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Solid-State NMR Concepts for the Investigation of supported Transition Metal Catalysts and Nanoparticles Torsten Gutmann, Anna Grünberg, Niels Rothermel, Mayke Werner, Mohamad Srour, Safaa Abdulhussain, Shulin Tan, Yeping Xu, Hergen Breitzke, Gerd Buntkowsky www.elsevier.com/locate/ssnmr
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Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Received date: 23 May 2013 Revised date: 20 June 2013 Cite this article as: Torsten Gutmann, Anna Grünberg, Niels Rothermel, Mayke Werner, Mohamad Srour, Safaa Abdulhussain, Shulin Tan, Yeping Xu, Hergen Breitzke, Gerd Buntkowsky, Solid-State NMR Concepts for the Investigation of supported Transition Metal Catalysts and Nanoparticles, Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssnmr.2013.06.004 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
Solid-State NMR Concepts for the Investigation of supported Transition Metal Catalysts and Nanoparticles Torsten Gutmann, Anna Grünberg, Niels Rothermel, Mayke Werner, Mohamad Srour, Safaa Abdul‐ hussain, Shulin Tan, Yeping Xu, Hergen Breitzke and Gerd Buntkowsky* Institute of Physical Chemistry, Technical University Darmstadt, Petersenstrasse 22, D‐64287 Darmstadt, Germany, Fax: +49 6151 16‐4347; Tel: +49 6151 16‐2607; E‐mail:
[email protected]‐darmstadt.de
Abstract In recent years, solid‐state NMR spectroscopy has evolved into an important characterization tool for the study of solid catalysts and chemical processes on their surface. This interest is mainly triggered by the need of environmentally benign organic transformations (“green chemistry”), which has re‐ sulted in a large number of new catalytically active hybrid materials, which are organized on the me‐ so‐ and nanoscale. Typical examples of these catalysts are supported homogeneous transition metal catalysts or transition metal nanoparticles (MNPs). Solid‐state NMR spectroscopy is able to charac‐ terize both the structures of these materials and the chemical processes on the catalytic surface. This article presents recent trends both on the characterization of immobilized homogeneous transition metal catalysts and on the characterization of surface species on transition metal surfaces.
Keywords: Solid State NMR; Heterogeneous Catalysis; Transition Metal Nanoparticles; 2H Solid‐State NMR; Im‐ mobilized Catalyst;
Introduction Every year millions of tons of solvents are employed in the fine chemical and pharmaceutical indus‐ tries for reactions or product isolation. Most of these solvents are small, volatile organic molecules. They constitute a major source of industrial pollution and cause severe environmental problems. Reducing the amount of solvents by designing new, environmentally benign reaction schemes which use a minimum of resources and energy, is one of the major challenges of 21st century chemistry. One of the important steps in this concept of “Green Chemistry” is the development and optimiza‐ tion of efficient catalysts. Despite many favorable features of homogeneous catalysis, as for example high substrate selectivity and catalytic efficacy, heterogeneous catalysts still remain more productive and many large‐scale industrial production processes depend strongly on them. Main reasons are that heterogeneous catalysts can be easily separated and reused in continuous flow reactions. A hypothesis‐driven rational design of new and improved heterogeneous catalysts necessitates de‐ tailed knowledge, both of the structure of the active sites on the surface of the catalyst and on the
state of th he reactants on the surfacce. Owing to the complexity of these m materials neitther the typiccal ultra‐high vacuum (UH HV) characteriization techniques nor UV V/VIS or IR spectroscopy are really suiteed elop solid‐state NMR techniques to solvve for their study. For thiss reason seveeral groups started to deve this quest. esent trends aarticle we will focus on traansition metaal based hydrogenation an nd hydroform my‐ In the pre lation catalysts. Hydro ogen conversion at metal complexes or o nanoparticcles is the esssential step in na‐ technicallyy important processes likke Haber‐Bosch,[1; 2] Fisccher‐Tropsch, [3‐5] or arene hydrogen tion,[6‐8] which form m one basis of o our current economy. The T detailed knowledge of o the catalyttic ns plays a keyy role in the o optimization o of such techn nical processees. pathways in hydrogenaation reaction es, in the following two different classses of transition metal catalysts are dis‐ As importtant example cussed, namely n suppo orted homoggeneous cataalysts, [9‐24] and ligand stabilized metal m nanopaar‐ ticles.[25‐28] Supported d homogeneous catalystss represent aa first class of o transition m metal catalyssts. In many of these cataalysts, linker molecules co ontaining functional group ps are tethered to a solid inorganic sup‐ port by co ovalent binding to the surrface, and thee homogeneo ous transition n metal catallyst is attacheed via these llinker groups.[9; 29] The main demands on a good carrieer material arre its stabilityy in multiple rreaction cyclees, its easy sep‐ e environmen nt, and that itts chemical an nd arableness from the reeaction mixture, its harmleessness to the properties havve no negativve influence o on the catalyttic activity. [3 30] These con nditions can b be physical p fulfilled bo oth by organic polymers o or inorganic o oxides. Inorgaanic oxides and polymericc materials [3 31; 32] are th he most com mmon carrierss, especially for immobilizing homogeeneous metall catalysts (seee Fig.1). Since the framew works of inorrganic oxides like zeolites, silica nanopaarticles or meesoporous silica mally stable un nder different reaction conditions and their structure materials are chemicallly and therm uenced by sw welling processses, [33] these oxides are e often preferrred to polym meric materials. is not influ Suitable support materials are inorrganic oxides like silica or titania which h contain reaactive surfacees. mogeneous ccatalysts. This propeerty displays aa simple startting point forr the immobilization of hom
Fig. 1: Graph hical illustration off an immobilized homogeneous h transsition metal catalyst at a silica surfacce.
