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Some of the larger transportation problems in cities
April, i899.]
2ransportation Problems in Cities.
ELECTRICAL
315
SECTION.
" R a i l r o a d " 211reeling, March 28, I899. 80ME
OF T H E
LARGER
TRANSPORTATION
P R O B L E M S rN CITIES. BY ]~DWARD ]~. HIC,GINS.
The managers of a large city railway system are constantly called upon to deal with problems of great difficulty and complexity. T h e y have a double responsibilityma responsibility to the public and a responsibility to the investors of ~rhose interests they are trustees. T h e y are charged with the m a n a g e m e n t of thousands of employ6s, whose attitude toward the enterprise, w h e t h e r of content or discontent, is of vital importance to its success. T h e y must pass upon inventions and improvements in the science of municipal transportation, d e t e r m i n i n g where cost and true economy join hands; t h e y m u s t adopt operating methods adequate to the development of the system and of the city which it serves ; they m u s t care for the comfort and pleasure of the public ; and they must so u n i f y all of these varied and sometimes oonflicting duties as to develop an organization and m a n a g e m e n t successful as a whole and not unduly weak in any part. Grave misunderstandings often arise between street railway companies and the public. T h e people often believe the companies to be grasping, sordid, careless of their .duties as public carriers and desirous only of making the largest possible return to stockholders. T h e companies, on the other hand, daily harassed by complaints about inconveniences suffered, small or large, often came to regard the public as unreasonable in its demands, forgetting that that public is not in a position to see all the difficulties and perplexities which beset the m a n a g e m e n t at every turn, and which make it often either impossible to grant such demands or to explain w h y they cannot be granted. The
3 i6
[J. F. l.,
Higgins."
street r a i l w a y business, as a whole, is so c o m p l i c a t e d and so m u c h a m a t t e r of detail, t h a t no one d e p a r t m e n t of it can be well u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t some k n o w l e d g e of the others, and f r a g m e n t a r y or p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s of the reasons for specific decisions, h o w e v e r s o u n d in t h e i r relat i o n s h i p to the g e n e r a l plan of m a n a g e m e n t , m i g h t not always or often a p p e a r so to non-technical critics. I shall a t t e m p t in the f o l l o w i n g discussion to give such an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e s c h e m e of m o d e r n s t r e e t railr o a d i n g on its broad lines and of t h e principal problems w h i c h the m a n a g e r has to solve, as will lead to a clearer u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b y those who are n o t of " t h e faith," of w h a t t h e public has a r i g h t to expect f r o m the street railway companies, w h i c h are its s e r v a n t s a n d which are, as a rule, h o n e s t l y t r y i n g to fulfil all t h e obligation~ w h i c h can r e a s o n a b l y be i m p o s e d u p o n them. ESSENTIAL
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
CITIES.
In t h e first place it c a n n o t be too clearly m a d e evident how different are the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n conditions in each city from those of a n y or all o t h e r cities. N o t h i n g can be more fallacious, or lead to g r e a t e r injustice, t h a n to say t h a t because such a n d such concessions are g r a n t e d by the companies to the people of a certain city, therefore, similar ones can and should be m a d e in a n o t h e r city. T h e m o s t common error of all p e r h a p s is to a s s u m e t h a t t h e conditions f o u n d in a small city o b t a i n in a large one or vice versa. Population and p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y h a v e an e n o r m o u s influence oa street r a i l w a y earnings, profits and possibilities of generosity. A ~econd even more c o m m o n error is to hold t h a t as much o u g h t to be expected from an old c o m p a n y w h i c h has passed t h r o u g h one or m o r e e x p e r i m e n t a l stages of s t r e e t railroadi n g a n d h a d to t h r o w a w a y e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t s for a n t i q u a t e d m o t i v e powers and to p u r c h a s e t h e i r s u b s t i t u t e s at h i g h initial prices, as from a new c o m p a n y j u s t e n t e r i n g t h e field, with all the a c c u m u l a t e d experience of m a n y years to d r a w upon, a n d w i t h the benefit of low prices for material and supplies of the p r e s e n t day. B e h i n d t h e s e more obvious i n j u s t i c e s come others tess easy to u n d e r s t a n d w i t h o u t
April. 1899.j
Transportation Problems in Cities.
