Soil formation on calcium carbonate-rich parent material in the outer Carpathian Mountains – A case study

Catena 174 (2019) 436–451

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Soil formation on calcium carbonate-rich parent material in the outer Carpathian Mountains – A case study

T

Joanna Beata Kowalska , Tomasz Zaleski, Agnieszka Józefowska, Ryszard Mazurek ⁎

Institute of Soil Science and Agrophysics, Department of Soil Science and Soil Protection, University of Agriculture, Al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Kraków, Poland

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Slope processes Calcium carbonate Soil classification

In this study, ten stratified calcium carbonate–rich soil profiles from the Polish Outer Carpathians were investigated in order to identity the influence of parent material variability and slope processes on soil diversity and their evolution. Moreover, we evaluated the morphological and physico-chemical soil properties to recognize the diagnostic horizons and classification of such soils. While it is usually thought that carbonate-rich soils are considered as formed in situ, these study soils clearly presented layering and contribution of materials, as they were developed from mixed substrates of different origin, e.g. as the result of mass movements and possible aeolian silt contribution. Irrespective of the type of parent material, every investigated soil showed traces of slope processes, resulting in heterogeneous soil profiles. Further, a few different patterns of primary calcium carbonate arrangement were found. In general, the studied soils were characterized by enrichment with calcium carbonate, not only due to inheritance from calcium carbonate–rich parent material but also translocation of calcium carbonate within soil profiles, the latter depending on soil stratification. Based on the obtained results, four pathways of soil evolution were formulated. Leptosols, which represent initial calcium carbonate–rich soils, may evolve in different directions. First, formation of the thick layer suitable for cambic horizon development under deciduous forests, which enables the classification of such soils as Cambisols, depends on slope processes and allochthonous material deposition. In turn, the decrease of mineralization rates for organic matter, delivery of soil material from the upper parts of the slope as well as mixing of organic matter by mesofauna result in the formation of mollic horizons and transformation of Leptosols into Phaeozems. Further erosion and redeposition of fine soil material provide two types of slope sediments: i) those with silt loam texture dominance, and ii) clay loams interstratified with silty substrates. The first type of sediments are more suitable for water percolation, and after carbonate leaching clay dispersion and translocation occur. In such materials, Luvisols may develop. Sediments with a prevalence of clay loam aided Stagnosol formation, in which pools of carbonates were stabilized due to the reduction of water percolation, leading to stagnation.

1. Introduction The parent material of calcium carbonate–rich soil may consist of a wide spectrum of rocks, e.g. limestone, sandstone, calcium carbonate–rich shale or marl (Bockheim and Douglass, 2006; Catoni et al., 2012; Miechówka, 2002; Niemyska-Łukaszuk et al., 2002, 2004; Reintam, 2007; Zasoński, 1993, 1995). Because of the importance of carbonates, it is necessary to distinguish carbonate rocks from carbonate-rich rocks. According to Matyszkiewicz (2008), carbonate rocks are defined as rocks formed from cemented, clastic carbonate components or carbonates precipitated directly from soil solutions that contain > 50% by volume of rock-forming carbonates such as calcite,

⁎

aragonite or dolomite. Rocks that contain between 5 and 50% of calcium carbonate are considered to be carbonate-rich rocks (Czermiński, 1955). Usually, the parent material of calcium carbonate–rich soils is relatively young and undergoes constant weak weathering (Brady and Weil, 1999). Calcium carbonate–rich soils are characterized by the presence of significant content of free calcium carbonate with a significant share of Mg-substitution in different relative proportions (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996; Wilford et al., 2015). The wide distribution of calcium carbonate–rich soils reflects the variety of processes leading to their formation (Durand et al., 2007). Calcium carbonate–rich soils may often be found in arid areas as well as humid ones where significant amounts of

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.B. Kowalska).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.11.025 Received 24 April 2018; Received in revised form 12 November 2018; Accepted 18 November 2018 Available online 04 December 2018 0341-8162/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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properties of the soil are a result of underlying parent material and the influence of biotic and abiotic soil forming factors, e.g. microclimate or vegetation cover (Birkeland, 1990; Wanic et al., 2017). This traditional view may not apply to soils in mountain areas. Mountain soils vary in terms of physical properties, which are divided into two zones: the first related directly to slope cover and the second the result of residual weathered material at the base (Mazurek et al., 2018; Zaleski et al., 2006). In mountain areas in moderate zones, soil morphology and soil properties are dependent on certain crucial agents (Bojko and Kabala, 2016; Kacprzak et al., 2015), e.g. slope processes, which include selective and non-selective transport contributing to the formation of heterogeneous soil cover (Harden and Scruggs, 2003; Kacprzak et al., 2015; Migoń and Kacprzak, 2014; Waroszewski et al., 2016, 2018a, 2018b), and erosion, which overprints lithological signatures different from those of lowlands (Curtaz et al., 2015; Jäger et al., 2015). Mountain soils are also under the influence of geomorphodynamic processes, which may have various durations and intensities and take place continuously and/or episodically (Guerra et al., 2017; Harden and Scruggs, 2003; Starkel, 2006). Geomorphic processes act on soil properties and affect soil pedogenesis and further differentiate it according to slope location (Alijani and Sarmadian, 2014). It seems that mountain soils that are rich in calcium carbonate should belong to poorly developed, shallow and skeleton–rich soils such as different types of Leptosols or even Regosols. Nevertheless, the above factors and conditions lead to diverse properties and trajectories of mountain soil evolution that are also related to calcium carbonate deposition in terms of their accumulation and/or leaching. Subsequently, variable conditions and uninterrupted processes on the slope lead to the formation of a certain set of soil features, which, in turn, lead to the creation of diagnostic horizons within pedons. The slope processes, which are stimulated by different climate variations, may also contribute to morphological changes and further form more developed soils. As a result, a wide spectrum of calcium carbonate-rich soils in respect to soil reference group may be found, and moreover, these may be formed on relatively similar parent materials. To date, there have not been any comprehensive studies concerning the genesis and classification of calcium carbonate–rich soils in the area of the Polish Carpathians. Furthermore, as a result of the uncertain genesis of calcium carbonate soils and their classification under the variable intensities of slope processes in mountainous areas, we decided to: i) investigate the influence of parent material, relief and slope processes on soil diversity and the evolution of calcium carbonate–rich soils in the temperate climate of the Polish Carpathians; and ii) evaluate the morphological and physico-chemical properties of such soils in order to identify their diagnostic horizons, leading to their classification.

calcium carbonate are repeatedly precipitated from soil solution (Bing et al., 2017). Nevertheless, some temperate (semi-humid) climate soils are also rich in calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate may occur in lithogenic (geogenic, primary) and pedogenic (secondary) forms (Bughio et al., 2016; Catoni et al., 2012). Primary calcium carbonate relates to weathering of parent material and hence has a strictly geogenic origin (Dietrich et al., 2017; Stoops et al., 2010). In turn, pedogenic carbonates are formed during the various processes of soil development (Owliaie et al., 2006), and are mostly governed by precipitation, dissolution, translocation as well as recrystallization processes (Dietrich et al., 2017; Khormali et al., 2014). In temperate regions, besides the presence of calcareous parent material, translocations and leaching of carbonates are very important (Alijani and Sarmadian, 2014; Mazurek et al., 2018). In many cases, calcium carbonate content may serve as a tool in the reconstruction of past climatic conditions (Catoni et al., 2012; Gild et al., 2018). It is widely recognized that calcium carbonate plays an essential role in soil formation and its chemical and physical properties (Mermut and Arnaud, 1981; Najafian et al., 2012; Zasoński and Skiba, 1988). It should be noted that calcium carbonate is more stable than other soil components, e.g. soil organic matter (Bockheim and Douglass, 2006; Catoni et al., 2012). High content of calcium carbonate influences pH values, soil buffering and cation exchange capacity as well as high base saturation (Deshmukh, 2012; Ferreira et al., 2016; Ismail, 1991; Marschner, 1995; Wilford et al., 2015) and the availability of microand macronutrients (Deshmukh, 2012; Ismail, 1991). Further, porosity as well as hydraulic conductivity and permeability are governed by calcium carbonate (Wilford et al., 2015). Calcium carbonate also contributes to soil organic carbon production, aggregate formation and carbon stabilization (Fernández-Ugalde et al., 2011; Mazurek et al., 2018; Wanic et al., 2017). In terms of grain size distribution, various size ranges are identified in calcium carbonate–rich soils; nevertheless, the clay and silt fractions predominate (Ismail, 1991). Carbonate arrangement is continuously controlled by soil texture, mineralogy and aggregation (Gile et al., 1965). They are mainly concentrated in lower soil horizons, essentially due to enrichment of the soil substrate with calcium carbonate–rich parent material (Brady and Weil, 1999; Durand et al., 2007; Mermut and Arnaud, 1981; Wilford et al., 2015) or in cases of advanced pedogenesis, carbonate leaching from the upper part to lower part of the soil profile (Mücher et al., 2010; Reintam, 2007). During dissolution, soil water is able to percolate through carbonate sediments, which in turn may be enriched with their respective carbonate minerals (Krklec et al., 2015). In the Mediterranean zone, calcium carbonate–rich soils are very often formed in situ; therefore, their properties are stable and connected with the underlying parent material from which they are formed (Bockheim et al., 2005). Thus, the traditional view of calcium carbonate–rich soil formation assumes that the spatial arrangement and