While con nventional dissordered silicca materials aare known fo or a long timee, in the last years ordereed modificatiions of thesee oxides became largely available. Tyypical represeentatives of these ordereed modificatiions are perio odic mesoporrous silica (PM MS) like MCM M‐41, SBA‐15 5 and related materials. [3 30; 34; 35] PM MS materials combine largge pore spaces, ordered p pore arrangem ments, narrow well‐defineed pore sizess, large surfacce areas and ttunable physical propertie es of their inn ner surfaces, ssuch as surface acidity orr hydrophobicity.[36] They consist of pseudo‐crysttalline powders, where each e crystallite constitute es a large num mber of more e or less paraallel cylindricaal pores. The silica formation takes place in aqueou us media usin ng surfactantts or amphip philic block co opolymers ass structure‐directing agen nts
(templates). PMS based supported homogeneous catalysts were successfully applied in a number of catalytic reactions.[24; 37‐42] There are two main strategies for the immobilization of a metal complex on a solid support.[43‐45] It can be bound by substitution of its ligands with functional groups of a suitable linker attached to the surface, or it can be attached directly to the oxide surface. In the latter case the metal complex loses its molecular character. [46] Ligand stabilized metal nanoparticles (MNPs) represent a second class of transition metal catalysts. They display colloidal particles consisting of an inner core of metal atoms stabilized by surface mole‐ cules such as aliphatic alcohols, amines, phosphines, thiols, carbenes, or polymers.[25; 26] These particles can be synthesized under mild conditions from metal‐organic precursors, following a route developed by Chaudret and Philippot.[27; 28] These MNPs catalyze interesting organic transforma‐ tions, including asymmetric hydrogenation, [47; 48] oxidation and C‐C coupling reactions.[7; 49] Ow‐ ing to their large specific surface they are ideally suited for solid‐state NMR studies of both their li‐ gands and the catalytically active species on their surface.
Homogeneous catalysts immobilized on solid support carriers Owing to the presence of surface‐silanol groups permitting convenient functionalization by organic linkers silica supports are very popular for the immobilization of homogeneous catalysts. [50; 51] Since these systems contain several NMR‐active nuclei (typically 1H, 13C, 29Si, and 31P), MAS NMR techniques have evolved into a powerful tool for the characterization of the immobilization process and the structure of the immobilized catalyst.[50; 52‐55] A more detailed overview about the rele‐ vant literature is given in the recent reviews by the Blümel group and some of us.[33; 51] In the following, for two recent examples the binding of differently coordinated transition metal catalysts employing mesoporous silica as support is monitored by solid‐state NMR. The first example [55] shows the immobilization of the four‐fold coordinated RhCl(PPh3)3 complex (1, Fig.2) also known as Wilkinson’s catalyst, and the second example [56] the related five‐fold coordinated RuCl2(PPh3)3 complex (2, Fig.2). In both cases APTES (3‐aminopropyltriethoxysilane) (3, Fig.2)[57] is employed as linker.[55; 56] The crucial step after synthesis of these catalysts is the exact characterization of the binding of APTES to the silica surface. 1
2
3
Fig. 2: X-ray structures of RhCl(PPh3)3 (1) [58] and RuCl2(PPh3)3 (2). [59] Structure of the APTES linker (3).
