulated. The soil developed in the upper 180 cm is classified as Endocalcic Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic), and the soil below 180 cm depth is classified as Calcic Luvisol (Chromic). 4.6. Terrace T3: soil profile San Teodoro II In 2004, an irrigation pipeline ditch was dug across the terrace T3 near the San Teodoro II exposure described by Bru¨ckner (1980). The ditch exposed 112 cm of alluvial sediments (Fig. 4e). The

marine main gravel body was not reached within the depth of the ditch. The soil developed in these sediments shows distinct clay translocation (Fig. 6e) with a clay content of 45 % at 100–112 cm depth (Table 3) and nodules of secondary carbonates below this depth. The soil is classified as Bathicalcic Cutanic Luvisol (Hypereutric, Chromic). The maximum Fed/Fet ratio is 0.34 (Table 4) which indicates that the degree of soil formation is similar to that of the alluvial sediment on terrace T2. 4.7. Terrace T4: soil profile Marconia The exposed sedimentological sequence shows a 58 cm thick layer of fine alluvial sediments on top. Sediments below 58 cm contain more sand and some gravel, while silt contents are lower (Table 3, Fig. 6f). The section from 58–151 cm depth is considered fluvial. Below follows the main gravel body. Fed/Fet (Table 4) and silt/clay ratios (Fig. 7f) give no hint to any abrupt change in weathering intensity between the different sediments. Secondary carbonates have precipitated in the fluvial sediments (Fig. 4f, Table 3). However, the advanced soil development stage in the fluvial and marine sediments indicates that the soils must have been completely decalcified before. This means that, prior to deposition

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D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Table 2 Location, sedimentological composition and soils of the 12 profiles in the Metaponto area. Terrace; profile name Coordinates

Elevation [m a.s.l.]

Sediment

Thickness [cm]

Soil (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006)

Terrace T0; profile: Lido di Metaponto 16 49.910 E 40 21.050 N

2

Aeolian sand Beach sand

31  127

Brunic Arenosol (Calcaric)

Alluvial fine sediment

 85

Hypocalcic Calcisol (Siltic)

Loess Marine main gravel body

185  265

Calcic Luvisol Luvisol

43

Younger alluvial fine sediment Older alluvial fine sediment Fluvial gravelly sediment Marine main gravel body

180 100 45 75

Endocalcic cutanic Luvisol (Chromic) Calcic Luvisol (Chromic)

61

Alluvial fine sediment

 112

Bathicalcic Cutanic Luvisol (Hypereutric, Chromic)

96

Alluvial fine sediment Fluvial gravelly sediment Marine main gravel body

58 93 72

Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Clayic) Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic) Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic)

Terrace T5; profile: T5-SE 16 40.560 E 40 21.370 N

120

Alluvial fine sediment Marine main gravel body

108  98

Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Chromic) Endocalcic Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic)

Terrace T5; profile: T5-NW 16 37.940 E 40 21.730 N

160

Alluvial fine sediment Fluvial gravelly sediment

80 125

Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Chromic)

Terrace T6; profile: Tinchi I 16 37.110 E 40 21.680 N

196

Alluvial fine sediment Marine main gravel body Marine sand

36 79  85

Cutanic Luvisol (Clayic) Cutanic Luvisol (Skeletic, Chromic)

Terrace T7; profile: Tinchi II 16 36.250 E 40 21.870 N

224

Alluvial fine sediment Marine main gravel body Marine sand

73 307  70

Cutanic Luvisol Cutanic Alisol (Skeletic, Chromic)

Terrace T8; profile: Pisticci 16 35.250 E 40 22.140 N

245

Colluvium Fluvial sediment

47  333

Cutanic Alisol (Chromic)

Fluvial sediment

230

Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic)

Terrace T0; profile: 40 21.800 Terrace T1; profile: 40 21.580 N

Basento/Metaponto 16 47.560 5 Petrulla  0 16 46.40 E 22

Terrace T2; profile: San Teodoro I 16 44.680 E 40 21.320 N

Terrace T3; profile: 40 22.110 Terrace T4; profile: 40 21.020 / 40 20.990 N

San Teodoro II 16 44.750 Marconia 16 41.090 / 16 41.100 E

Terrace T9; profile: Bernalda 16 36.380 E 40 26.720 N

320

of the alluvial sediment, there must have been a period of soil formation, during which the marine and fluvial sediments were decalcified and distinct Bt horizons developed. Later, calcareous alluvial sediment, probably containing some aeolian dust (as suggested by increased coarse silt content; Fig. 6f), was deposited on top, and carbonate leaching in the latter led to re-calcification of the underlying Bt horizons. The soil developed in the alluvial sediment is classified as Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Clayic), the soils formed in the underlying fluvial and marine sediments as Cutanic Luvisols (Chromic). The low Fed/Fet contents throughout the profile (max. 0.21) and the erosional unconformity between the marine and the fluvial sediments (Fig. 4f) suggest that the most strongly developed part of the soil corresponding to the original marine terrace has been eroded. 4.8. Terrace T5: soil profile T5-SE This profile was described in a building pit of a house constructed in 2006 close to the seaward boundary of the terrace. A 108 cm thick layer of alluvial clay overlies the marine main gravel body. Soils in both sediments are characterized by distinct clay translocation (Fig. 6g). The soil developed in the alluvial clay is classified as Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Chromic), the soil in marine sediments as Endocalcic Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic). Fed/Fet ratios are as low throughout the profile as those in the Marconia site on terrace T4 (Table 4). As demonstrated for the Marconia site, the soil in the marine gravel layer must have been completely decalcified,

before it was covered by calcareous alluvial clay. The alluvial clay was then subject to decalcification and clay translocation; secondary carbonates precipitated in its lower part (Table 3, Fig. 5a). 4.9. Terrace T5: soil profile T5-NW This profile is exposed in a drainage ditch close to the northwestern boundary of the terrace. It comprises an 80 cm thick layer of alluvial sandy clay loam overlying 125 cm of gravelly sandy clay loam (Fig. 5b). The marine main gravel body is not exposed. Particle size distribution of the fine earth is very homogeneous throughout the profile (Fig. 6h). Fed/Fet ratios are as low as in the other profile on terrace T5 and in the Marconia site on T4 (Table 4). Carbonate contents are very low and slightly increase with depth, suggesting uniform decalcification and soil development, and no time gap during deposition of the 205 cm of sediments. The soil is classified as Endocalcic Cutanic Alisol (Chromic). 4.10. Terrace T6: soil profile Tinchi I The main part of the profile is exposed in a road cut. In addition, a shallow soil profile was dug on the terrace surface some tens of meters from the main profile to compensate for topsoil erosion occurring in the road cut (Fig. 5c). The sediment sequence includes a 36 cm thick layer of alluvial sandy clay loam, covering a 79 cm thick layer of marine gravel and 85 cm of sand (Figs. 5c, 6i).