Fig. 1. Location of studied soil profiles. 437

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2. Study area and sampling site

of deposition and re-deposition often take place continuously. The elevation gradient of the slopes ranged from 5 to 35% (Table 1). During terrain reconnaissance, attention was paid to verification of allochthonous components as well as determination of calcium carbonate–rich parent material. Then, characteristics of the morphology and detailed description of the soil profiles were identified in accordance with the protocols in FAO (2006). Field soil descriptions included determination of soil colour in moist samples using Munsell Soil Colour Charts (Munsell, 1975). The studied soils were classified based on FAOWRB (IUSS, Working Group, 2015). Standard analyses related to the determination of chemical and physical soil properties were used on air-dried fine earth fractions (< 2 mm) from all horizons with the aim of horizon diagnosis and materials identification, soil classification and description of dominant soil forming processes. Particle size distribution was determined using the hydrometer-sieve method according to Polish Standard (1998). Soil pH was measured potentiometrically on 1:2.5 (soil:distilled water and soil:KCl) suspension. Further, total organic carbon (TOC) was examined using Tiurin's method (Lityński et al., 1976). Total nitrogen (TN) content was determined by the Kjeldahl method (Lityński et al., 1976). Determination of calcium carbonate content was done by the Scheibler value method (Lityński et al., 1976). Estimation of total potential acidity (TPA) was conducted in 0.5 M of sodium acetate at pH 8.2, while the sum of exchangeable bases (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) was conducted in 1 M ammonium chloride at pH 7.0 (IUSS, Working Group, 2015) and analysed with an ICP-OES Optima 7300 DV spectrophotometer. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to show relationships between texture and soil chemical properties and differentiation between varied soil types. PCA were performed using Canoco 5.0 software, based on a multivariate analysis of data (Braak and Smilauer, 2012).

The study was carried out within the Polish Carpathian Mountains (Fig. 1). The Polish Carpathians are extensive and occupy an area of about 19,600 km2. The Carpathian mountain range is varied in terms of petrography. The most important lithographic series include: Cretaceous and lower Tertiary rocks, e.g. shales, among which dark grey and light grey marls with coral limestones are dominant; Cieszyn limestones located under the Lower Cieszyn shales, which are characterized by the occurrence of limestones and marl shales; dark grey marl shales and sandstones, often in complexes with calcite fulfilment; and marl shales as well as sandstones and variegated shales, consisting of green and red shales the occurrence of conglomerate and many others (Unrug, 1969; Zasoński,1993). Typically, the Polish Carpathians are divided into three parts: Western, Eastern and Southern (Kondracki, 1989, 1998; Skiba, 2007). However, based on environmental factors, e.g. geological, geomorphological as well as edaphic differentiation of the Carpathian Mountains, another division has been proposed, i.e. Carpathian Foothills, Outer Carpathians and Inner Carpathians (Kondracki, 1989, 1998). The Carpathians are characterized by zonation in some regions, especially in terms of geological structure and relief forms. According to the literature, the northern part of the Carpathians, also named the Carpathian Foothills, are mostly built of silt deposits underplayed with flysch, which may often be rich in carbonates. The Outer Carpathians, which include the eastern and western parts of the mountain range, are characterized by the occurrence of usually loamy regolith which has been remodelled by morphogenetic processes. Often, bedrocks consist of sedimentary rocks which in turn provide shallow and skeleton-rich alkaline soils (Skiba, 2007; Unrug, 1969; Zasoński, 1993). The central, inner parts of the Carpathians are very different geologically from the Carpathian Foothills and Outer Carpathians, i.e. the lithological cover includes crystalline, volcanic and metamorphic rocks. The soil cover strictly corresponds to the varied geological and orographic conditions (Skiba, 2007). The higher the location the stronger the influence of climate on soil development; hence, the importance of rocks is slightly reduced. The climate within the Carpathian Mountains reflects influences of Atlantic and continental character. During the Winter, Carpathian areas are governed by polar-continental air masses from the west. In turn, the influence of air masses from the Alps and, at the same time, the proximity of the Atlantic cause weakened precipitation. A continental climate is noted in lower parts of the slopes. The mostly cool and humid conditions of the mountain climate affect the occurrence of plant communities and determine the role of organic matter accumulation and decomposition and its influence on soil development (Skiba, 2007; Starkel, 2006; Unrug, 1969; Wasak and Drewnik, 2012; Zasoński, 1993, 1995). Additionally, the Carpathian climate has been more recently affected by different regional and global changes due to global warming.

4. Results The soil profiles represent different reference groups. According to criteria established by the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS, Working Group, 2015), sampled soils were classified as: Leptosols (P1, P2), Cambisols (P3, P4), Phaeozems (P5, P6), Luvisols (P7, P8) and Stagnosols (P9, P10) with different principal and supplementary qualifiers (Table 1, Fig. 2). Based on the studied soil classification as well as their morphological, physical and chemical properties, the soils were classified into five groups, which describe different manners of calcium carbonate–rich soil genesis (Fig. 2). 4.1. Leptosols Soils classified as Leptosols (P1 and P2) were located in upper and middle parts of the slope, respectively. Different types of vegetation were detected at both sites, including short grassland (P2) and semideciduous forest (P1 and P2) (Table 1). The parent material consisted of menilite shale (P1) and limestone (P2) with different contents of calcium carbonate (Table 1, Fig. 2). The particle size distribution was heterogeneous within both profiles (Fig. 3), and this indicated stratification. Further, colluvium was identified within P1 between the Ahk and AC horizons, manifesting itself by the occurrence of lithological discontinuity. The overlaying horizon was characterized by a much higher content of silt (55%) compared to the lower horizon (32%) (Fig. 3), which may be evidence of aeolian admixture. Furthermore, a very high content of angular rock fragments (70%) was found in the AC horizon (Table 2). Within the P2 profile, a more homogenous grain size distribution was found. Nevertheless, in horizon A the silt fraction prevailed (54%) (Fig. 3). Within Bwk1 and Bwk2 as well as BC1, a clear domination of clay fraction was detected (ranging from 35 to 41% between horizons). In turn, the share of the clay fraction decreased in BC2 to be replaced by a high content of the silt fraction (42%) (Fig. 3).

3. Materials and methods The vegetation at the sampling sites was typical of foothill and lower mountain zone vegetation floor. The sites were dominated by semi-deciduous forest where Dentario glandulosae-Fagetum and AbietiPiceetum (montanum) were the main tree species (Table 1). Moreover, short grasslands were identified, where various grass species such as Arrhenatheretalia elatioris were most prevalent (Zarzycki and Korzeniak, 2013) (Table 1). Soil samples were collected from ten soil profiles located in different parts of the Outer Carpathian Mountains to provide an overview of the carbonate soil type differentiation and their characteristics. Soil profiles were designated based on geological maps (scale 1:50,000) as well as the GeoLog website. Most of the studied calcium carbonate–rich soils occur on the lower and medium parts of the slopes, where the processes 438

49° 21′ 04.7″N 20° 17′ 04.5″E 10° S 624 m a. s. l. 50° 00′ 34.4″N 19° 54′ 15.5″E 25° SE 683 m a. s. l. 49° 25′ 38.7″N 20° 26′ 23.3″E 10° SE 450 m a. s. l. 49° 27′ 25.5″N 19° 56′ 15.5″E 35° SW 680 m a. s. l. 49°25′26.6′′N 20°29′08.5′′E 12–15° N 664 m a. s. l. 49° 50′ 53.4″N 19° 21′09.9″E 10° SE 336 m a. s. l. 49° 25′ 58.5″N 20° 20′ 05.9″E 5° SE 612 m a. s. l. 49° 26′ 01.2″N 20° 20′ 07.9″E 8° SW 649 m a. s. l 49° 22′ 30.5″N 20° 17′ 18.3″E 15° NE 650 m a. s. l. 49° 46′ 38.3″N 20° 20′15.5″E 10° W 474 m a. s. l.