RhCl(PPh3)3 (1) is probably the most widely investigated of all known homogeneous hydrogenation catalysts. [60] Its applications in many organic reactions have induced a strong demand for the effi‐ cient separation of catalysts from the product stream.[61] Various attempts towards catalytic appli‐ cations of the immobilized Wilkinson’s catalyst and its analogues have been undertaken previous‐ ly.[39; 41; 62‐64] This complex shows a distorted square planar geometry containing three PPh3‐ groups and the chlorine in the molecular symmetry plane. Owing to this distortion all three phos‐
phine ligands are distinguishable in solid‐state 31P NMR spectroscopy. However, in solution NMR two of the three PPh3‐ligands become magnetically equivalent and built up an A2X spin‐system. Ruthenium(II)dichlorotris(triphenylphosphine) (2) is a well‐known hydrogenation catalyst. It is em‐ ployed in hydrogenation, transfer hydrogenation of ketones, isomerization of homoallylic alcohols, N‐alkylation and many others. [65] Its crystal structure displays a distorted square pyramidal geome‐ try, where the plane is spanned by the two chlorine ligands and two of the three PPh3‐groups. The third PPh3‐group forms the top of the pyramid. [59] In the neat solid all three phosphine ligands are magnetically inequivalent and form an ABX spin system.[56; 66] In solution they become dynamically equivalent and form an A2X at low temperatures (‐97.5°C) and an A3 spin system at room tempera‐ ture. [67] Owing to this, the scalar couplings between the three phosphorus are visible in the solid‐ state NMR spectrum but not in the solution NMR spectra at room temperature. From the point of view of solid‐state NMR spectroscopists 29Si CP‐MAS and 13C CP‐MAS NMR spec‐ troscopy are clearly the tools of choice for a detailed characterization of silica‐surfaces and their modifications by binding of organic linkers or substrates to silanol groups. For neat silica materials there are four different types of silica sites possible, which differ in their number n of connected oxy‐ gen atoms. These different silica sites are usually denoted as Qn‐groups (Fig.3, right site). By expe‐ rience, it is known that MCM‐41 or SBA‐15 contain only sites with n=2,3,4 (Q2, Q3 and Q4). For the covalent binding of APTES to the surface three different configurations exist, which are denoted as Tn‐goups, where n counts the number of ethoxy‐groups replaced by covalent Si‐O‐Si bonds to the surface. Both Qn‐groups and Tn‐groups are easily recognizable by virtue of their isotropic chemical shift value in MAS or CP‐MAS NMR spectra. If a quantitative determination of these groups and the degree of functionalization is desired, it is necessary to employ 29Si MAS NMR. This however is a bit cumbersome, due to the relatively long 29Si‐T1 times, which necessitate long recycle delay times. If only qualitative results are needed, it is therefore more convenient to employ 29Si CP‐MAS tech‐ niques, which are much faster, due the comparatively short proton T1. However, they strongly favor surface near groups and are influenced by dynamics. As example, Fig. 3 (left site) displays the func‐ tionalization of SBA‐3 with APTES, monitored by 29Si CP‐MAS. The spectrum displays the Qn and Tn‐ groups with their characteristic chemical shifts. The presence of different Tn‐groups confirms not only the successful surface modification but delivers also the detailed binding characteristics of the APTES to the silica surface.
Fig. 3: Left panel: 29Si CP-MAS NMR spectrum of APTES functionalized silica SBA-3 shows quantitatively the amounts of different Qn and Tn- groups. (adapted from ref. [55]) Right site: Structure elements related to the Qn and Tn-groups.
Immobilization of Wilkinson's Catalyst on Silica As a first example the structural analysis of Wilkinson's catalyst (1) immobilized on silica is described. The strategy of this analysis combines several NMR experiments to monitor the binding of the cata‐ lysts via the linker to the surface. The first step of this process is the characterization of the binding of the linker to the surface employing 29Si MAS NMR spectroscopy, as described in the previous sec‐ tion. The second step is the monitoring of the binding of the catalyst to the linker. This step is done by combining 13C CP‐MAS and 31P CP‐MAS techniques. While the 13C CP‐MAS gives information on the binding from the point of view of the linker, 31P CP‐MAS screens the binding from the point of view of the catalyst. Thus, 31P and 13C NMR display complementary methods.
Fig. 4: a) 13C CP-MAS NMR spectrum of the mesoporous silica material SBA-3 functionalized with APTES. b) 13C CP-MAS NMR spectrum of the APTES functionalized silica after tethering of Wilkinson’s catalyst (adapted from ref.[57])
The comparison of the 13C CP‐MAS spectra of the APTES functionalized silica before and after binding of the catalysts (see Fig. 4) reveals clear differences. Fig. 4a displays only the characteristic resonance peaks of the APTES molecule at 8, 26 and 46 ppm, which correspond to the carbon atoms (C1, C2 and C3) of the alkyl chain plus two additional signals at 16 ppm and at 58 ppm which are caused by the methyl and methylene carbon atoms of the ethoxy groups. In contrast, the spectrum after binding of the catalyst (see Fig. 4b) contains an additional strong signal at ca. 130 ppm, which is attributed to the phenyl‐carbons of Wilkinson’s catalyst. Since the binding of the linker to the metal center of the catalyst occurs via replacement of ligands, the 31P CP‐MAS spectra are monitors for its chemical environment. Moreover, since 31P is a very sen‐ sitive NMR nucleus with 100% natural abundance and high gyromagnetic ratio, it is relatively easy to measure 31P NMR spectra with good signal to noise ratio even in systems with low ligand concentra‐ tions. Initiated by the pioneering 31P NMR investigations of Fyfe, Wasylishen and co‐workers[68; 69] on Pd, Pt and Ni containing phosphine complexes, 31P CP‐MAS solid‐state NMR spectroscopy be‐ came a standard tool for studying phosphorous containing metal complexes. In a series of publi‐ cations, the Blümel group contributed to the study of immobilized species. Different phosphine linkers, their morphology, as well as their interactions with the surface of the silica support, have been investigated (see refs. [20; 33; 70; 71] and references cited therein). 31P CP‐MAS studies provided unprecedented insights into the chemistry of phosphine ligands at the surface of silica support materials. In particular, their results give detailed information about surface functionali‐ zation through attachment of different phosphine linkers.