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Table 3 Field and basic analytical data of the 12 profiles in the Metaponto area. Depth [cm]

Horizon (FAO, 2006)

Colour (moist)

Soil structure

Terrace T0; profile: Lido di Metaponto 2 C 2.5Y5/3 Single grain 13 AC 2.5Y5/3 Single grain 31 CB1 2.5Y4/4 Single grain 46 2CB2 2.5Y4/4 Single grain 67 Cw1 2.5Y4/5 Single grain 95 Cw2 2.5Y4/4 Single grain >158 C 2.5Y3/3 Single grain Terrace T0; profile: Basento/Metaponto 16 Ap1 2.5Y4/3 Granular – subangular blocky 45 Ap2 2.5Y4/3 Granular – subangular blocky >85 Bk 2.5Y5/4 Subangular blocky Terrace T1; profile: Petrulla 30 Ap 2.5Y4/4 granular – subangular blocky 60 Bw 2.5Y4/6 Subangular blocky 120 Bk1 2.5Y5/6 Angular blocky 150 Bk2 (upper) 10YR5/4 Angular blocky – prismatic 185 Bk2 (lower) 10YR5/4 Angular blocky - prismatic 240 2Bk3 10YR5/7 Massive >450 3C 10YR5/3 Single grain Terrace T2; profile: San Teodoro I 23 Ap 10YR4/4 Subangular blocky 60 Bt1 7.5YR4/6 Subangular blocky 93 Bt2 10YR4/6 subangular blocky 130 Ck1 10YR5/4 Massive – subangular blocky 180 Ck2 10YR4/6 Subangular – angular blocky 280 2Bk3 7.5YR4/6 Massive – angular blocky 325 3Bk4 7.5YR5/6 Massive 350 4Bk5 7.5YR4/6 Massive, partly cemented 400 Ckm 10YR7/3 Cemented >400 5Cw 2.5Y6/3 Massive – subangular blocky Terrace T3; profile: San Teodoro II 25 Ap 10YR4/4 Subangular blocky 70 Ap/Bt, tilted 7.5YR3/4 Subangular blocky 100 Bt/Ap, tilted 7.5YR4/6 Angular blocky 112 Bt 10YR4/6 angular blocky >112 Bk 7.5YR4/6 Angular – subangular blocky Terrace T4; profile: Marconia Upper soil profile 25 Ap1 7.5YR4/3 Subangular blocky 42 Ap2 7.5YR4/3 Angular blocky 58 Bt1 7.5YR4/4 Angular blocky Main soil profile (depths added to those of the upper soil profile) 82 (2Ap) 7.5YR4/5 Subangular blocky 116 2Btk1 7.5YR4/6 Angular blocky 133 Btk2 7.5YR4/6 Subangular – angular blocky 151 Bt2 7.5YR4/6 Angular blocky >223 3Bt3 7.5YR4/4 Massive – subangular blocky Terrace T5; profile: T5-SE Ap 7.5YR4/3 Granular 30 54 Bt1 7.5YR4/4 Angular blocky 83 Bt2 7.5YR4/4 Angular blocky 108 Btk1 7.5YR5/6 Angular blocky 174 2Bt3 7.5YR4/6 Angular blocky >206 Btk2 7.5YR4/4 Massive – subangular blocky Terrace T5; profile: T5-NW 33 Ap 7.5YR4/3 Subangular blocky 80 Bt 7.5YR4/4 Subangular – angular blocky 127 2Btk1 7.5YR4/5 Angular blocky 168 Btk2 7.5YR4/4 Angular blocky >205 Btk3 7.5YR5/4 Angular blocky Terrace T6; profile: Tinchi I -20 Ap 10YR4/4 Subangular blocky 36 Bt1 7.5YR4/5 Angular blocky 50 2Bt2 10YR4/6 Massive 108 Bt3 7.5YR4/6 Subangular blocky 165 Bw1 7.5YR4/6 Massive 182 3Bw2 10YR4/6 Massive 215 Cw 10YR4/6 Massive – single grain

Bulk density [g cm3]

Gravel [vol. %]a

Sand [mass%]

Silt [mass.%]

Clay [mass.%]

Carbonates [%] (CaCO3 equiv.)

Humus [%] (OC  1.72)

n. d. 1.53 1.51 1.52 1.49 1.55 1.54

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

95.9 96.6 97.0 96.1 96.9 97.0 95.6

3.7 1.7 1.7 2.0 2.2 1.7 3.7

0.3 1.7 1.3 1.9 0.9 1.3 0.7

13.0 13.7 13.5 15.0 12.0 15.5 17.2

0.43 0.41 0.37 0.65 0.47 0.40 0.42

1.97 1.98 1.85

<1 <1 0

15.5 15.8 8.3

50.1 49.8 64.7

34.4 34.4 26.9

13.6 12.9 21.6

1.66 1.54 0.68

1.66 1.75 1.83 1.94 n. d. n. d. n. d.

0 0 0 0 3 90 n.d.

61.1 47.5 44.6 42.5 47.5 70.4 97.1

22.6 33.8 34.8 33.2 28.7 14.3 1.6

16.3 18.7 20.7 24.4 23.8 15.3 1.3

9.5 18.6 18.0 14.5 12.6 8.7 10.9

1.20 0.64 0.42 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.13

1.64 1.91 1.96 1.94 2.00 1.82 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d.

0 0 0 0 0 0 25 80 80 0

76.6 55.4 56.4 59.2 46.1 58.5 67.4 75.3 92.0 97.1

15.5 18.1 19.7 19.8 28.8 17.3 13.0 9.4 2.9 1.5

7.9 26.5 23.9 21.0 25.1 24.2 19.6 15.3 5.2 1.4

0.1 0.1 0.1 12.7 8.8 7.7 8.1 10.3 17.0 9.1

0.45 0.60 0.31 0.40 0.26 0.21 0.24 0.29 0.21 0.12

n. d. 1.87 1.97 1.98 2.17

2 2 2 0 0

49.4 57.8 34.5 29.1 28.5

25.5 25.1 26.0 27.3 26.5

25.1 17.1 39.6 43.6 45.0

0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 7.0

1.01 0.75 0.80 0.66 2.73

1.90 2.06 2.15

2 <1 <1

36.8 32.7 25.9

24.4 25.9 29.5

38.8 41.4 44.6

0.4 0.3 0.2

1.64 1.00 0.83

2.02 2.06 n.d. 1.90 n. d.