P1

439 S, LS

S, MS

S, UP

S, UP

S, LS

S, MS

S, LS

S, TO

S, MS

S, UP

Landform and topography Kacwin

Nowe Rybie near to Limanowa

Kacwin

Polana Majerz

Polana Majerz

Tylka village, Pieniny National Park Andrychów

Bukowa near to Maruszyna

Krościeńko above Dunajec

Maruszyna

Place

Cretaceous Eocene

Eocene, Oligocene

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Early Cretaceous

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Jurassic, Cretaceous

Eocene, Oligocene

Geologic time

variegated shale, marl, sandstone

menilite shale

sandstone

claystone, gray sandstone

limestone

limestones and sandstones colluvium, rubble

limestone

limestone, sandstone, granite, conglomerate, shales, fluvic material

limestone

menilite shale

Parent material

Explanation: Landform and topography: S – sloping land; UP – upper slope; MS – middle slope; LS – lower slope; TS – toe slope; Vegetation: FS – semi-decidous forest; HS – short grassland.

P10

P9

P8

P7

P6

P5

P4

P3

P2

Profile no/GPS position/ slope rating/exposure/ elevation a. s. l.

Soil profile

Table 1 Location site of soil profiles.

FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum

FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum) FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum) FS/HS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum)/ Arrhenatheretaliaelatioris FS/HS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum)/ Arrhenatheretaliaelatioris FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum

FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum)

FS/HS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum, Arrhenatheretaliaelatioris

FS Dentarioglandulosae-Fagetum; AbietiPiceetum (montanum)

HS Arrhenatheretaliaelatioris

Vegetation

EutricGleyicCalcaric, Stagnosol (Loamic, Colluvic, Drainic, Skeletic)

Calcaric, Eutric Stagnosols (Amphiloamic, Aric, Colluvic, Raptic, Endoskeletic)

Abruptic Stagnic, Endoskeletic, Endocalcaric Luvisols (Episiltic, Amphiloamic, Colluvic, Cutanic, Ochric, Raptic)

Abruptic, EndoskeleticEndocalcaric Luvisols (Episiltic, Amphiloamic, Colluvic, Cutanic, Ochric, Raptic)

Cambic EndoskeleticCalcaricPheozem (Anoloamic, Raptic)

Calcaric, Skeletic, Phaeozems (Colluvic, Amphiloamic)

Endoskeletic, CalcaricEutric Cambisols (Epiloamic, Amphiclayic, Ochric)

Calcaric, Eutric Cambisols (Anoloamic, Endoarenic, Colluvic, Ochric, Raptic)

Hyperskeletic Cambic CalcaricEutric Leptosols (Endoloamic)

Skeletic, Calcaric Leptosols (Colluvic, Ochric, Raptic)

WRB classification

J.B. Kowalska et al.

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carbonate rock fragments in every horizon. Calcium carbonate within profile P1 ranged from 11.5 to 89.2 g·kg−1 and this decreased with depth. In turn, the calcium carbonate within profile P2 ranged from 215 to 417 g·kg−1 and did not indicate any clear trend. The contents of TOC and TN were almost twice as high in P1 and P2, 73.0 and 62.6 g·kg−1 and 5.61 and 4.64 g·kg−1, in the Ahk and A horizons, respectively, as compared to the lower horizon. As is typical for calcium carbonate–rich soils, the highest values for the determined cations were noted for Ca2+ and Mg2+, which denoted a very high, almost full saturation of the soil complex with basic ions (from 90 to 91%) (Table 3). 4.2. Cambisols Soil profiles P3 and P4 were classified as Cambisols. Both soils have cambic horizons, which begin within 25 cm from the soil surface and exhibit traces of pedogenic alternations. P3 was located in the lower slope, while P4 was within the toe part of the slope. Different types of vegetation were identified, including semi-deciduous forest and short grassland (Table 1). Limestone constituted the parent material for P3, whereas within the bedrock of P4, aside from the limestone, sandstone, granite, conglomerate, shale and fluvic material were also found (Table 1, Fig. 2). The grain size distribution indicated a significant content of the sand fraction (ranging from 55 to 84%) within every soil horizon of P3 (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, within P3, a lithological discontinuity was identified as a result of large differences between the fine and coarse silt and fine sand fractions (Fig. 3). Various contents of angular rock fragments were detected within P3 (20–90%); however, these did not show any distinct increases with depth. The Ahk horizon of P4 was characterized by a slightly higher silt fraction content (39%) with a minor share of angular rock fragments (15%) (Fig. 3, Table 2). Underlying (Bwk and BC) horizons of P4 were characterized by the dominance of clay fraction (33–41%), which increased with soil depth. Various content of rock fragments (30–85%) was noted in P4 (Table 2). The pH values of P3 and P4 varied. Generally, the reaction was more basic in deeper parts of the soil profile (Table 3). The pH values were connected with calcium carbonate content. Significantly higher contents of calcium carbonate were found in P4 compared to P3. An increase in calcium carbonate was indicated in P3. Within P4, the content of calcium carbonate varied significantly, which reflected the differentiated lithology of these soils. In P3, the content of TOC and TN ranged from 1.86 to 21.4 g·kg−1 and 0.16 to 2.31 g·kg−1, and in P4, from 12.1 to 67.3 g·kg−1 and 2.51 to 4.17 g·kg−1, respectively. A more than two times higher content of TOC and TN was found in Ahk horizons compared to the lower horizons. As in the case of Leptosols, the highest content within the determined cations was for Ca2+ and Mg2+, and these denoted a very high, almost full saturation of the soil complex with basic ions (from 89 to 97%) (Table 3). 4.3. Phaeozems Profiles P5 and P6 were classified as Phaeozems due to the presence of a mollic horizon, having in both cases thickness of > 20 cm, and being dark enough to fulfil the colour criterion. These soils were located within different parts of the slope – middle and lower. The vegetation of these soils consisted of semi-deciduous forest (Table 1). Colluvia consisting of limestone (P5) and sandstone (P6) fragments were the parent materials for these soils (Table 1, Fig. 2). P5 and P6 soils were characterized by stratification within soil profiles, which contributed to the identification of lithological discontinuities in both profiles. Within the studied Phaeozems, the sand fraction predominated in each horizon (Fig. 3). The A horizons of P5 and P6 seemed to be enriched with a silt fraction (41% and 33%, respectively). In superposed horizons (Ahk1 and Ahk2) of P5, the clay content did not exceed 6% (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, the content of the clay fraction increased with depth. Within P6, the share of the silt fraction was uniform and ranged from 25 to 33% in individual horizons (Fig. 3). The rock fragments increased with depth

Fig. 2. Photographs and simplified drawings of soil profiles.

Profile P2 was characterized by very varied content of rock fragments with angular shape (10–95%), but no trend in content variability was noted. Unusually, within both profiles, upper horizons were characterized by very firm consistency, while lower horizons were friable (Table 2). The pH values were similar within all horizons of the Leptosols and indicated a neutral soil reaction in both H2O and KCl solutions (Table 3). The content of calcium carbonate was spread very unevenly within the soil profiles, and this was connected with the occurrence of 440

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Fig. 3. Depth plots of grain size distribution within soil profiles.

and were located in all horizons of P5 and Ahk1, Bwk1, Bwk2 as well as Ck horizons of P6. A very high skeleton content (80–90%) was found in horizon C. Different rock fragment shapes were noted: angular within the P5 profile and subangular blocky within P6 (Table 2). The basic reaction was characteristic for P5 and P6. The pH values in these profiles indicated neutral reactions in KCl solution and basic in H2O (Table 3). Varied contents of calcium carbonate were determined within soil horizons. The content of calcium carbonate showed no clear vertical arrangement. The A horizons of Phaeozems, similar to Leptosols and Cambisols, were characterized by the highest content of TOC and TN compared to deeper horizons. The TOC ranged from 8.6 to 59.2 g·kg−1 in P5 and from 9.5 to 31.9 g·kg−1 in P6, while TN content ranged from 0.7 to 3.9 in P5 and from 0.41 to 6.19 g·kg−1 in P6. These soils were enriched in cations Ca2+ and Mg2+, which had the greatest impact on soil complex saturation with base cations (89–90%) from the soil surface to 100 cm, a diagnostic feature for mollic horizons developed in Phaeozems (Table 3).

occurs within 100 cm. Semi-deciduous forest and short grassland dominated within the vegetation cover (Table 1). Despite the short distance between P7 and P8, these soils were formed from different parent material. Claystone and grey sandstone constituted the bedrock for P7, while P8 was formed from sandstone (Table 1, Fig. 2). In both of these soils, clear layers of colluvium were recognized (Table 1). In general, P7 and P8 soils showed great similarity in terms of texture. Within both profiles, colluvium was indicated and characterized by the highest content of fine and coarse silt, which oscillated around 60%. At the contact of colluvium and underlying material, a lithological discontinuity could be drawn. Underlying Bt(g) horizons were enriched in clay fraction due to pedogenic processes. A more than two times higher content of clay was noted compared to the superposed horizons (Fig. 3). Moreover, the content of clay fraction gradually increased with depth (Fig. 3). The profiles differed in terms of rock fragment content. Within P7, angular rock fragments occurred only in horizons 2BC and 2Ck. In turn, P8 was characterized by the presence of rock fragments throughout the whole profile; however, its content evidently increased with depth (Table 2). The pH values were similar in both Luvisols, indicating a neutral reaction in KCl solution and basic in H2O. Calcium carbonate occurred in the B and C horizons and ranged from 2.50 to 49.5 g·kg−1 and increased with depth. The content of TOC ranged from 1.57 to