317
some technical exposition. H o w , for example, can a manager satisfactorily explain to the p u b l i c t h e reason w h y the people of his city patronize their s t r e e t r a i l w a y System to the e x t e n t of only $3 per capita per annum, while in another city of the s a m e population, the earnings are over $5 per capita? W h e n the g e n e r o s i t y of the richer s y s t e m is cited as a p r e c e d e n t for the poorer to follow, it is a delicate m a t t e r to s h o w t h a t the latter's public is largely composed of the w o r k i n g classes to w h o m t h e daily 5- or iocent fare forms a m a t e r i a l burden, or a difficult one to m a k e clear t h a t the plans on w h i c h the two cities are laid o u t are radically different, the one calling for g r e a t e r p a t r o n a g e of street car lines than the other, w i t h o u t necessarily involving g r e a t e r e x p e n s e to the "operating company. A knowle d g e of these differences in city plans and lines of development is so essential to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the t h e o r y of street r a i l r o a d i n g t h a t a brief explanation of their effect upon earnings is desirable. T h e world's g r e a t cities are, w i t h scarcely an exception, built u p o n or a r o u n d some form of w a t e r f r o n t - - s e a , lake or river. U p o n s o m e section of this w a t e r front is always found the " c o n g e s t e d district," d e v o t e d to commercial and business purposes. T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts of a city m a y or m a y not be on this w a t e r front, according to the location of the railroad termini and branches, the presence or a b s e n c e of rivers t r i b u t a r y to the main w a t e r front, and o t h e r g o v e r n i n g conditions. "-All, or nearly all cities are laid out and d e v e l o p e d on one of four distinctive plans, {I) the p e n i n s u l a plan, such as that of N e w York City ,(Manhattan Borough) and San F r a n c i s c o : (2) the valley plan, with a river or rivers r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the center, such as P i t t s b u r g h ; ( 3 ) t h e r a d i a t i n g plan, with t e r r i t o r y on one side only of w a t e r front, such as Chicago, Boston, Brooklyn and m a n y o t h e r cities; and (4) the r a d i a t i n g plan, w i t h territory on b o t h sides of the w a t e r front, of which e x a m p l e s are f o u n d in M e t r o p o l i t a n N e w York :(including E a s t e r n N e w Jersey), Paris, L o n d o n and m a n y o t h e r cities, large and small. T h e peninsula and valley plans u s u a l l y call for compara-
318
[J. r. I.,
Higgins :
tively small street railway track mileage, and great traffic density is fotmx~ on tlzat mileage, t o g ~ ~¢ith large gross earnings per capita served, per mile of track and per car mile. For example, the complete transportation system of New York City proper (Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx) earns about $I3 per capita gross, and that of San Francisco nearly $14. The radiating plans m e a n greater street railway mileage for the population served, and usually a m u c h less density of traffic and less gross receipts per capita. T h e Chicago surface and elevated lines, for example, earn less than Sto per capita, and the surface lines of St. Louis hardly $8 per capita. It can be easily seen how different, for example, is the transfer problem in a peninsula and valley city from that of a radiating city. In the former there m a y be a few through lines of heavy traffic, with m a n y cross-town feeder lines. Transfers in such a city m i g h t m e a n no additional expense to a company and little or no complication. In the radiating city, on the contrary, a transfer s y s t e m m i g h t mean a ride of great length, while the plan of the system m i g h t be such t h a t dishonestyin the use of transfers would be easily possible. Again, a city plan Very favorable to economical operation m i g h t make a 4-cent fare possible in a given city, while i n another city, even of the same population, such a fare would mean bankruptcy. A city system of large track mileage r u n n i n g m a n y cars m i g h t have immense m a i n t e n a n c e accounts to deduct from earnings, whereas, a more fortunate one in another city would have a great traffic density on small mileage. All that a comparison of practice between the street railway systems of two cities can do, therefore, is to put the burden of proof upon the system which is apparently less generous with the public of showing why the more generous practice cannot be followed, and the company's a r g u m e n t should be received with attention and respect, for after all, n o t h i n g is more certain than that the best reasonable service of the public will bring about the largest earning power to a street railway company, and none is more quick to recognize this fact than t h e average street railway manager. t
Transportation Problems in Cities.
April, I899.] THE F U N C T I O N
OF ELEVATED
AND UNDERGROUND
IN CITY TRANSPORTATION
319 RAILWAYS
SYSTEMS.