2 2 15 4 60

50.9 62.6 69.3 74.4 72.8

13.9 10.0 6.1 5.2 5.0

35.2 27.4 24.7 20.4 22.3

4.0 4.0 0.8 0.2 2.3

1.18 0.51 0.30 0.21 0.26

2.04 2.23 2.29 2.31 n. d. 1.59

<1 <1 <1 <1 75 90

41.7 23.4 26.1 32.0 38.2 57.9

32.2 24.7 23.5 22.3 18.1 10.5

26.1 51.9 50.4 45.7 43.7 31.6

0.3 0.3 0.5 9.6 3.0 1.0

1.03 0.59 0.54 0.54 0.43 0.35

1.93 1.94 n. d. n. d. n. d.

7 2 20 15 8

45.1 48.9 49.8 48.5 52.2

18.5 21.9 18.8 18.3 16.9

36.4 29.2 31.4 33.2 31.0

0.4 0.4 1.4 1.1 1.8

1.24 1.09 0.45 0.36 0.25

1.95 2.03 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d.

1 4 80 70 75 1 0

53.5 25.7 28.5 47.5 76.9 88.3 95.8

23.5 17.0 14.6 12.7 3.0 3.6 1.4

23.1 57.3 57.0 39.9 20.2 8.1 2.8

0.1 0.2 7.3 0.1 1.8 7.1 0.2

1.66 1.08 1.11 0.57 0.68 0.20 0.10 (continued on next page)

56

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Table 3 (continued ). Depth [cm]

Horizon (FAO, 2006)

Colour (moist)

>250 C 2.5Y4/6 Terrace T7; profile: Tinchi II 33 Ap 10YR3/4 54 Bt1 7.5YR3/4 73 Bt2 5YR4/6 160 2Bt3 7.5YR4/6 225 Bt4 (upper) 7.5YR4/6 290 Bt4 (lower) 5YR4/6 330 Bw 7.5YR3/4 338 Bg 10YR3/3 380 Ck/Ckm n.d. 410 3C 2.5Y4/6 Terrace T8; profile: Pisticci 22 Ap 7.5YR4/4 47 AB 7.5YR4/3 65 2Btk1 7.5YR4/6 109 Btk2 7.5YR4/6 155 Btk3 (upper) 7.5YR4/6 200 Btk3 (lower) 7.5YR4/6 239 Btk4 7.5YR4/6 259 Btk5 7.5YR4/5 286 CB1 7.5YR4/4 323 CBk 10YR4/6 >380 CB2 10YR4/6 Terrace T9; profile: Bernalda 10 Ah 10YR3/4 26 Ah/Bw 7.5YR3/4 70 Bt 7.5YR4/6 100 Btk1 7.5YR5/6 117 Btk2 7.5YR5/6 140 Btk3 5YR5/6 220 Btk4 7.5YR4/6 >230 2Bw 7.5YR4/6 a b

Soil structure

Bulk density [g cm3]

Gravel [vol. %]a

Sand [mass%]

Silt [mass.%]

Clay [mass.%]

Carbonates [%] (CaCO3 equiv.)

Humus [%] (OC  1.72)

Single grain, partly cemented

n. d.

0

89.8

4.5

5.7

11.5

0.15

Granular – subangular blocky Subangular blocky Subangular  angular blocky Angular blocky Angular blocky Angular blocky Massive Massive, slightly cemented Single grain þ cemented layers Single grain

1.85 1.79 2.08 2.04 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d.

<1 <1 2 75 70 70 65 80 75 <1

58.0 47.0 49.7 29.9 36.8 47.0 67.7 90.2 n. d. 92.5

26.6 25.4 16.4 19.5 22.5 9.2 4.9 3.1 n. d. 3.5

15.4 27.6 33.8 50.7 40.7 43.8 27.5 6.7 n. d. 4.0

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.6 6.8 n. d. 12.5

1.49 1.09 0.94 0.50 0.63 0.95 0.56 0.49 n. d. 0.19

Granular – subangular blocky Subangular blocky Prismatic Prismatic Prismatic Prismatic Prismatic Angular blocky Massive Massive Massive – single grain

1.81 1.88 2.05 1.96 1.88 1.89 1.89 1.84 1.72 1.58 1.56

7 10 3 1 1 18 <1 / 10b <1 <1 0 15

43.2 49.5 60.6 72.3 76.1 78.6 78.4 78.2 82.2 85.6 89.3

18.5 13.4 5.8 3.9 3.7 2.3 2.9 4.4 4.3 5.9 4.0

38.3 37.1 33.7 23.8 20.2 19.0 18.7 17.4 13.5 8.5 6.7

9.4 1.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 o.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

1.90 1.45 0.52 0.26 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.33 0.25 0.16 0.29

Granular Prismatic Prismatic – angular blocky Prismatic prismatic, partly cemented Prismatic, partly cemented Massive, slightly cemented – prismatic Massive, slightly cemented

1.34 1.78 2.01 1.97 n. d. 2.05 n. d. n. d.

1 <1 2 4 4 <1 <1 10

67.6 67.7 60.3 62.6 67.4 70.1 71.3 75.9

15.0 13.2 13.6 10.5 7.4 7.2 8.5 3.4

17.4 19.1 26.1 26.9 25.2 22.7 20.2 20.8

0.5 0.9 0.1 3.8 5.9 4.8 1.6 2.1

3.95 1.62 0.75 0.35 0.26 0.28 0.12 0.26

Field estimates. Several gravel layers.