4.4. Luvisols Soils located mostly in the upper part of slope on the Polana Majerz – P7 and P8 – were classified as Luvisols. The argic horizon was recognized in both of the soil profiles, where illuvial clay accumulation 441

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Table 2 Morphological characteristics of soils. Soil profile P1 P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

P8

P9

P10

Depth (cm)

Soil horizon

Boundary

Munsell colour*

Rock fragments

Shape of coarse fragments

2–0 0–10 10–25 1–0 0–10 10–26

Ol Ahk AC Ol A Bwk1

A, S G, W – A, W A, W A, W

n.d. 10YR 3/3 10YR 4/2 n.d. 10YR 2/3 10YR 3/4

0 30 70 0 10 85

n.d. A A n.d. A A

26–50

Bwk2

G, W

10YR 4/4

95

A

50–110

BC1

G, W

10YR 6/2

80

A

110–135 2–0 0–14 14–33 33–57 57–133 > 133 1–0 0–11

BC2 Ol Ahk Bwk 2Bwk 3 BC 4C Ol Ahk

– A, W C, S G, W C, S G, S – A, W G, W

10YR 5/2 n.d. 10YR 3/3 10YR 5/6 10YR 5/4 2,5Y 4/6 n.d. n.d. 10YR 2/2

80 0 30 45 20 70 90 0 15

A n.d. A A A A A n.d. A

11–20

AB

G, W

10YR 3/2

30

A

20–35

Bwk

G, S

10YR 3/3

70

A

35–60

BC

–

10YR 4/4

85

A

1–0 0–15 15–30 30–40 40–65 65–90 90–120 1–0 0–9 9–15 15–30 30–45 > 45 1–0 0–9 9–20 20–40 40–55 55–65 65–100 1–0 0–19 19–29 29–44 44–71 71–101 1–0 0–9 9–25 25–52 52–76 76–105 2–0 0–10 10–20 20–40 40–60

Of Ahk1 Ahk2 AC Ck1 Ck2 Ck3 Ol Ahk1 Ahk2 Bwk1 Bwk2 Ck Olf Ah A/B Bt1 Bt2 2BC 2Ck Ol Ah AB Btg Btgk 2Cgk Of Ahk Bgk1 Bgk2 BCg Cgk Ol ABg Bg Bgk BCg

A, W G, S G, S G, W G, S G, S – A, W A, S G, W G, W G, W – G, W A, I G. I A, I G, S G, S – G, W A, S A, S A, S A, S – A, W G, W G, S G, S G, S – G, W G, W G, W G, W –

n.d. 10YR 2/3 10YR 3/3 10YR 4/2 10YR 5/4 10YR 7/3 7.5YR 4/4 n.d. 10YR 3/3 10YR 3/4 10YR 4/4 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/R n.d. 10YR 3/3 10YR 4/3 10YR 6/4 10YR 5/6 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/4 n.d. 10YR 4/4 10YR 5/6 10YR 6/6 2,5Y 5/3 5Y 5/2 n.d. 10YR 42 2,5Y 4/6 2,5Y 4/4 2,5Y 3/3 2,5Y 3/3 n.d. 10YR 5/2 2.5Y 5/4 2.5Y 4/4 2.5Y 5/6

0 30 45 40 40 80 85 0 0 10 60 85 90 0 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 20 40 0 5 5 10 40 65 0 10 30 70 70 80 0 0 5 30 65

n.d. A A A A A A n.d. SA SA SA SA SA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. A A n.d. A A A A A n.d. A A A A A n.d. A A A A

Structure n.d. ME ST CR ME MO AB n.d. CO MO AB CO MO/ST AB ME/CO MO AB ME MO AB/ SB VC MO SB n.d. ME MO CR ME MO SB ME WE SB ME WE AB n.d. n.d. ME MO AB/ SB ME MO AB/ SB ME WE AB/ SB VF WE AB/ SB n.d. ME ST CR ME MO CR CO MO AB CO MO AB CO MO AB CO MO AB n.d. ME MO CR ME MO SB CO ST AB CO ST AB ME MO AB n.d. CO ST SB CO ST SB CO ST SB CO ST SB CO ST SB MA n.d. ME ST CR CO ST SB CO MO AB ME WE AB MA n.d. ME MO CR ME MO AB ME MO AB ME MO SB ME MO AB n.d. FI ST CR FI ST SB ME ST SB ME ST SB

Consistence

Texture

Moisture

Abundance of roots

n.d. VFR VFR n.d. VFR VFR

n.d. SiL SL n.d. SiCL SiCL

n.d. SM SM n.d. SM SM

C C N C C C

FR

C

SM

F

FR

CL

SM

F

FR n.d. VFR VFR VFR VFR VFR n.d. VFR

CL n.d. SL SL L LS n.d. n.d. CL

SM n.d. M M M M n.d. n.d. SM

F C C F F N N C C

VFR

CL

SM

F

VFR

C

SM

F

VFR

C

SM

F

n.d. VFR VFR VFR VFR FR FR n.d. VFR VFR VFR/L L L n.d. FR FR FR FR FI FI n.d. VFR VFR VFR FR FR n.d. VFR VFR VFR VFR FR n.d. FI FI FR VRI

n.d. SL SL L L SiL L n.d. SL L SL SCL L n.d. SiL SiL SiCL CL SiC SiC n.d. SiL SiL SiCL CL SiC n.d. L SiL SiL SiL SiL n.d. CL SiCL SICL SiCL

n.d. SM SM SM M M M n.d. SM SM SM SM SM n.d. SM SM SM SM SM SM n.d. SM M M M M n.d. SM SM M M M n.d. SM W W W

C C C C C F F C M C F N N C M C F F F N C M C F VF VF C M F VF N N C F F F F

Explanation:* according to Munsell Colour Charts (1975); Boundary (FAO, 2006): Distinctness: A- abrupt; C – clear; G – gradual; Topography: S – smooth; W – wavy; I – Irregular; Texture (FAO, 2006): LS – loamy sand; SL – sandy loam; SCL – sandy clay loam, SiL – silt loam; SiCL – silty clay loam; CL – clay loam; L – loam; C – clay; Shape of coarse fragments: A – angular, SA – subangular/angular. Structure (FAO, 2006): 1) Size classes: VF– very fine; FI –fine, ME – medium, CO– coarse, CV – very coarse 2) Types of structure: CR – crumby; AB – angular blocky; SB – subangular blocky, MA – massive 3) Classification of structure: WE – weak; MO – moderate; ST – strong; Consistence (FAO, 2006): LO – loose; FR - friable, VFI – very firm; Moisture (FAO, 2006): SM – slightly moist; M – moist; W - wet. Abundance of roots (FAO, 2006): N - none; V – very few; F – few; C – common; M – many; n.d. – not determined. 442

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Table 3 Chemical properties of the studied soils. Soil profile

Depth (cm)

P1 P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

P8

P9

P10

2–0 0–10 10–25 1–0 0–10 10–26 26–50 50–110 110–135 2–0 0–14 14–33 33–57 57–133 > 133 1–0 0–11 11–20 20–35 35–60 1–0 0–15 15–30 30–40 40–65 65–90 90–120 1–0 0–9 9–15 15–30 30–45 > 45 1–0 0–9 9–20 20–40 40–55 55–65 65–100 1–0 0–19 19–29 29–44 44–71 71–101 1–0 0–9 9–25 25–52 52–76 76–105 2–0 0–10 10–25 20–40 40–60

Soilhorizon

Ol Ahk AC Ol A Bwk1 Bwk2 BC1 BC2 Ol Ahk Bwk 2Bwk 3BC 4C Ol Ahk AB Bwk BC Of Ahk1 Ahk2 AC Ck1 Ck2 Ck3 Ol Ahk1 Ahk2 Bwk1 Bwk2 Ck Olf Ah A/B Bt1 Bt2 2BC 2Ck Ol Ah AB Btg Btgk 2Cgk Of Ahk Bgk1 Bgk2 BCg Cgk Ol ABg Bg Bgk BCg

pH

CaCO3

H2O

KCl

n.d. 6.9 7.1 n.d. 6.7 7.4 7.8 7.3 7.0 n.d. 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.2 n.d. n.d. 6.5 7.4 6.9 7.6 n.d. 7.7 7.9 8.2 8.2 8.5 8.4 n.d. 8.6 8.6 8.4 8.8 8.5 n.d. 6.8 7.4 8.6 8.1 8.3 8.5 n.d. 6.4 7.4 7.6 8.4 8.5 n.d. 6.7 8.0 8.0 8.3 8.4 n.d. 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.5

n.d. 6.8 6.7 n.d. 6.0 6.4 7.0 6.8 6.7 n.d. 7.3 7.6 7.1 8.0 n.d. n.d. 5.6 6.7 5.9 6.8 n.d. 6.9 7.1 7.1 7.5 7.4 7.3 n.d. 7.7 7.7 7.6 7.4 7.2 n.d. 5.9 5.3 5.4 5.7 5.7 6.9 n.d. 5.2 5.6 5.9 5.6 6.9 n.d. 6.4 7.7 7.9 7.8 7.9 n.d. 7.5 7.4 7.5 7.4