Fig.5: 31P CP-MAS spectrum of the neat Wilkinson’s catalyst before and after its immobilization on mesoporous silica SBA-3 (isotropic region, adapted from ref. [55]).
In the case of Wilkinson's catalyst the structural analysis of the binding is aided by the strong homo‐ nuclear 31P scalar‐couplings among the phosphine ligands. Fig.5 displays the isotropic regions of the 31 P CP‐MAS spectra of the neat catalyst and the catalyst tethered to the surface of mesoporous SBA‐ 3. In the spectrum of the neat catalyst three multiplets with isotropic chemical shifts of 21 ppm, 30 ppm and 47.5 ppm are visible. The splitting pattern originated from the combination of homonuc‐ lear 31P‐31P and heteronuclear 31P‐103Rh scalar couplings.[72; 73] Coupling constants are (Rh‐P2) = 194 Hz, J(Rh‐P1,P3) = 184 Hz and J(P1‐P3) = 394 Hz. The latter value [74] is typical for the homonuclear J‐coupling of trans‐phosphine atoms, which is usually larger than the cis‐coupling (0‐ 50 Hz), which is accordingly not resolved in the solid‐state spectrum. Compared to the neat catalysts, the 31P CP‐MAS spectrum of the tethered Wilkinson’s catalyst differs significantly. The signal of P2 has disappeared nearly completely and the resolved lines of P1 and P3 have changed into a broad signal centered at the position of P3. This spectrum is clear evidence that at least P2 is replaced by an amine group of the APTES linker and confirms the successful grafting on the surface.
Fig.6 (a) Monopodal or (b) bipodal tethering Wilkinson’s catalyst at the surface of amine modified silica material SBA-3.
Owing to the large line‐width it is however not clear, whether one (monopodal) or two (bipodal) linkers are bound to the metal (see Fig.6), or whether there is a coexistence of different binding scenarios. This broadening of the signal at 32 ppm can result either from a single phosphorous
ligand or from two coalescent 31P chemical shifts related to the phosphine ligands with P3 and P1 phosphorous atoms. The easiest way to answer this question is by virtue of the scalar couplings between P3 and P1. Owing to the line‐width of the tethered catalyst this answer cannot be ex‐ tracted from the 1D CP‐MAS spectrum, and 2D J‐resolved solid‐state NMR techniques need to be applied. 2D J‐resolved 31P NMR experiments to solve such problems were first developed and performed by the Wasylishen group, who published a series of papers on molecular phosphine complexes. [72; 75; 76] They showed that in favourable instances, the signals in solid‐state NMR spectra can be made sufficiently narrow by MAS to resolve the homo‐ and heteronuclear J‐couplings and exploit them for correlation spectroscopy (HETCOR, COSY). Compared to liquid‐state NMR, where it is not feasible to resolve scalar couplings among chemically equivalent nuclei (A2‐spin system), this can be done in a simple way in solid‐state NMR, as long as the two nuclei are mag‐ netically inequivalent, for example due to different orientations of the principal axis system (PAS) of their interaction tensors. In the first step the 2D 31P J‐resolved NMR spectrum of the bulk RhCl(PPh3)3 was recorded (Fig. 7, left panel). It confirms the results of the 1D 31P CP‐MAS experiments, as well as the results pre‐ sented by Wu and Wasylishen on the neat catalyst.[72] The well‐resolved pattern of heteronu‐ clear 1J(Rh,P) coupling is clearly visible along the f2 dimension, while the characteristic large homonuclear J‐coupling 2J(P1,P3) appears along the f1 dimension. This splitting disappears in the spectrum of the immobilized catalyst (Fig.7, right panel), proving the replacement of a second PPh3‐group. In the case of slow spinning MAS, the spin system is no longer describable by first order averaged Hamiltonian theory. Instead, higher order correction terms have to be taken into account, and the transition probability between J‐coupled levels becomes considerably larger than zero. This effectively reintroduces the J‐coupling into the spectra. A detailed description of the Hamiltonian under slow spinning conditions, validated by experimental investigations is beyond the scope of the present paper and can be found in the paper by Wu and Wasylishen [76] and references therein. The slow spinning 31P 2D J‐resolved spectrum of RhCl(PPh3)3 after the process of immobi‐ lization (Fig.7, right panel) clearly shows the absence of any 31P‐31P J‐couplings within the spec‐ tral resolution. This corroborated the presence of only a single phosphorous atom in the catalyst molecule attached to the silica surface. Thus, from the 2D 31P J‐resolved NMR experiments there is clear evidence that for the vast ma‐ jority of the immobilized Wilkinson’s catalyst molecules the rhodium center is coordinated via two APTES groups to the silica surface.