A Cutanic Luvisol (Clayic) has developed in the alluvial sediments. The marine gravel is strongly weathered, and a Cutanic Luvisol (Skeletic, Chromic) has developed therein. The weathering parameters Fed/Fet and silt/clay both indicate stronger weathering in the marine sediments (below 36 cm depth) than in the alluvial loam (Table 4, Fig. 7i). This means that deposition of the alluvial loam took place after a period of soil formation in the marine sediments. 4.11. Terrace T7: soil profile Tinchi II Like the profile Tinchi I on terrace T6, the main part of the profile is exposed in a road cut. Since the upper part has been eroded, the profile was completed by a shallow soil profile on the terrace surface some tens of meters from the main profile (Fig. 5d). A 73 cm thick layer of alluvial sediment covers the main gravel body which is 307 cm thick in the described soil profile. Unweathered sand follows below 380 cm depth. The alluvial sediment consists of sandy loam in the topsoil and sandy clay loam in the Bt horizons (Fig. 6j). Clay translocation (and iron oxide co-translocation) is reflected by decreased silt/clay ratio (Fig. 7j) and increased Fed/Fet ratio (Table 4) and led to the formation of a Cutanic Luvisol. A Cutanic Alisol (Skeletic, Chromic) has developed in the marine gravel. Strong weathering of the gravel and more reddish colour of the soil developed therein compared to the soil in the alluvial sediment (Fig. 5d) suggest that there was a phase of soil development in the gravel before the alluvial sediment has been deposited.

sand (mainly fine and medium sand; Fig. 6k) with a few thin gravel layers. The originally completely decalcified fluvial deposit is overlain by 47 cm of calcareous colluvium, from which carbonates were leached and slightly re-calcified the fluvial deposit (Figs. 5e, 9k). Apart from this, soil development below the colluvium is uniform. The marine sediments of the terrace are not reached within the 380 cm deep exposure. A Cutanic Alisol (Chromic) has developed in the fluvial deposits. Clay formation and translocation (and iron oxide co-translocation) are reflected by decreased silt/ clay and increased Fed/Fet ratios, particularly in the lower Btk3 horizon at 155–200 cm depth (Fig. 7k, Table 4). 4.13. Terrace T9: soil profile Bernalda The sedimentological composition of this soil profile is similar to that of profile Pisticci on terrace T8. It consists of fluvial sandy loam (containing mainly fine and medium sand and few pebbles; Fig. 6l), in which a Cutanic Luvisol (Chromic) has formed. The marine sediments are not exposed. The maximum Fed/Fet ratio (not only of this profile but of all sites) of 0.58 is reached in the Bt horizon at 26–70 cm depth (Table 4). The deeper Bt horizons have been re-calcified (particularly the Btk horizons at 70–140 cm depth; Table 3). The carbonate source for re-calcification cannot be identified in the soil profile. Most likely, it was fluvial or aeolian calcareous sediment that has later been eroded. 5. Discussion

4.12. Terrace T8: soil profile Pisticci

5.1. Sedimentation and soil formation history of the terraces

The soil profile Pisticci is exposed in a steep gully a few kilometres SE of Pisticci. It is composed of more than 330 cm of fluvial

The marine terraces in the Metaponto area exhibit a characteristic vertical sequence of different types of deposits as shown in

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

57

Table 4 Chemistry and clay mineralogy of the 12 profiles in the Metaponto area. Depth [cm]

Horizon (FAO, 2006)

pH (H2O)

pH (KCl)

BS [%]

EC [dS m1]

Fed [mg g1]

Terrace T0; profile: Lido di Metaponto 2 C 9.0 8.7 100 0.16 1.6 13 AC 9.4 9.0 100 0.08 2.0 31 CB1 9.6 9.2 100 0.08 1.5 46 2CB2 9.7 9.2 100 0.09 1.6 67 Cw1 9.7 9.4 100 0.09 1.4 95 Cw2 9.6 9.4 100 0.09 2.1 >158 C 9.5 9.4 100 0.12 2.9 Terrace T0; profile: Basento/Metaponto 16 Ap1 8.4 7.5 100 0.16 8.0 45 Ap2 8.4 7.6 100 0.13 8.0 >85 Bk 8.6 7.6 100 0.12 8.8 Terrace T1; profile: Petrulla 30 Ap 8.6 7.9 100 0.13 4.9 60 Bw 8.6 7.9 100 0.12 5.8 120 Bk1 8.6 7.8 100 0.10 5.9 150 Bk2 (upper) 8.6 7.8 100 0.12 6.0 185 Bk2 (lower) 8.9 7.9 100 0.10 5.8 240 2Bk3 8.8 8.1 100 0.18 5.1 >450 3C 9.6 9.2 100 0.09 1.7 Terrace T2; profile: San Teodoro I 23 Ap 8.2 7.3 80 0.08 4.4 60 Bt1 7.9 6.7 63 0.08 10.0 93 Bt2 7.8 6.4 65 0.06 9.4 130 Ck1 8.6 7.7 100 0.10 6.0 180 Ck2 8.5 7.6 100 0.12 6.6 280 2Bk3 8.7 7.7 100 0.11 8.1 325 3Bk4 8.7 7.8 100 0.11 8.3 350 4Bk5 8.5 7.9 100 0.15 7.6 400 Ckm 9.2 8.6 100 0.09 0.8 >400 5Cw 9.5 9.0 100 0.06 1.0 Terrace T3; profile: San Teodoro II 25 Ap 7.8 6.7 64 0.07 7.6 70 Ap/Bt, tilted 8.0 6.7 100 0.05 5.8 100 Bt/Ap, tilted 7.7 6.0 58 0.05 10.6 112 Bt 7.8 6.1 59 0.09 11.2 >112 Bk 8.5 7.4 100 0.13 9.3 Terrace T4; profile: Marconia Upper soil profile 25 Ap1 7.9 6.5 39 0.08 6.1 42 Ap2 7.7 6.1 37 0.05 6.3 58 Bt1 8.0 6.2 38 0.08 6.8 Main soil profile (depths added to those of the upper soil profile) 82 (2Ap) 8.4 7.4 82 0.14 4.3 2Btk1 8.5 7.6 100 0.10 3.6 116 133 Btk2 8.5 7.4 66 0.12 3.4 151 Bt2 8.4 7.3 53 0.11 3.7 >223 3Bt3 8.6 7.6 78 0.14 3.4 Terrace T5; profile: T5-SE 30 Ap 7.1 5.4 33 0.03 4.5 54 Bt1 7.9 5.8 38 0.06 6.5 83 Bt2 8.5 6.9 44 0.21 6.3 108 Btk1 8.9 7.4 83 0.24 4.7 174 2Bt3 8.9 7.6 70 0.28 5.6 >206 Btk2 9.1 7.5 57 0.27 3.7 Terrace T5; profile: T5-NW 33 Ap 7.5 6.1 36 0.06 5.1 80 Bt 7.6 6.3 37 0.06 4.5 127 2Btk1 8.4 7.3 54 0.13 3.9 168 Btk2 8.3 7.3 53 0.17 4.0 >205 Btk3 8.3 7.4 67 0.18 3.4 Terrace T6; profile: Tinchi I 20 Ap 7.1 5.8 100 0.30 7.2 36 Bt1 7.4 5.7 60 0.05 13.6 50 2Bt2 8.3 7.3 30 0.18 12.2 108 Bt3 6.8 5.1 53 0.03 13.2 165 Bw1 8.4 7.5 100 0.11 7.9 182 3Bw2 8.7 7.9 100 0.08 6.1 215 Cw 9.1 8.4 100 0.07 5.1