TOC

TN

C:N

−1

Mg2+

Na+

K+

TEB

TPA

CEC

−1

g·kg

n.d. 89.2 11.5 n.d. n.d. 215 417 374 269 n.d. 31.7 6.70 1.60 6.80 n.d. n.d. 4.10 8.20 394 519 n.d. 63.8 148 359 703 349 246 n.d. 513 543 553 585 425 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 29.7 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.50 49.5 n.d. 1.60 27.3 57.1 92.1 92.1 n.d. n.d. n.d. 27.4 68.5

Ca2+ mmol·kg

n.d. 73.0 42.5 n.d. 62.6 25.8 9.87 3.42 4.87 n.d. 21.4 4.29 1.86 n.d. n.d. n.d. 67.3 30.0 71.7 12.1 n.d. 59.2 26.7 13.2 11.6 9.30 8.60 n.d. 31.9 16.3 9.85 9.77 9.5 n.d. 71.1 61.4 40.1 1.85 1.57 1.94 n.d. 38.6 11.9 2.52 3.39 4.15 n.d. 40.0 8.21 6.95 n.d. n.d. n.d. 15.9 4.74 3.47 2.99

n.d. 5.61 4.00 n.d. 4.64 2.26 0.71 0.45 0.34 n.d. 2.31 0.35 0.16 n.d. n.d. n.d. 4.17 4.09 2.51 2.94 n.d. 3.90 1.70 1.80 1.00 0.80 0.70 n.d. 6.19 2.71 0.41 2.16 1.11 n.d. 4.85 1.65 0.76 0.89 0.58 0.44 n.d. 3.82 1.47 0.52 0.77 0.58 n.d. 4.41 1.23 1.02 n.d. n.d. n.d. 2.47 1.86 3.01 1.05

n.d. 6.0 3.5 n.d. 5.2 2.1 0.8 0.2 0.4 n.d. 1.7 0.3 0.1 n.d. n.d. n.d. 5.6 2.5 5.9 1.0 n.d. 4.9 2.2 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.7 n.d. 2.6 1.3 0.8 0.8 2.4 n.d. 5.9 5.1 3.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 n.d. 3.2 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 n.d. 3.3 0.6 0.5 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1.3 0.3 0.2 0.2

n.d. 266 117 n.d. 135 82.8 146 56.5 69.2 n.d. 160 89.4 163 172 117 n.d. 122 104 90.7 73.7 n.d. 140 106 131 103 131 187 n.d. 90.2 53.7 95.2 120 88.1 n.d. 348 183 123 153 192 154 n.d. 150 191 184 153 253 n.d. 412 173 121 177 105 n.d. 118 55.3 203 115

n.d. 26.8 7.80 n.d. 12.0 3.90 9.20 4.00 5.40 n.d. 14.7 4.90 11.8 7.20 7.80 n.d. 7.20 7.20 7.10 3.60 n.d. 5.40 14.1 3.00 3.20 4.00 6.40 n.d. 8.50 7.10 8.00 9.70 8.50 n.d. 43.4 30.8 27.7 33.0 39.9 20.6 n.d. 29.3 32.5 31.4 3.00 12.8 n.d. 68.2 10.7 13.4 16.8 8.60 n.d. 12.9 4.10 8.60 7.30

BS %

n.d. 6.80 0.80 n.d. 4.90 12.7 1.80 2.50 5.00 n.d. 1.60 1.50 1.50 2.10 0.80 n.d. 3.00 1.80 2.90 1.40 n.d. 1.30 1.50 1.00 0.80 1.00 1.10 n.d. 1.30 1.80 2.40 2.20 1.30 n.d. 2.50 2.40 2.10 2.40 3.70 1.50 n.d. 2.30 2.50 2.80 1.10 2.70 n.d. 2.20 0.70 0.60 2.80 0.60 n.d. 1.60 1.50 1.60 1.60

n.d. 4.20 2.80 n.d. 5.10 3.40 2.90 2.40 2.80 n.d. 2.80 1.50 1.50 2.60 2.80 n.d. 3.30 2.50 2.20 2.40 n.d. 5.10 5.80 5.10 2.90 3.50 8.60 n.d. 2.30 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.60 n.d. 8.30 6.70 5.20 6.80 6.60 5.80 n.d. 8.20 5.40 5.60 4.20 11.9 n.d. 1.00 1.70 1.00 4.10 4.50 n.d. 3.10 2.70 2.30 2.50

n.d. 304 128 n.d. 157 102 160 65.4 82.4 n.d. 179 97.4 178 184 128 n.d. 135 115 102 81.0 n.d. 8.90 7.10 5.40 4.50 8.00 3.60 n.d. 102 64.5 107 133 99.5 n.d. 402 223 158 183 243 182 n.d. 189 232 224 162 280 n.d. 483 186 136 200 119 n.d. 135 63.5 215 126

n.d. 27.9 14.9 n.d. 16.7 8.30 8.30 4.20 4.20 n.d. 6.30 20.8 8.30 6.30 14.9 n.d. 16.7 8.30 8.30 4.20 n.d. 152 127 140 110 140 203 n.d. 8.30 8.30 8.30 8.30 4.20 n.d. 34.8 27.7 17.9 6.30 12.5 7.10 n.d. 38.4 19.6 17.0 15.2 8.00 n.d. 41.7 12.5 6.30 6.30 6.30 n.d. 16.7 12.5 8.30 4.20

n.d. 332 143 n.d. 174 111 169 69.6 86.6 n.d. 186 118 186 190 143 n.d. 152 123 111 85.2 n.d. 161 135 145 115 148 206 n.d. 110 72.9 115 142 103 n.d. 437 251 175 189 255 189 n.d. 228 251 241 177 288 n.d. 525 199 142 206 125 n.d. 152 76.0 224 130

n.d. 91 90 n.d. 90 93 95 94 95 n.d. 97 82 96 97 90 n.d. 89 93 92 95 n.d. 94 95 96 96 95 98 n.d. 92 89 93 94 96 n.d. 92 89 89 97 95 96 n.d. 83 92 93 91 97 n.d. 92 94 96 97 95 n.d. 89 84 96 97

Explanation: TOC – total organic carbon; TN – total nitrogen; TEB-total exchangeable bases; TPA- total potential acidity; ECEC-cation exchange capacity; BS-base saturation; n.d.- not determined.

71.1 g·kg−1, while TN content ranged from 0.44 to 4.85 g·kg−1 in P7 and P8. The highest content was determined in the uppermost horizons (Table 3). The highest content for soil cations was noted for Ca2+ and Mg2+; nevertheless, the content of these ions was relatively low compared with the values determined in Leptosols and Cambisols. The examined base saturation range was wide, from 83 to 97% (Table 3).

the middle and lower parts of the slope. The stagnic conditions were identified within 75 cm from the soil surface. Within the horizons, saturation with surface water occurred temporarily and manifested itself in the occurrence of reducing conditions. In terms of vegetation, semideciduous forest dominated (Table 1). The parent material of these soils included calcium carbonate–rich menilite shale as well as variegated shale with an admixture of marl and sandstone (Table 1, Fig. 2). Both Stagnosols were characterized by colluvium occurrence. Grain size distribution showed textural differences between the topsoils and the subsurface horizons of Stagnosols and a distinctive stratification

4.5. Stagnosols P9 and P10 soils were classified as Stagnosols and were located in 443

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was identified. The superposed horizon of P9 (Ahk) was characterized by the predominance of silt (47%) and sand fractions (44%). Within the Bgk1 and Bgk2 horizons, the content of silt and clay increased, and thereby decreased sand fractions. Furthermore, sudden changes were detected within the BCg and Cgk horizons, where sand fractions increased while the content of silt and clay decreased slightly (Fig. 3). A different texture arrangement was detected within P10. The ‘A’ horizons were characterized in both profiles by quite similar contents of sand, silt and clay fractions. Considerable vertical changes in the ratios between fractions were detected in underlying horizons (Bgk and BCg), where the share of fine and coarse silt was around 52–53% (Fig. 3). Also, a high content of clay was noted in the Bgk1, Bgk2 and BCg horizons (39–40%). Angular-shaped rock fragments occurred in every horizon of P9 and their content increased with depth (Table 2). Within the P10 soil, only the Bg, Bgk and BCg horizons were characterized by the occurrence of angular rock fragments, and the percent occurrence ranged from 5 to 65%. The studied Stagnosols were similar to each other in terms of chemical properties. These soils were characterized by similar pH values, with neutral reactions in KCl solution and basic in H2O. Calcium carbonate was unevenly distributed in the profiles; nevertheless, an increase with depth was noted. Within the P9 profile, carbonates were found in every horizon, while within P10, only Bgk and BCg horizons were characterized by carbonate enrichment. In general, more than two times higher contents of TOC and TN were determined in the ‘A’ horizons compared to the underlying horizons. The content of TOC and TN in the Ahk/ABg horizons was 40.0 and 4.41 g·kg−1 in P9 and 15.9 and 2.47 g·kg−1 in P10, respectively. The arrangement of basic ions varied and ranged from 84 to 97% (Table 3).