Fig. 7 Left panel: 31P 2-D J-resolved NMR spectrum of the pure RhCl(PPh3)3, spinning speed 10 kHz The homonuclear scalar interaction Jcoupling 2J( P1, P3) is clearly resolved in the indirect dimension. Right: panel: after immobilization 2J( P1, P3) has disappeared, proving the replacement of the second phosphine ligand (adapted from ref.[55] ).
Immobilization of RuCl2(PPh3)3 Catalyst on Silica As second example the structural analysis of the Ru catalyst (2) immobilized on silica is described. As mentioned above, this catalyst exhibits an A3 spin‐system in solution at room temperature, due to dynamic rearrangements of the three PPh3‐groups and an ABX spin‐system in the neat solid (see Fig.8). After immobilization the 1D 31P CP‐MAS spectrum again reveals only a single broad signal at the position of P2, which indicates that also in this case two phosphine ligands are replaced by bind‐ ing to the linker.
Fig. 8: Superposition of the 31P CP-MAS spectrum of 2 before and after its immobilization on the mesoporous silica at 10 kHz spinning speed (adapted from Ref. [56]). Spinning side-bands of 1 are denoted by asterisks, spinning side-bands of the immobilized catalyst are denoted by #.
However, it is not a priori clear that the same strategy for the determination of the number of linker molecules as for Wilkinson's catalyst is applicable, since in the case of the immobilized Ru catalysts it could be possible that two PPh3‐groups are chemically and magnetically equivalent, when the cata‐ lyst is bound to the surface. In this case the two CSA tensors would be co‐linear, which necessitates a linear P‐Ru‐P binding geometry where both Ru‐P distances are identical. By NMR alone it is not poss‐ ible to reveal the binding geometry and therefore additional information is needed. Density func‐ tional theory (DFT) calculations of model complexes, which simulate the binding sites of the PPh3 ligands and linker molecules, however, are able to solve this problem and deliver this structural in‐ formation. As structural model for the catalyst immobilized via the APTES linker to the silica surface, a derivate of 2 was chosen, where a single phosphine ligand was replaced by an ethylamine group. This model was studied by DFT calculations (see ref. [56] for details). The resulting calculations showed clearly that in the case of a single linker the two phosphine groups are magnetically inequiva‐ lent and thus J‐couplings should be observable if present. Thus, in the next step 2D J‐resolved spec‐ troscopy was performed (see Fig.9). These spectra provided clear evidence that also in the case of 2, the catalyst is bound via two APTES linkers to the silica surface.
Fig. 9: Left panel: 31P 2D J-resolved NMR spectrum of neat 2 (spinning speed 10 kHz). The homonuclear J-coupling due to interactions between P1 and P2 phosphorus nuclei is visible along the f1 dimension. Right panel: 31P 2D J-resolved off-MAS spectrum of immobilized 2. The J-coupling has disappeared.
In conclusion, in this section we have shown that the combination of J‐resolved 31P solid‐state NMR spectroscopy with DFT calculations reveals significant information about the structure of heteroge‐ nized species, and gives new insights into the immobilization of homogeneous metal phosphine cata‐ lysts.
Ligand stabilized metal nanoparticles To understand the catalytic behavior of ligand stabilized MNPs the basic knowledge of their surface state at the molecular level is of high importance. Since these catalysts constitute a relatively new group of nano‐materials only few works aimed at a precise characterization of their surface chemi‐ stry (see for example [77] and references therein). From the beginning of research, liquid and partly solid‐state NMR techniques were established as valuable tools to detect surface molecules and to distinguish between different binding sites on these nano‐scale catalysts.[78‐82] For example, the dynamics of ligand systems and small probe molecules have been investigated employing variable temperature 13C NMR measurements.[83; 84] In the last few years, these studies were intensified and extended to a large variety of MNPs. Particularly, 13C and 31P CP‐MAS solid‐state NMR experiments have been successfully performed to look on the coordination and dynamics of N‐ heterocyclic carbene (NHC) or phosphine ligands on MNPs, as well as on binding modes of adsorbed probe molecules like CO (see scheme 1, lower part, left site) and reaction intermediates. [85‐92] These studies shed more light on mechanistic details of catalytic reactions at the molecular level and will be essential in future to optimize the activity and selectivity of MNPs. In parallel, the investigation of binding and dynamics of hydrids at the surface of MNP was started employing solid‐state NMR techniques, which are more sophisticated due to intense 1H background signals of the ligand systems. In addition, strong homonuclear 1H‐1H dipolar interactions yield broad signals which reduce the information content of the spectra. A detailed overview of these studies is given in a recent review (see ref. [93]) and only briefly highlighted here. To overcome the mentioned problems a very promising strategy refers to an exchange (see scheme 1) to other isotopes of hydrogen, namely tritium or deuterium. While tritium would have the advantage of being a very sensitive spin‐1/2 nucleus, its radioactivity prevents its application in most NMR labs. The favorable deuterium contains a nuclear spin of 1 and thus the quadrupolar interactions dominate the 2H NMR spectra. Since the relative sensitivity of this nucleus is much lower than for 1H, isotope labelling is required. In the case of MNPs H/D exchange is catalyzed by the particles which opened an elementary pathway to study the structure and dynamics of deuterids at their surface. The combination of experimental 2H static NMR, 2H MAS NMR and computational research at deuterated molecular complexes and small clusters of ruthenium allowed the evaluation