Fet [mg g1]

Fed/Fet

14.2 25.8 9.1 8.9 8.3 14.2 22.9

Clay mineral composition [%] Illite

Mixed layered

Smectite

Vermicullite

Chlorite

Kaolinite

0.11 0.08 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13

12 15 15 13 17 13 10

36 5 5 13 14 14 9

1 12 12 18 9 11 25

0 12 12 9 10 10 14

11 12 12 10 10 10 8

39 44 44 37 41 42 34

29.7 34.8 30.0

0.27 0.23 0.29

10 11 8

29 20 24

16 30 30

14 11 11

4 3 5

28 25 22

16.4 23.8 20.2 21.5 20.9 17.5 7.2

0.30 0.24 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.24

16 9 14 11 14 13 12

26 10 24 18 17 8 13

23 52 27 10 29 51 38

11 13 16 38 15 10 10

4 0 0 5 5 0 5

21 16 19 19 20 17 21

11.6 25.3 24.6 19.0 26.0 20.3 17.9 17.2 4.7 4.0

0.38 0.39 0.38 0.31 0.25 0.40 0.46 0.44 0.17 0.24

36 30 19 18 20 22 30 19 0 11

41 22 25 16 16 24 20 24 4 7

3 30 20 38 34 26 30 45 82 71

4 8 24 15 17 11 5 3 5 7

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

16 10 13 13 14 16 14 9 4 4

22.1 17.3 31.0 36.2 31.1

0.34 0.34 0.34 0.31 0.30

34 28 24 23 25

32 42 30 14 26

22 12 32 43 25

0 4 3 9 5

0 0 0 0 0

12 15 11 11 20

31.0 32.3 36.3

0.20 0.20 0.19

35 24 25

30 5 3

23 46 45

0 14 17

0 0 0

12 10 10

24.9 20.3 21.2 18.0 19.6

0.17 0.18 0.16 0.21 0.17

18 12 20 28 31

17 8 10 13 21

58 73 60 50 37

0 1 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

7 6 7 9 10

22.9 39.5 37.0 30.6 34.1 25.1

0.20 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.15

23 17 16 15 16 19

7 3 4 7 9 10

48 66 44 69 64 60

13 7 30 1 3 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

10 7 6 8 8 10

27.0 24.1 26.2 26.1 24.4

0.19 0.19 0.15 0.15 0.14

34 34 15 17 9

16 13 11 10 9

33 41 61 66 74

6 0 5 1 2

0 0 0 0 0

10 12 8 7 5

20.6 43.7 38.6 35.0 20.8 13.7 10.4

0.35 0.31 0.32 0.38 0.38 0.44 0.49

22 18 14 25 17 24 28

17 3 12 14 13 25 19

51 72 62 44 54 42 45

0 3 5 5 7 2 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

10 5 8 11 9 8 9

(continued on next page)

58

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

Table 4 (continued ). Depth [cm]

Horizon (FAO, 2006)

pH (H2O)

>250 C 9.0 Terrace T7; profile: Tinchi II 33 Ap 6.3 54 Bt1 7.2 73 Bt2 6.5 160 2Bt3 7.4 225 Bt4 (upper) 7.5 290 Bt4 (lower) 6.9 330 Bw 8.3 338 Bg 8.7 380 Ck/Ckm n. d. 410 3C 9.1 Terrace T8; profile: Pisticci 22 Ap 8.2 47 AB 8.4 65 2Btk1 8.3 109 Btk2 8.5 155 Btk3 (upper) 8.4 200 Btk3 (lower) 8.3 239 Btk4 8.3 259 Btk5 8.3 286 CB1 8.4 323 CBk 8.4 >380 CB2 8.4 Terrace T9; profile: Bernalda 10 Ah 7.5 26 Ah/Bw 8.0 70 Bt 8.3 100 Btk1 8.5 117 Btk2 8.6 140 Btk3 8.6 220 Btk4 8.7 >230 2Bw 8.4

pH (KCl)

BS [%]

EC [dS m1]

Fed [mg g1]

Fet [mg g1]

Fed/Fet

Clay mineral composition [%] Illite

Mixed layered

Smectite

Vermicullite

Chlorite

Kaolinite

8.3

100

0.07

3.6

12.9

0.28

9

6

76

2

0

7

5.5 5.7 5.3 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 8.1 n. d. 8.3

100 55 50 47 57 55 100 0.12 100

0.08 0.04 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.14 0.14 9.5 n. d. 0.10

6.7 11.2 16.0 15.3 11.3 14.3 10.8 13.3 n. d. 4.8

15.9 22.7 29.9 38.4 31.5 34.6 25.9 0.71 n. d. 12.9

0.42 0.49 0.53 0.40 0.36 0.41 0.42 41 n. d. 0.37

45 42 46 39 39 21 26 17 n. d. 12

36 39 33 43 45 20 29 9 n. d. 10

0 0 0 0 0 27 25 3 n. d. 74

0 0 0 0 0 9 1 0 n. d. 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 n. d. 0

19 19 21 18 17 23 19 n. d. 4

7.3 7.3 7.1 7.2 7.1 6.9 6.8 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.1

47 49 38 42 43 37 44 42 46 44 46

0.12 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.06 0.07

5.2 6.1 6.8 5.9 5.9 5.8 5.7 5.1 5.0 4.1 3.4

30.3 29.6 27.7 20.9 19.2 17.5 18.2 18.0 16.5 14.0 11.7

0.17 0.21 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.32 0.29 0.30 0.29 0.29

28 26 15 23 30 27 26 20 20 15 16

17 15 11 13 15 13 15 12 9 13 14

44 47 64 54 42 44 48 59 61 64 61

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

12 11 9 9 14 15 12 9 9 8 9

6.9 6.9 7.1 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.7

68 68 72 100 100 100 100 100

0.11 0.07 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.20 0.24

6.6 7.9 10.1 8.7 9.6 9.6 8.6 8.6

17.2 17.6 17.4 19.6 19.9 19.4 17.2 16.1

0.38 0.45 0.58 0.44 0.48 0.50 0.50 0.53

41 45 33 53 30 29 47 38

27 40 19 24 15 21 25 17

9 0 33 3 34 35 13 32

0 0 0 0 4 0 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

22 15 16 20 18 16 15 11

Bold: max. Fed/Fet ratios of the respective pedostratigraphic unit shown in Figure 8 underlined: Fed/Fet ratios used for Fed/Fet – land surface age relationship in Figure 8. a Field estimates. b Several gravel layers.