Among the studied soils, most of the boundaries in the middle and lower parts of soil profiles were characterized by a gradual distinctness (Table 2), which relates to the systematic and continuous supply of soil material. Less often, an abrupt boundary was noted; such an arrangement was characterized for the upper horizons (A and B horizons). An abrupt boundary may indicate the sudden delivery of soil material (Kacprzak and Salamon, 2013; O'Geen, 2007; Waroszewski et al., 2015). Wavy and even smooth boundaries indicate strong erosion processes that removed the soil material and reworked the horizontal arrangement during the transport of soil material from the upper to the lower parts of the slope (Jäger et al., 2015). These theories have been confirmed by some authors describing the boundaries within different soils (Kacprzak and Salamon, 2013; Lorz and Phillips, 2006; O'Geen, 2007; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). In contrast, slopes constitute structures where sometimes the accumulation of soil material is limited. When the transport on the slope is obstructed, accumulation of soil material occurs and may prevail in one place. One of the most significant soil properties under the influence of reworking and rearrangement processes and an indicator of inhomogeneity is grain size distribution (Agbenin and Tiessen, 1995; Krasilnikov et al., 2005; Lorz and Phillips, 2006; Mazurek et al., 2018). The diversity of texture within the individual soil reference group was confirmed statistically in this study (Fig. 4A, B, C). As shown in Fig. 4A it can be concluded that A horizons of the studied soils, e.g. Phaeozems and Luvisols, form compact groups. This is likely the result of possible aeolian admixture (see Table 2 and Fig. 3) in both profiles. In addition, in case of Phaeozems, the A horizons may be characterized by a similar rate of organic matter accumulation. Lowermost horizons – B and BC (Fig. 4B and C) – show heterogeneity within an individual soil reference group, which may be connected with the difference within parent material or advancement of the weathering process. PCA also showed that some soils from different reference groups were distributed quite close to each other, which may suggest their similar, layered character, e.g. Stagnosol, Phaeozem (Fig. 4A); Luvisol, Cambisol, Stagnsol (Fig. 4B); and Luvisols, Cambisols (Fig. 4C). In general, three different particle size distribution patterns were noted. The first was characterized by colluvium recognized as a surficial stratified layer and with a twofold character of texture: i) a high content of silt which seems to have an aeolian origin, and ii) a clay loam texture where no admixture of aeolian silt may be presumed. The third pattern manifested itself in the stratification of clayey material with silt strata (Table 2; Fig. 3). In terms of the above division, the upper parts of soil profiles (P1, P3, P7, P8, P9 and P10) are comprised of colluvial materials. According to the literature, colluvium formation is the direct result of slope processes (Reheis et al., 1992; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). Soils with colluvium manifest great heterogeneity not only in terms of varied grain size distribution but also the origin of rock fragments (Table 2), which is especially present in the following soil profiles: P1, P3, P5, P7 and P8. The rock fragments had a mostly angular shape (Table 2) controlled by the character of physical weathering material and supported by shortdistance transport. Colluvium, which is dependent on the source of deposited material (Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005), had a variable texture from silty clay loam to loam in our sites. This deposited-over-time colluvium provides substrate for further soil development (Agbenin and Tiessen, 1995; Bockheim and Gennadiyev, 2000; Lorz and Phillips, 2006). Following the two other previously mentioned patterns, in contrast to colluvium the occurrence of stratification in the studied profiles and/ or the horizon with the predominance of a silt fraction may suggest the influence of a possible aeolian silt admixture (Kacprzak and Salamon, 2013; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). In general, silt admixtures are associated with the last glacial cycle in the Pleistocene or early Holocene (Jary, 2010; Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005). Even partial deposition of silt may result in stratification in a soil profile (Waroszewski et al., 2018a). Newly accumulated sediments are readily incorporated into

5. Discussion 5.1. Characteristics of geomorphic, pedogenic and slope processes on formation and distribution calcium carbonate within the soil profiles The development of calcium carbonate–rich soils in the Polish Carpathians depends on geomorphological settings in this region. According to Zagórski (2003), three stages of transformation of carbonate-rich parent material for soil formation can be distinguished. The first stage is the exposition of the carbonate-rich rock surface that took place in the Miocene and Oligocene. During this time, an intensification of pedogenic processes has been recognized, but also the denudation of the terrain and karst processes start to occur. The second stage of this transformation is connected with the accumulation of glacial and interglacial sediments on the sedimentary rock surface. The third stage is related with the Pleistocene and Holocene, when erosion dissection of carbonates took place. Hence, despite a large amount of rocks rich in calcium carbonate, the area of well-developed calcium carbonate–rich soils in the Polish Carpathians is small and frequently occurs in small patches (Zagórski, 2003). The results of the conducted analyses and morphology data showed that the investigated calcium carbonate–rich soils were affected by the prevailing conditions in the Carpathians, especially geomorphic processes. Nevertheless, the key question concerning the studied soils is the extent to which the studied soils were influenced by in situ factors, e.g. parent material and pedogenesis processes, as has been widely described in the literature (Bockheim and Douglass, 2006; Jungerius, 1985; Kacprzak and Derkowski, 2007; Kowalska et al., 2017; Zagórski, 2003). Moreover, another question arises related to whether we may suppose that ex situ agents, e.g. aeolian silt admixture, may also have had an impact on the formation of those soils. This has been studied by other authors, often with application of precise mineralogical (Küfmann, 2003, 2008) and geochemical data (Gild et al., 2018; Küfmann, 2003, 2008; Muhs et al., 2008; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). The slope processes affected the studied soils in terms of the distinctness and topographical boundaries between soil horizons (Table 2). 444

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B 1.0

1.0

A Leptosol_H

<0,002 mm

Stagnosol_L

0,02-0,005 mm <0,002 mm

0,02-0,005 mm Cambisol_H

Stagnosol_L

1-0,5 mm Stagnosol_H Phaeozem_L

Leptosol_L

0,5-0,250 mm Phaeozem_H

Luvisol_H

Luvisol_L

Cambisol_L

Luvisol_L

PCA 26.8%

PCA 25.3%

2,0 - 1,0 mm Luvisol_H

0,25-0,1 mm Cambisol_H

0,05-0,02 mm Stagnosol_H

0,5-0,25 mm 1-0,5 mm

0,25-0,1 mm

2,0 - 1,0 mm

0,05-0,02 mm

-1.0

-1.0

0,1-0,05 mm 0,1-0,05 mm

-1.0

PCA 57.4%

1.0

Cambisol_L

-1.0

PCA 50.8%

1.0

1.0

C 2,0 - 1,0 mm

1-0,5 mm 0,5-0,25 mm Cambisol_H

0,25-0,1 mm

PCA 28.4%

Stagnosol_H

0,1-0,05 mm <0,002 mm 0,02-0,005 mm 0,05-0,02 mm

Cambisol_L

Luvisol_L

-1.0

Stagnosol_L

-1.0

PCA 61.7%

1.0

Fig. 4. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on relationships between soil texture and differentiation between various soil types. Explanation: (A) – A horizons; (B) – B horizons; (C) – BC/C horizons.