of a powerful correlation data base between structure and quadrupolar parameters.[94‐98] As a fundamental result of this work, terminal Ru‐D or Ru‐D2, bridged Ru2‐D, face‐capped Ru3‐D and interstitial Ru6‐D could be distinguished by the specific ranges of quadrupolar coupling constants and asymmetry parameters. This “molecular ruler” was then used to study the surface state of deuterium/hydrogen at Ru NPs (example see scheme 1, lower part, right site). For the first time, deuterids/hydrids in different binding states and their mobility were identified for simple Ru/HDA NPs employing a combination of 2 H variable temperature NMR and gas‐phase NMR. [99] These results were confirmed by quantum chemical calculations at an infinite Ru(0001) slab surface model. [100; 101] The so‐obtained data was utilized to interpret the surface state in complexer systems such as MNPs embedded into MOFs [102] or mesoporous silica. [103] Moreover, 2H MAS NMR have been used to look on chemical reactions like the hydrogenation of olefines, where this technique could be established as very sensitive tool to detect reactive intermediates. [104] Finally, variable temperature 2H NMR combined with 13C and 31P CP MAS solid‐state NMR experiments have been successfully applied as promising tool to characterize the surface structure of Ru MNPs stabilized by secondary phosphine oxids (SPOs) building up complex hydrogen bonding networks. [87]
Scheme 1: Pathways to prepare isotope labeled MNPs for investigations of the surface state of small reactive probe molecules such as CO or H2 (upper part). 13C MAS at 12 kHz of Rudppb NPs after 13CO adsorption showing the distinguishability of different CO binding sites and dynamics (lower part, left site). (depicted from Ref.[92]) Variable temperature 2H static NMR of Ru/HDA NPs after H/D exchange showing the distinguishability of different deuterium/hydrogen binding sites and dynamics (lower part, right site). (depicted from Ref. [99])
Future, Challenges and Directions A well‐known proverb says that NMR has three problems, namely sensitivity, sensitivity and sensitivi‐ ty. This is true for standard NMR applications and it is definitely true for solid‐state NMR investiga‐ tions of solid/liquid and solid/solid interfaces, where the application of many advanced solid‐state NMR techniques is strongly hampered, due to the sensitivity problem.
A typical example of the sensitivity problem is natural abundance 13C solid‐state NMR spectroscopy. The NMR active 13C isotope has only 1% natural abundance and a comparatively small gyromagnetic ratio, causing relatively small signal amplitudes. Moreover, owing to the lack of mobility, the 13C‐T1 relaxation times in many compounds are fairly long in the solid‐state, which renders the signal acqui‐ sition slow and tedious. Both factors result in poor sensitivity. To achieve a reasonable signal to noise ratio and thus compensate this insensitivity, fairly large specific surface areas (typically well above 50 m2/g) are necessary even for simple 1D spectra. Accordingly, the acquisition of two‐dimensional solid‐state NMR spectra, which are often required to achieve the necessary spectral resolution or to distinguish surface species from bulk species, is frequently not feasible for many heterogeneous cata‐ lysts of interest. These problems are even more severe for other nuclei of interest, as for example 15 N. Thus, in the last years substantial progress in the battle of the sensitivity problem was achieved from different directions. Hyperpolarization techniques In the first approach the NMR signal is enhanced by so‐called hyperpolarization techniques. Hyperpo‐ larization is a generic term which was coined to collect a set of different signal‐enhancement tech‐ niques in NMR spectroscopy, which employ non‐thermal spin‐order in NMR spectroscopy. Hyperpo‐ larization techniques have in common that they employ an auxiliary reservoir of fast and effectively polarizable spins to generate spin‐order which is subsequently transferred to the spin system of in‐ terest. This auxiliary reservoir can consist of electron spins (DNP), easy polarizable rare gas atoms (SEOP) or symmetry polarized para‐hydrogen (PHIP). Probably both the oldest and most recent of these techniques is the Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) experiment originally proposed by Overhauser [105] and experimentally verified by Carver and Slichter.[106; 107] In DNP the strong polarization of electronic spins at low temperature is converted into nuclear spin‐order via microwave irradiation. While this technique was originally only feasible at relatively low magnetic fields, due to the lack of suitable high‐frequency high‐power microwave sources, the development of the gyrotron [108] changed the situation. Gyrotrons are reliable high‐ frequency microwave sources with high output power which allow the application of DNP at high magnetic fields where high‐resolution solid‐state NMR spectroscopy is feasibly. Employing well‐ known free EPR radicals like TEMPO or TOTAPOL[109; 110]as polarizing agents a tremendous gain in signal/noise ratio is achievable at high magnetic fields,[111] as was demonstrated by the Griffin group in their pioneering work on DNP enhanced solid‐state NMR.[110; 111] Based on this work the group of Emsley and Lesage[112; 113] demonstrated recently that DNP tech‐ niques open up completely new application fields for surface NMR. Employing the combination of DNP with magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR, they obtained a ca. 50‐fold increase in the sensitivity of 13 C signals for phenol or an imidazolium derivative grafted on mesoporous silica (see Fig. 10) and an enhancement of 400 for 29Si MAS‐NMR, using TEMPO or TOTAPOL as polarizing agents on the surface of the silica‐material. Since the necessary specific surface area scale is inversely proportional to the available spin polarization, which determines the strength of the NMR signal, this result opens up the possibility to study surface processes or reaction intermediates on technical relevant heterogeneous catalysts, who often have specific surfaces in the order of few m2/g.