Fig. 3 and previously described by Bru¨ckner (1980). The terraces are largely covered by loamy sediments, which have been interpreted in previous works as lagoonal and/or alluvial sediments, deposited shortly after emergence of the land surface above sea level. In this work, phases of soil formation in between phases of deposition of the different sediments forming the vertical sequence, have been identified in several soil profiles by field observation (e.g. soil colour, intensity of weathering of gravel, precipitation of secondary carbonates) and confirmed by the soil development parameters Fed/Fet ratio, silt/clay ratio and carbonate content. This approach reveals that the sedimentation history on the terraces includes a period of soil formation between the deposition of the marine and that of the alluvial sediments. Deposition of alluvial sediments on the terraces must have taken place at a time when the vertical distance between river and sea level was minimal. Otherwise erosion would have prevailed over sedimentation. Therefore, the alluvial sediments must have been deposited during an interglacial, when the sea level was high. This assumption is in agreement with a recent geomorphological, pedological and stratigraphical study of Robustelli et al. (2009) on alluvial and marine terraces along the Ionian coast of northern Calabria. The authors concluded from their observations that sediment aggradation on alluvial plains and fluvial incision is primarily governed by eustatic sea-level fluctuations and regional tectonics, causing variations of the relative erosion base. Because of the proceeding uplift of the area it is assumed that the alluvial sediments were deposited either in a later stage of the same interglacial in which the respective terrace was formed or in the subsequent interglacial. Deposition during a later interglacial

seems unlikely, because land uplift led to an increasing trend towards erosion instead of sedimentation. Thus, two scenarios are possible: 1) Soil formation took place immediately after the sea-level maximum within the same interglacial during which the marine terrace formed; the alluvial sediments were deposited later, but within the same interglacial. 2) Soil formation began immediately after the sea-level maximum within the same interglacial during which the marine terrace formed, but the alluvial sediments accumulated during the subsequent interglacial. There are arguments for and against both scenarios. Scenario 1 seems most likely from the tectonic and sedimentological point of view. On the other hand, distinct rubefication of the soils developed in the marine sediments raises the question of whether the period of soil formation according to scenario 1 would have been long enough to produce these soils, before they were buried and conserved by alluvial sediments. However, estimating the time span available for soil formation within the same interglacial in which the respective marine terrace was formed, it has to be considered that the surface of the marine terrace emerged above sea level already before the end of the interglacial sea-level maximum, because of tectonic uplift (Robustelli et al., 2009). Therefore, significant soil development within the same interglacial period cannot be definitely excluded. Scenario 2 would allow sufficient time for the development of rubefied soils in the marine deposits. According to this scenario, soil formation started in a Mediterranean environment during the

D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

59

Fig. 6. Particle size distribution of 12 soil profiles on the marine terraces T0–T9.

interglacial, continued in a steppe climate during the following glacial and again in a Mediterranean environment during the subsequent interglacial. Although no steppe soil formation can be detected at any site, this is not contradictory, because the thickness of steppe soils is limited (compared to Mediterranean Luvisols and Alisols), and there is evidence at most sites that a considerable part

of the soils has been eroded. However, scenario 2 would require that the erosion base in the subsequent interglacial was high enough to allow for alluvial sediment aggradation on the marine terrace of the previous marine terrace. As long as a final decision about scenarios 1 and 2 is not possible, the alluvial sediments are preliminarily attributed to the same

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D. Sauer et al. / Quaternary International 222 (2010) 48–63

0

8 10 12

0

0

20

10

40 60 80

100

1

2

0

1

silt:clay ratio

2

0

20 30 40 50

100 150

250

80

a T0: Lido di Metaponto 0

silt:clay ratio

2

0

0

20

20

20

40

40

40

60 80 100 120

120

180

220

200

200

g T5-SE

silt:clay ratio 0

1

40

50

50

depth [cm ]

0

100 150 200

160

h T5-NW

silt:clay ratio 0

2

0

120

1

300

j T7: Tinchi II

1

2

20

100 150 200

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

350

240

0 0

300

200

silt:clay ratio

2

250 250

i T6: Tinchi I

120 160

0

80

80

180

2

2

100

200

f T4: Marconia

depth [cm ]

depth [cm ]

100

1

60

140

silt:clay ratio 1

80

160

e T3: San Teodoro II 0

60

140

180

140

0

0

160

120

silt:clay ratio

2

0

140

100

1

depth [cm ]

80

d T2: San Teodoro I

depth [cm ]

60

1

depth [cm ]

depth [cm ]

depth [cm ]

40

250

c T1: Petrulla

silt:clay ratio

silt:clay ratio

20

200

400

b T0: Basento

0

150

350

70

140

2

100

300

200

120

1

2

50 50

60

0

1

0

0

depth [cm ]

6

depth [cm]

4

depth [cm ]

depth [cm]

2

silt:clay ratio

silt:clay ratio

silt:clay ratio 0

220

k T8: Pisticci

l T9: Bernalda

Fig. 7. Silt:clay ratios of 12 soil profiles on the marine terraces T0–T9.

interglacial as the marine terrace on which they have accumulated. This preliminary concept is supported by the fact that the Holocene terrace T0 is already covered by alluvial sediments. The concept does not require that soil formation in the marine sediments at the time when alluvial sedimentation on top of the marine sediments started, was already as advanced as it is today. Instead, it is more likely that soil formation in the marine sediments was less advanced at that time and continued during the following time of periodic sedimentation of alluvial sediments on top of the marine sediments. Rates of soil development in the marine sediments must have decreased, as the thickness of the alluvial sediment layer progressively increased. Nevertheless, the head start of soil development in the marine sediments is still measureable in several soil profiles. The duration of the soil formation period, from the time when the terrace fell dry until the beginning of alluvial sedimentation, depends on the location of the respective soil profile in

relation to the course and the spatial sedimentation pattern of the Basento River at that time. It may have ranged from zero (in those soil profiles, which show no enhanced soil formation in the marine sediments) to several thousands of years. For instance, the time span between marine and alluvial sedimentation on the Tyrrhenian terrace started about 120 ka BP (last interglacial sea-level maximum according to Hearty et al., 2007) and may have lasted maximally until about 109.5 ka BP (end of the last interglacial as determined in sediments of Lago Grande di Monticchio in southern Italy by Brauer et al., 2007). 5.2. Ages of the terraces One central question of this study is whether soil formation indicates progressive ages of the terraces. One of the parameters most widely used for this issue is pedogenic iron, mostly expressed

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61

Table 5 Estimated land surface ages on which Figs. 8 and 9 are based (marine terrace ages were attributed to d18O minima according to Imbrie and McIntyre, 2006) Terrace

T0 (alluvial plain)

T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

T10

Marine and fluvial sedimentsa MIS 1 Age [ka] 0.190

T0 (beach)

1 7b

5.1 80

5.3 100

5.5 120c

7 195

9 310/3 30d

11 405

13 500

15 575

17 670

19 730

Aeolian sediments MIS 1 Age [ka] 0.001

n. p.e n. p.