soil profiles (Sweeney and Mason, 2013). Often, this can be mixed into the A horizons (Kacprzak et al., 2015; Martignier et al., 2015; Mazurek et al., 2018) (see Fig. 3); however, Waroszewski et al. (2018a) also provided examples with deep incorporation of aeolian silts and development of mixing zones reaching even the BC horizons. According to the literature, the boundary between aeolian silt and in situ material is generally sharp (Martignier et al., 2015; Gild et al., 2018), which was also noted in the studied profiles (P1, P3, P7 and P8). According to some studies (Bockheim and Douglass, 2006; Saedi et al., 2016), the silt admixture might also generate great differences between the soil substrate in situ and deposited material in terms of calcium carbonate content, which may hamper pedogenesis. When the aeolian silt contribution is rich in calcium carbonate, this may constitute an external but still primary source of calcium carbonate, which is further mixed with surface horizons and then contributes a significant amount of calcium within the soil profile. Owing to the silt loam and silt clay loam texture as well as calcium carbonate content in the A horizons of P1 and P2 (Table 2), only in these profiles would have the admixture of aeolian inputs made any contribution to calcium carbonate enrichment as a result of silt admixture in upper parts of soils. What is more, aeolian silt deposited on the soil surface may reduce leaching

conditions and stabilize the quantity of calcium carbonate (Bockheim and Gennadiyev, 2000; Maranhão et al., 2016; Nettleton, 1991). The soil material overlain on the slope soil surface is sometimes continuously reworked by running water, in the form of a river or downslope watercourse (Jackson and Erie, 1973; Lin et al., 2005). The slope may be undercut by river edges, causing further lithological differentiation of layers. An example of such a situation is soil P3, formed from a set of calcium carbonate–rich rocks (Table 1, Fig. 2) that were under riparian influence in the past. Slope damage may also shape the subsurface soils. As a result, some soils located in the middle or lower parts of slopes were exposed to the effects of water, leading to further development of stagnic properties (P9 and P10) (see Section 5.2.4). Often, the character of aeolian silt and colluvium formation contributes to the formation of lithological discontinuity. Soil-forming processes on slopes within the Carpathian Mountains are strictly controlled by lithological discontinuities within the regolith layers as well as within soil horizons (Lorz and Phillips, 2006; Migoń and Kacprzak, 2014; Waroszewski et al., 2013). The lithological discontinuities within the studied soils were based on textural differences between slope materials accumulated above in situ regolith; hence, the suffix raptic is applicable (profiles P1, P3, P6, P7, P8 and P9). 445

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In many studies, a strong connection between slope position and soil properties has been found (Alijani and Sarmadian, 2014; Badía et al., 2013). There are some pathways of calcium carbonate arrangement within the mountain slope (Fig. 2). It would be expected that the analysed soils would have a high content of calcium carbonate due to inheritance from calcium carbonate–rich parent material (Alijani and Sarmadian, 2014; Maranhão et al., 2016). However, some of the studied soils were characterized by the translocation of calcium carbonate between soil horizons (Table 3). Regularly, increasing levels of carbonate with depth are noted in calcium carbonate soils (Badía et al., 2013; Gile et al., 1966). This was also the case in this study for P3, P4, P7, P8 and P9 and partially in the cases of P2, P5, P6 and P10 (because levels increase to the middle part of soil profiles and then decrease at the depth of parent material). The lower level of calcium carbonate, especially in upper and middle parts of soil profiles, is a consequence of the incessant migration of these elements with depth. A similar result was described by Alijani and Sarmadian (2014) in calcium carbonate–rich soils within the slope. The impoverishment of BC or C horizons in some elements may be caused by the following reasons: i) the parent material may be under strong erosion processes which also result in the loss of carbonate substances, and/or ii) the parent material may be covered by layers richer in carbonates due to mass movement, and/or iii) soil material may be rich in calcium carbonate but simultaneously may be characterized by a clear admixture of non‑carbonate silt, which can initiate a new stage of soil development (Alijani and Sarmadian, 2014; Gile et al., 1966; Rubio and Escudero, 2005). However, relief also influences calcium carbonate soil arrangement in different ways. Because of the specific microclimate within mountain areas, the effect of insolation should be taken into account. According to Alijani and Sarmadian (2014), the intensification of insolation is the controlling factor for vegetation and soil development by the indirect control of erosion rate, temperature as well as moisture regime. When the slope gradient is high, its susceptibility to temperature and any changes in hydrologic regime are also essential (Gile et al., 1966; Jackson and Erie, 1973). As a consequence, there is a higher possibility for greater moisture contribution and the production of HCO−3 is increased. Nevertheless, the slope character also affects soil water availability. Thus, in cases when the soils are stratified (especially in profile P7 and P8), water can move between horizons, hence more calcium carbonates are able to be translocated (Gile et al., 1966; Ziadat et al., 2010).

Phaeozem development. Within the stratified soil pedons, often with the occurrence of colluvium depending on the presence (or absence) of calcium carbonate content, lessivage as well as stagnation processes with low or high levels of intensity occurred, which led to the development of Luvisols and Stagnosols, respectively. Different conditions for formation of the studied soils also resulted in differences in chemical properties, e.g. TOC, pH values or calcium carbonate concentrations, especially within B, BC and/or C horizons, which determined their distant distribution on the PCA diagram (Fig. 6B and C). 5.2.1. Cambisols Within mountain areas, Cambisols are the most widespread calcium carbonate–rich soils and are associated with the evolution of Leptosols (Nachtergaele, 2010; Skiba, 2007). As a result of intensive pedogenic alternation processes, which deal with moderate weathering of parent material and the combination of weak soil forming processes, B horizons have been created that meet the criteria for cambic horizons (Badía et al., 2013; Bockheim, 2015; Świtoniak et al., 2016). According to WRB (IUSS Working Group, 2015), cambic horizons show the evidence of pedogenic alternations relative to the underlying horizons by the absence of rock structure and/or presence of aggregate structure and are characterized by a contrast with one of the overlying mineral horizons. These assumptions were satisfied within P3 and P4 (Tables 2 and 3). The studied Cambisols were developed from fine textural material derived from a wide range of rocks (Table 1), and they were connected with both in situ and ex situ accumulation processes (Fig. 5). Hence, the transformation of the studied Cambisols was strictly connected with quite strong weathering of parent material, additionally enhanced by transport and redeposition of soil material on the slope (profile P3 and P4). Over time, soil P3 was characterized by a possible admixture of allochthonous sediments (Table 2). The possible input of aeolian silt contributed to the formation of silt-rich fraction layer, which plainly separated itself from the rest of the solum (the underlying horizons). A similar case regarding possible soil pathway evolution was described by Waroszewski et al. (2018a), who described the development of Leptosols formed from granites and serpentines to Cambisols under the influence of aeolian silt contribution. Furthermore, despite the fact that soil profiles are consistently rich in calcium carbonate, the alternation of parent material manifests itself in the sudden vertical decrease of carbonate content in B horizons (Kacprzak and Derkowski, 2007). There is no ‘translocation’ or ‘leaching’ of calcium carbonate sensu stricto, because the share of calcium carbonate is constantly conditioned by parent material (Fig. 5). Nevertheless, calcium carbonate is undoubtedly strongly controlled by the movement and/or mixing of fine rock fragments within the soil profile. Calcium carbonate in the studied Cambisols may also be bound by well-developed soil aggregates (Bryk, 2016; Ferreira et al., 2016; Kacprzak and Derkowski, 2007).

5.2. Calcium carbonate-rich soil evolution and the identification of diagnostic processes based on physico-chemical properties within studied soils The slope processes, diverse lithology as well as external supply of soil material are important agents that determine the course of pedogenic processes in soil within mountain areas; thus, despite the fact that this set of factors does not have a direct impact on calcium carbonate–rich mountain soil classification, it greatly affects the membership of such soils to particular reference groups (Fig. 5). For this reason, the pedogenic processes, especially their heightened intensification and duration, that contribute to diagnostic horizon formation have been highlighted in this study. Different slope conditions may create different patterns of calcium carbonate translocation in the investigated soils, resulting in different soil evolution and steps of pedogenesis (Bockheim, 2015). Erosion of various parent materials, rich in primary carbonates, led to weakly developed soils – Leptosols (P1 and P2). Furthermore, various evolution pathways for calcium carbonate–rich Leptosols have been noted (Fig. 5). Depending on the location on the slope, the texture and biological activity, some soils have the character of Cambisols – with intensive pedogenic alternation – and within some soils, mollic horizons (deep mixing of organic-rich material) have been formed, leading to

5.2.2. Phaeozems Further stage of Leptosols evolution is related with formation of mollic horizons, which give rise to soils classification as Phaeozems (Fig. 5). First, the rate of organic matter decomposition and slope processes is important. The soils under the mixed forest (e.g. Dentario glandulosae–Fagetum) usually are characterized by fast organic matter decomposition. However, within the slope, the decreasing of mineralization rates of organic matter may be noted, as the result of intensive delivery of organic matter–rich soil material from the upper parts of slopes and its deposition in the form of colluvium (Bockheim and Hartemink, 2013; Kacprzak and Derkowski, 2007; Kowalska et al., 2017). The newly deposited soil material is mixed by mesofauna, and subsequently stabilization of endohumus pools occur, which results in formation of mollic horizons and further transformation of Leptosols into Phaeozems. This has also been noted in other studies (Bockheim, 2015; Kowalska et al., 2017; Labaz et al., 2018). Sometimes in the 446

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(caption on next page) 447

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Fig. 5. Hypothetical direction of calcium carbonate-soil development within the mountain areas, as a result of slope processes, possible aeolian silt admixture as well as influence of vegetation cover. Initial calcium carbonate-rich soils represented by Leptosols may evolve into Cambisols, Phaeozems, Luvisols or Stagnosols, respectively (as presented in the Figure) depending on given factors.