Polarization is transferred form radical to the immobilized species
13
Fig. 10 Emsley and Lesage were able to boost the C MAS-NMR sensitivity of immobilized surface groups by DNP enhanced surface solidstate NMR spectroscopy by a factor of 56, and by a factor of 400 for 29Si MAS-NMR. (adapted with permission from Lesage et. al. [112]; Copyright (2010) American Chemical Society).
Spin‐polarized para‐hydrogen provides an alternative hyperpolarization source to permit the study of catalytic processes on surfaces, in particular for technical relevant processes as Haber‐Bosch or Fischer‐Tropsch. While the “Para Hydrogen Induced Polarization” or “PHIP” experiment was original‐ ly devised for the study of homogeneous reactions in solution,[114‐116] already a decade ago Weite‐ kamp and coworkers realized that PHIP is not restricted to homogeneous hydration reactions in solu‐ tion. [117] Studying the hydrogenation reaction of a zinc oxide surface with repeated bursts of para‐ hydrogen, where adsorption of molecular hydrogen results in two hydrogen atoms chemisorbed in close proximity to each other,[118; 119] they could demonstrate a substantial PHIP effect on these surfaces and reveal the existence of a reversible hydrogen binding site with an internuclear proton distance of ca. 2.6 Å.
Fig. 11: Left panel: Experimental setup for the in-situ MAS NMR PHIP experiment of Hunger et al. Right panel: the insitu MAS NMR spectra of the hydrogenation of propene on zeolite 0.4[Rh]Na-Y exhibit clearly the typical PHIP-anti-phase pattern when para-hydrogen is employed. (adapted with permission from Hunger et. al. [120]; Copyright (2012) Elsevier)
The potential of PHIP in surface science was further extended by the work of Hunger[120] (see Fig.11) and Stepanov. [121] Employing a special in‐situ MAS‐NMR setup, which was originally in‐ vented by the Hunger group [122] and which is nowadays commercially available, para‐hydrogen gas is blown inside the rotor under MAS conditions and the hydrogenation reactions respectively some hydrogenation intermediates are observed in‐situ. These preliminary experimental results on PHIP in the solid‐state combined with first theoretical descriptions of solid‐state PHIP experiments by some
of us [123] demonstrate imposingly the applicability of this technique for future studies of the sur‐ face chemistry of solid catalyst systems. Spin‐Exchange‐Optical Pumping (SEOP) of noble gases like Helium or Xenon provide the third possi‐ ble hyperpolarization source.[124; 125] In these noble gases enhancements of 104‐105 are achieva‐ ble. For surface studies 129Xe is particularly usefulness, since the 129Xe chemical shift is an extremely sensitive monitor of its local chemical environments.[126‐128] This makes adsorbed 129Xe an ideal probe for the surface properties of heterogeneous catalysts. Moreover the hyperpolarized noble gases can also serve as magnetization source in cross‐polarization experiments to other nuclei like the spin polarization nuclear Overhauser effect (SPINOE).[129; 130] SPINOE was successfully applied to surface 1H and 13C signals of methoxylated silica, where signal enhancement factors of 3.4 were observed.[131] Similar to para‐hydrogen this technique is also combinable with magic angle spinning. A possible drawback of this technique is the need for long T1 relaxation times of the surface nuclei, as xenon‐surface cross relaxation rates can be relatively slow.[131; 132] This problem can probably be circumvented employing Hartmann‐Hahn cross polarization (CP), as for example 129Xe‐13C cross‐ polarization, which was applicable to materials with short T1 relaxation times (<1s) and small surface areas (< 5 m2/g).[133; 134] Fast MAS‐NMR and indirect detection While protons are by far the most useful nuclei in solution NMR, for many years they spent a niche existence in solid‐state NMR, serving mainly as a polarization source for CP‐MAS experiments or as line‐broadening nuisance. The main reason of this niche existence is of course the strong homonuc‐ lear dipolar interactions among the protons, which strongly hampers their study in applied spectros‐ copy. Although this problem was principally solved by Gerstein and co‐workers, who developed the combined rotation and multi‐pulse spectroscopy (CRAMPS) experiment,[135] which allows the mea‐ surement of highly‐resolved 1H MAS‐NMR spectra at relatively low spinning speeds, in practice, due to the experimental difficulties and demanding hardware resources, protons spend most of their solid‐state NMR life in the shadow of more favorable X‐nuclei like 13C or 31P. Owing to tremendous advances in MAS probe technology, where the fastest achievable MAS‐rotation speeds currently approaching 100 kHz and above,[136; 137] the situation of proton MAS NMR spectroscopy is current‐ ly changing dramatically. This new generation of ultra‐fast MAS‐NMR probes delivers excellent sensi‐ tivity per spin with efficient cross‐polarization,[54; 138] very high radiofrequency fields, the possibili‐ ty of using low‐power RF schemes during preparation, mixing and decoupling periods[139] and in‐ creased spectral‐width in rotor‐synchronized experiments. In favorable systems, where the dipolar line‐width is reduced by molecular dynamics, already at 40 kHz spinning frequency a CRAMPS‐like resolution is achievable.