2 16

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

n. p. n. p.

a The same ages were used for marine and fluvial sediments, because the length of the time gap between the two is unknown, and the relationships obtained in Figs. 8 and 9 show no considerable change, even if the fluvial sediments are assumed to have accumulated in the subsequent interglacial period. b This age was used, because Auriemma et al. (2004) ascribe the mid Holocene sea-level maximum in Apulia to 7.5–7 ka BP. Later, the sea level and hence the erosion base fell. It is therefore assumed that the main sedimentation of the alluvial plain of the Basento River took place until 7 ka BP. Later, the Basento River incised into its own alluvial plain because of both, sea-level fall and land uplift. c This age is based on the composite sea-level model of Hearty et al. (2007), who assume the last interglacial sea-level maximum around 121–119 ka BP and a rapid sea-level fall between 120 and 118 ka BP. d Terrace T5 is the widest terrace spanning the greatest range in elevation. Profile T5-NW in 160 m a.s.l. was attributed to the first d18O minimum of MIS 9 about 330 ka BP, Profile T5-SE in 120 m a.s.l. was attributed to the second d18O minimum of MIS 9 about 310 ka BP. e n. p. ¼ not present in the studied soil profiles.

as Fed/Fet ratios. This parameter has shown correlations to land surface ages in numerous studies on Mediterranean soil chronosequences (e.g. Torrent et al., 1980; Aniku and Singer, 1990). Several authors reported that rates of weathering and pedogenic iron formation were high during the first ca. 200–240 ka and then decreased. Ortiz et al. (2002) used Fed indices (Fed of B horizon/Fed of C horizon) in order to assess the degree of soil development of paleosols in the Granada Basin (SE Spain). They reported that soils younger than MIS 7 showed a clear relationship between the degree of soil development (as documented in Fed indices and other parameters) and soil age, but soils formed during MIS 7 and earlier were all intensively weathered and could not be distinguished from Early Pleistocene soils. Scarciglia et al. (2006) also described that soils on marine terraces in Calabria were intensively weathered, but nevertheless showed proceeding weathering intensity with soil age. In the Metaponto area, identification of progressive terrace ages based on soil development stages faces three main problems: 1) The terrace sequence comprises a time span of about 700–730 ka. Several previous soil chronosequence studies have

Fed/Fet 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

estimated land surface age [ka BP] marine

fluvial

aeolian

marine, eroded

fluvial, eroded

Bold curve: power function: y = 0.285x0.081; R2 = 0.89 Fine curve: logarithmic function: y = 0.022Ln(x) + 0.33; R2 = 0.72

Fig. 8. Maximum Fed/Fet ratios of the soils developed in marine, fluvial and aeolian sediments on the marine terraces T0–T9. Ages have been attributed to the sediments according to Table 5. The curves are based on the highest values (black) only. It is assumed that lower values (grey) are due to erosion of the upper part of the respective soil with only the lower part of the soil (having a lower Fed/Fet ratio) being preserved. The curves illustrate the approximate Fed/Fet trend that would be expected with less erosion. However, they do not perfectly describe the Fed/Fet development with time, and they represent minimum values, because all soils are affected by erosion to some extent.

obtained logarithmic chronofunctions of most soil properties (e.g. Bockheim, 1980; Harden, 1982; Alonso et al., 1994), showing high rates of soil formation during the first w100 ka and considerably lower rates thereafter, which generally makes the use of soil development indicators for age estimations of old land surfaces difficult. 2) Land uplift has caused erosion, so that the upper, most strongly developed part of the soils, which would exhibit the maximum Fed/Fet ratio and minimum silt/clay ratio, is often missing and is thus not reflected in the analytical data. Erosion of the clayilluviated soils is indicated, e.g. by the presence of clay skins at shallow depth and by the depth functions of clay content (Table 3): In some cases, clay content maxima start already in the Ap horizon, indicating that the E horizon has been completely removed, and the Ap horizon has developed within a former Bt horizon (e.g. the profiles Marconia on T4 and Pisticci on T8 show maximum clay contents (>35%) from the soil surface down to 82 and 65 cm, respectively). 3) Thick younger sediments buried the marine sediments so that the soil development stage in the marine sediments does not necessarily correspond to the age of the terrace. Despite these problems, Fed/Fet ratios are used to test the hypothesis of terrace age increasing with elevation. For this purpose, a hypothetical time axis is created based on the few existing time pegs (Table 1), and Fed/Fet ratios of the soils on the marine terraces are plotted vs. assumed age. The simplest way to create a time axis is to attribute each marine terrace to one interglacial/odd MIS number (Table 5). It is unlikely that this simple approach holds true for each terrace of the sequence. However, since the Brunhes/Matuyama boundary lies between terraces T10 and T11, the general trend should be correct; therefore, it is used because a more detailed chronology is not available. The (last) major d18O minimum of each interglacial, corresponding to a sea-level maximum, is used as terrace age and assumed beginning of soil formation in the respective marine sediments. Maximum Fed/Fet ratios of the soils developed in the different sediments are plotted vs. assumed terrace age. The relationship between Fed/Fet ratios and hypothetical terrace age is calculated using only maximum values (Fig. 8). It can be best described by power (R2 ¼ 0.89) or logarithmic functions (R2 ¼ 0.72), both describing a strong increase in pedogenic iron in the first 100 ka which slows down afterwards. However, soils of several terraces have Fed/Fet ratios below the resulting curve. This may be explained by burial of the soils in the marine gravel layer, by erosion of the

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(Ca+Mg+K+Na)/Al - molar ratio 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