B

TEB

CEC Ca2+

1.0

1.0

A Leptosol_L

Luvisol_L

TOC K+

Mg2+

Na+

Mg2+

Na+

Nt

Cambisol_H

BS

TOC

clay

PCA 21.9%

CaCO3 Cambisol_L Luvisol_H

clay

sand

Phaeozem_L

pH KCl TPA

K+

PCA 18.6%

Stagnosol_H Luvisol_L

Cambisol_H

Leptosol_H

BS

Nt

sand TPA CEC TEB

CaCO3 Luvisol_H Stagnosol_L

Stagnosol_L

Ca2+

Stagnosol_H

Cambisol_L

-1.0

-1.0

Phaeozem_H

-1.0

1.0

PCA 53.3%

pH KCl

-1.0

PCA 70.5%

1.0

1.0

C Cambisol_L

sand pH KCl BS Stagnosol_H

PCA 20.5%

Ca2+ TEB CaCO3

CEC

Na+ Cambisol_H

TPA Mg2+ Stagnosol_L

K+

Nt

-1.0

TOC

Luvisol_L

clay

-1.0

PCA 70.3%

1.0

Fig. 6. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on relationships between soil chemical properties and differentiation between various soil types. Explanation: (A) – A horizons; (B) – B horizons; (C) – BC/C horizons.

mountain areas, the formation of the mollic horizon may be limited or unequal (Badía et al., 2013; Bockheim, 2015; Wanic et al., 2017). The limitation of mollic formation is the result of the intensity of slope processes, which manifest themselves by the continuous mixing of the A horizon components and soil material transported via mass movement. However, the studied soils met the criteria for mollic horizons when more than one horizon was merged together (Table 2). According to the WRB (IUSS Working Group, 2015), the mollic horizon should be dark-coloured. Nevertheless, when a high content of calcium carbonate is found, mollic horizons sometimes occur in lighter colours of soils, as was found within P6 (Table 2). On the PCA diagrams Phaeozems were arranged close to calcium carbonate within A horizons (Fig. 6A), which also reflected their mutual relationship. The enrichment with calcium carbonate in mollic horizons was caused by high

numbers of carbonates and light-coloured rock fragments (Bockheim and Hartemink, 2013). In addition, terrain reconnaissance and laboratory studies confirmed that the source of carbonates is the parent material and the high numbers of rock fragments in the B horizon (Table 2). 5.2.3. Luvisols The absence of calcium carbonate controls some stages of soil formation, e.g. it plays a crucial role in clay particle dispersion, which contributes to further clay transport between the horizons (Szymański and Skiba, 2007; Waroszewski et al., 2016) (Fig. 5). This process had taken place in those soils classified as Luvisols (P7 and P8). The agric horizons within P7 and P8 occurred below the present colluvial mantle (Table 1), which was enough to classify these soils as Luvisols according 448

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to the WRB (IUSS, Working Group 2015). The development of studied soils into Luvisols was also supported by the texture features. Silt accumulation or its addition contributes to good conditions for illuviation processes to occur and provides the agent for clay translocation and the formation of argic horizons (Waroszewski et al., 2018a). Relative clay enrichment in B horizons might have also been caused by silt and sand weathering in the upper horizon (Table 2). The traditional approach assumed that clay particles are translocated in solution to the B horizons, making this zone rich in clay. However, within the studied Luvisols, E horizons were not identified (Table 2). This was due to the fact that the eluvial horizons under the colluvium might be partially or even completely eroded and/or their primary character was blurred (Świtoniak et al., 2016; Waroszewski et al., 2018a). Such arrangement of horizons within a soil profile could be a result of quite strong mass movement, resulting in exposition of B horizons (Bockheim et al., 2005; Waroszewski et al., 2018a) and further replacement of eroded material by new deposits. Furthermore, erosion of E horizons may be seen when the illuviation was hampered as a result of human activities in the past, e.g. grazing of animals (Yang et al., 2016). Within the studied Luvisols, both located on the upper slope, calcium carbonates were translocated and leached away. Within the soil profiles derived from calcium carbonate–rich parent material, the leached zone was easily recognizable due to the reaction of calcium carbonate with weak (10%) hydrochloric acid. Carbonate tends to be integrated with illuviation processes. According to the literature (e.g. Gile et al., 1966, 1965; Waroszewski et al., 2018a), carbonate enrichment and clay accumulation cannot form in individual horizons simultaneously. Similar situations have been found in this study – within the argic horizon, no calcium carbonate was indicated (Table 3).

of profile P9, where significant calcium carbonate values were noted in every horizon; hence, it cannot be a case of leaching sensu stricto (Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005). Nevertheless, calcium carbonate was completely removed (leached) from the A and B horizons of the P10 profile. On the other hand, the arrangement of calcium carbonate was strictly controlled by the finer texture of the uppermost soil layers, which hampered translocation of calcium carbonate and enhanced stagnic conditions. 6. Conclusion The formation and development of the calcium carbonate–rich soils discussed in this study were affected by both in situ (parent material and its weathering) and ex situ (mass movement and possible aeolian silt contribution) agents. Irrespective of the type of parent material, every investigated soil showed traces of slope processes resulting in heterogeneity of soil profiles. Moreover, stratification within soils was noted and mostly detected in terms of soil morphology and texture. The common elements of the studied soils were the occurrence of colluvium as well as possible aeolian inputs, which included the soil profiles with silt clay loam, silt clay loam and sandy loam texture in the surface part of the profile. Within the studied soil, distribution of calcium carbonate varied, although the soils were characterized by enrichment with calcium carbonate mostly due to inheritance from calcium carbonate–rich parent material and also the translocation of calcium carbonate between soil horizons. Often, the impoverishment of BC or C horizons was found, and this was connected with strong erosion processes experienced by parent material and/or the covering of the parent material by layers more abundant in calcium carbonate as the result of mass movement. Although the parent material constitutes the first factor that explains membership in the main soil reference group, slope and related processes affect the distribution of soil properties that influence the soil classification. Slope processes and allochthonous material deposition control the formation of thick layers suitable for cambic development and the existence of Cambisols under forests. Typical soils developed on calcium carbonate–rich materials in mountainous areas under mixed forest with rapid organic matter decomposition on outcrops or shoulder slope positions are associated with the Leptosols group. Decreases in the mineralization rates of organic matter stabilization as well as intensive delivery of soil material from the upper parts of slopes result in the formation of mollic horizons and transformation of Leptosols into Phaeozems. Further erosion and redeposition of fine material on slopes provide two types of slope sediments: i) with silt loam textures dominating, and ii) clay loams interstratified with silty substrates. The first type of sediments were more suitable for water percolation, and after carbonate leaching clay dispersion and translocation occur. In such materials, Luvisols were developed. Sediments with a prevalence of clay loam aid Stagnosol formation, while pools of carbonates were stabilized due to the reduction of water percolation and soil stagnation.

5.2.4. Stagnosols Epi- and endopedons of investigated Stagnosols (Fig. 2) were affected by water saturation, followed by reducing conditions for some time during the year. The water saturation zone is occasionally under the influence of slowly permeable subsurface horizons (Waroszewski et al., 2015). In general, high soil moisture caused the stagnic colour pattern described for P9 and P10 (Table 2). Water stagnation in this case might be accompanied by the occurrence of colluvium as well as a texture that is characterized by the predominance of finer grains. Such circumstances contribute to lower permeability between horizons and provide favourable conditions for stagnic properties development (Kacprzak and Salamon, 2013; Waroszewski et al., 2015). According to the WRB (IUSS, Working Group 2015), a reductimorphic colour pattern should occur in > 50% volume within the first 50 cm from the soil surface in Stagnosols. Sometimes, as also noted in our study, the combination of the upper, reduced zone (bleached colours) and the lower, oxidized zone occurred, displaying stagnic properties. Although the soil P9 met the Stagnosol criteria, occurrence of stagnic properties was rather unusual in this profile. In some parts of P9, the original colour pattern occurred (Table 2), which is the evidence that the reducing conditions were too weak and/or had not affected those parts of the soils yet (IUSS, Working Group 2015). It has to be mentioned that Luvisols are able to develop into Stagnosols within mountain areas as the result of water stagnation. In this case, Stagnosols are formed in sites where argic (Bt) horizons have been subject to erosion processes. Further, erosion and redeposition of fine material on slopes provides for formation of clay loams interstratified with silty substrates (Waroszewski et al., 2018a). In contrast to the studied Luvisols, the Stagnosols were characterized by only partial, or even a lack of translocation of calcium carbonate between the soil horizons (Table 3), the result of the limitation of water flow (Kacprzak and Salamon, 2013). Within the horizons where water (mainly derived from rain precipitation) was subject to the stagnation process, calcium carbonate also occurred and was not translocated through the deeper soil horizons. Such a situation was found in the case

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