[54] These technical advantages suddenly render indirect detection schemes, where the X‐nucleus of interest is detected via the far more sensitive protons, very attractive. These techniques, which were pioneered in solid‐state NMR by Ishii and Tycko yield unprecedented sensitivity in the detection of the X‐nuclei.[140] Beautiful examples of the achievable resolution and S/N‐ratio were given by the recent work of the Pruski group (see Fig.12), who applied this technique to the study of functiona‐ lized silica materials with unprecedented resolution and sensitivity.[141‐144] In their work they could show that it is feasible to detect two‐dimensional (2D) 1H‐13C HETCOR spectra of functionalized silica materials in natural abundance 15 times faster than with conventional detection[145] and that it is possible to detect both scalar and dipolar13C‐1H couplings in 2D HETCOR NMR of mesoporous silica nanoparticles functionalized with 3‐(pentafluorophenyl)‐nprop‐1‐yl (PFP). [23; 146]
13
1
Fig.12 Indirectly detected C- H HETCOR experiments reveal through space and through bond couplings of mesoporous silica nanoparticles functionalized with PFP. (adapted by permission from Pruski et al.[23]; Copyright (2009) Elsevier Limited)
Summary The present paper gives a short overview about current trends in the application of solid‐state NMR for investigation of heterogeneous catalysts for hydrogenation or hydroformylation reactions. It is shown that 2H solid‐state NMR techniques can provide important insights into the state of hydrogen interacting with the catalytically active metal centers or surfaces. Moreover, under fortunate cir‐ cumstances it is even possible to detect transient reaction intermediates and resolve their chemical nature. For the binding of transition metals to phosphine ligands, J‐resolved 31P solid‐state NMR techniques, originally developed by the Wasylishen group, combined with DFT‐calculations are of particular usefulness. Finally, a short overview about current attempts to improve the methodology by hyperpolarization, indirect detection and in‐situ MAS NMR are given.
Acknowledgements Financial support by the Agence Nationale Recherche (ANR) in the frame‐work of the ANR‐11‐INTB‐ 1011, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under contracts DFG‐911/19‐1 and BU‐911‐12‐2 and the state of Hessia in the frame‐work of LOEWE SOFT‐CONTROL are gratefully acknowledged.
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Torsten Gutmann Born in 1982, he received his doctorate in Chemistry at the Friedrich‐Schiller University Jena in 2010 in the field of hyperpolarization and solid‐state NMR investigations of quadrupolar nuclei for struc‐ ture determination of transition metal complexes and clusters. From 10/2007 till 03/2009 he had a scholarship of the Federal State of Thuringia. After his PhD he joined the lab of Prof. Bruno Chaudret and Dr. Karine Philippot at the Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination in Toulouse (France) as post doctoral fellow. This stay was supported by the French‐German CNRS‐MPG cooperation. During that time he got large expertise in the field of preparation of metal nanoparticles and their characteriza‐ tion with solid‐state NMR techniques. Since the end of 2012 he is staff scientist in the group of Prof. Buntkowsky at the Technical University of Darmstadt. His current research concentrates on solid‐ state NMR characterization of nanoscale materials and the development and application of hyperpo‐ larization techniques. Gerd Buntkowsky Born in 1960, he received his doctorate in Physics at the Free University of Berlin in the field of solid‐ state NMR spectroscopy and hyperpolarization (1991). After his PhD he joined the group of Hans‐ Heinrich Limbach at the Chemistry department as senior researcher. In 2000 he habilitated in Physi‐ cal Chemistry. In 2004, he took up an appointment as C3 Professor for Physical Chemistry at the Uni‐ versity of Jena. Since 2009 he is chair of Physical Chemistry at the Technical University of Darmstadt and since 2011 the dean of the faculty. The focus of his research is the investigation of the structure and dynamics of condensed matter using solid‐state NMR methods. Currently, the research interests of the working group are concentrated in these area to questions from enzyme kinetics, heterogene‐ ous catalysis, hyperpolarization and the characterization of electrical functional materials.
31P
2H
31P
13C
29Si