0

100

200 300 400 500 estimated land surface age [ka BP] marine fluvial aeolian

600

700

Bold curve: logarithmic, based on marine sediment: y = -0.13Ln(x) + 1.15; R 2 = 0.991 Fine curve: power function, based on marine sediment: y = 1.09x-0.17; R 2 = 0.923

Fig. 9. Maximum (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al molar ratios of the soils developed in marine, fluvial and aeolian sediments on the marine terraces T0–T9. The values refer to calcium carbonate-free soil and thus reflect feldspar weathering only (excluding calcium carbonate dynamics). Ages have been attributed to the sediments according to Table 5.

most intensively developed parts of the soils, and by rejuvenation of the soils through dust input. Dorronsoro and Alonso (1994) applied several equations to describe the relationship between Fed and soil age on terraces of the Almar River (central western Spain), and estimated soil ages ranging from 500 to 600,000 years. They obtained the highest R2 values for logarithmic (R2 ¼ 0.90) and power models (R2 ¼ 0.86), which agrees very well with the results from the Metaponto area. Thus, Fed/Fet ratios suggest increasing terrace ages from the lower to the upper terraces in the Metaponto area. This trend has been checked by plotting a second soil development parameter vs. assumed terrace age. The selected parameter is the molar total element ratio of (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al, which reflects progressive silicate weathering, accompanied by Ca, Mg, K, and Na release and subsequent leaching, while Al is not leached. The trend of (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al of the soils developed in the marine sediments also supports the hypothesis of increasing terrace ages (Fig. 9). It can be best described by a logarithmic function (R2 ¼ 0.99). In contrast, the fluvial sediments exhibit low (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al ratios on all terraces, which is probably due to pre-weathering. Ideal chronofunctions are not to be expected, because soil development was not uniform over the whole 700 ka time span of the chronosequence. Instead, soil development was strongly influenced by the alternation of glacial and interglacial periods. The observed characteristic soil processes such as rubefication and clay translocation are related to interglacial periods with Mediterranean climate (Scarciglia et al., 2006) and forest vegetation dominated by Mediterranean species such as Quercus ilex and Olea (e.g. Follieri et al., 1988; Brauer et al., 2007). In contrast, environmental conditions during full glacial periods were characterized by drier climate and steppe vegetation (grasses, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae and other herbs), temporarily with varying proportions of trees (oak, beech, fir, alder, pine); interstadials were marked by the expansion of woodland, accompanied by herbaceous vegetation (e.g. Follieri et al., 1988; Watts et al., 1996). Although features of steppe soils are not preserved in the investigated soil profiles (probably due to erosion), the described significant changes in environmental conditions must have influenced the nature and rates of soil forming processes. 6. Conclusions Pedogenic parameters have proved useful for contributing to the understanding of the Quaternary landscape history in the

Metaponto area. In particular, the parameters of soil colour, weathering intensity of pebbles, precipitation of secondary carbonates, Fed/Fet ratios, silt/clay ratios and carbonate contents enable detection of time gaps between deposition of the terrace gravel and alluvial sediments on top of the gravel. Progressive land uplift and thus increasing distance to the erosion base makes it most likely that the alluvial sediments were deposited at the end of the same interglacial or during the interglacial subsequent to the one in which the respective marine terrace was built. The complex landscape history involving several sedimentation and erosion phases makes the correlation of soil development stages with terrace ages difficult. Nevertheless, a relationship between pedogenic iron and time has been identified. The consistency of this relationship with that described by Dorronsoro and Alonso (1994) supports the hypothesis of terrace ages increasing with terrace elevation. Decreasing (Ca þ Mg þ K þ Na)/Al ratios confirm this result. Hence, both soil development parameters point to an origin of the terrace staircase of the Metaponto area as a consequence of the interaction between regional uplift and eustatic sea-level changes. The terrace ages used to obtain the relationships should, however, be regarded just as tools that were required for testing the hypothesis. They should not be taken for granted. It is also not yet clear, in which way those terraces on which only eroded profiles have been described so far, will fit into the general trend of increasing terrace ages. At the present state of research it can thus not be totally confirmed that all terraces show increasing ages, but the general trend is clear. Research in the ongoing project will help to clarify if all terraces in the area are the result of the interaction between Pleistocene uplift and sea-level fluctuations, or if some of the terraces may instead be tectonically dissected and moved to different elevations. Acknowledgments We thank Detlev Frobel, Beate Podtschaske, Andrea Ruf, Kornelia Ruf and Mehdi Zarei, who contributed to this study by laboratory analyses. We are grateful to the German Research Foundation (DFG) for funding the project SA 1033/2-1. The Evangelische Studienwerk provided a 3-year PhD fellowship for Stephen Wagner. The Universita¨tsbund Hohenheim supported field work in the year 2006. We thank two anonymous reviewers for their thorough reviews, corrections and valuable comments that helped to improve the manuscript. References Alonso, P., Sierra, C., Ortega, E., Dorronsoro, C., 1994. Soil development indices of ˜ aranda de Bracamonte, Salamanca, soils developed on fluvial terraces (Pen Spain). Catena 23, 295–308. Amato, A., Belluomini, G., Cinque, A., Manolio, M., Ravera, F., 1997. Terrazzi marini e sollevamenti tettonici Quaternari lungo il margine Ionico dell’Appennino Lucano. Il Quaternario 10 (2), 329–336. Aniku, J.R.F., Singer, M.J., 1990. Pedogenic iron oxide trends in a marine terrace chronosequence. Soil Science Society of America Journal 54, 147–152. Auriemma, R., Mastronuzzi, G., Sanso´, P., 2004. Middle to Late Holocene relative sea-level changes recorded on the coast of Apulia (Italy). Ge´omorphologie: relief, processus, environnement 2004 (1), 19–34. Belluomini, G., Caldara, M., Casini, C., Cerasoli, M., Manfra, L., Mastronuzzi, G., Palmentola, G., Sanso, P., Tuccimei, P., Vesica, P.L., 2002. The age of Late Pleistocene shorelines and tectonic activity of Taranto area, southern Italy. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 525–647. Bentivenga, M., Coltorti, M., Prosser, G., Tavarnelli, E., 2004. A new interpretation of terraces in the Taranto Gulf: the role of extensional faulting. Geomorphology 60, 383–402. Bockheim, J.G., 1980. Solution and use of chronofunctions in studying soil development. Geoderma 24, 71–85. Boenzi, F., Palmentola, G., 1971. Tracce delle glaciazione wu¨rmiana sul Massiccio del Pollino al confine calabrucano. Bollet. Societa´ Geologica Italiana 90, 139–150.

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