The question of adding to existing facilities or solving different congested district problems by t.k~ building of elevated or u n d e r g r o u n d railways is facing the managers of several of the principal cities of the world, and it is a serious one indeed. T h e enormous cost of tunneling, and the hardly smaller combined i n v e s t m e n t required for building an elevated structure,and paying damage claims to abutting property owners, leads and will lead to a postponement of the issue as long as possible. T h e great tunnels of Paris are an immense burden upon French taxpayers, while private capital cannot hope to make a success of tunnel enterprises except in countries where rates of interest are extremely low, and e v e n then the public m u s t usually be called upon to help by special concessions or subsidies of one kind and another. T h e London Metropolitan u n d e r g r o u n d system is a failure financially, partly because of its immense cost and partly because it was not properly laid out to obtain the greatest density of traffic. It is hoped that the new Central London U n d e r g r o u n d will be more successful, being comparatively short and built under one of the heaviest traffic routes of that great city. Private capital has so far shown very little enthusiasm for an u n d e r g r o u n d railway in New York City, where, if a n y w h e r e in America, such a railroad should prove profitable. T h e elevated railway system of Manhattan Island has been in the past exceedingly profitable, chiefly because it is built in a "peninsula c i t y " par excellence, where an immense tide of travel sweeps south in the morning and north at night, along few and narrowlines, but the fact that through all these years until the present time the New York elevated lines l~ave had as competitors only comparatively slow-moving horse cars, has been almost equally potent in effecting profits, since short-distance as well as long-distance travelers have been obliged to use the elevated wheil t i m e is an object. Elevated railroading in the two " r a d i a t i n g cities " of Brooklyn and Chicago has been distinctly unprofitable. In cities of this class it is difficult or impossible to find the
320
[-[iffgins ."
[J. F. I.,
d e n s i t y of traffic n e c e s s a r y for the p a y m e n t of operating e x p e n s e s and i n t e r e s t u p o n the h e a v y capital o u t l a y required. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y true w h e r e t h e surface cars are run at f r e q u e n t intervals and at h i g h speeds, for the latter will i n e v i t a b l y obtain the short-distance or m o r e profitable class of traffic, l e a v i n g the long-distance or unprofitable class only to t h e e l e v a t e d lines. Moreover, in cities of the r a d i a t i n g class, the p o p u l a t i o n is u s u a l l y s p r e a d o u t over so large an area as to m a k e it impossible for a n y one line to o b t a i n a large p r o p o r t i o n of t h e traffic. T h e adoption of e l e c t r i c i t y on the e l e v a t e d lines in Chicago has favorably affected gross a n d n e t earnings, and with tile scaling down of capitalization, which h a s r e c e n t l y been accomplished, t h e r e is a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a r e a s o n a b l e r e t u r n on the n e w capitalization can b e m a d e if n e w c o m p e t i t i v e conditions do n o t arise ; a similar result is h o p e d for in Brooklyn. It is by no m e a n s i m p r o b a b l e , however, t h a t the only p e r m a n e n t sol u t i o n to the p r o b l e m of r u n n i n g surface, e l e v a t e d and und e r g r o u n d r a i l w a y s in the s a m e city is to h a v e t h e m under .one control and m a n a g e m e n t , so t h a t the surface lines can s e r v e as feeders to t h e e l e v a t e d or u n d e r g r o u n d lines, an e x p r e s s service only to b e given on t h e latter, and a fare c h a r g e d for t h e c o m b i n e d service s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r than t h e single 5-cent fare. In the c o n g e s t e d districts of our principal cities , elevated o r u n d e r g r o u n d lines, either or both, will find a true and v a l u a b l e field. T h e b u s i n e s s sections of Chicago and Bos. ton furnish p r o b l e m s of the m o s t serious and complicated character, w h i c h are only partially solved at present, and are likely to g r o w g r a v e r in g e o m e t r i c a l r a t i o as the y e a r s go on, and as t h e t e r r i t o r y t r i b u t a r y to the b u s i n e s s centers increases in area and p o p u l a t i o n . It is p r o b a b l e t h a t the only p e r m a n e n t solution to c o n g e s t e d district p r o b l e m s in cities lies in s u b w a y or t u n n e l lines and loops in these districts. T h e s e will take from t h e surface of t h e streets the e n o r m o u s c r o w d s of people w h i c h at m o r n i n g and evening h o u r s of the d a y p o u r into and o u t of t h e tall buildings w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e so n e c e s s a r y an evil in the m o d e r n city b u s i n e s s districts. Boston's n e w s u b w a y is a decided,
April, I899. ]
Transportation Problems in Cities.
32I
t h o u g h n o t as y e t a complete, success in relieving conges. tion and s a v i n g t i m e t h r o u g h o u t a large portion of t h e twenty-four hours. T h e new Boston elevated lines at p r e s e n t under c o n s t r u c t i o n will be of g r e a t assistance in this congested district, p a s s i n g as t h e y do from its limits on t h e north a n d west (the l a t t e r projected) to those on the south, and the m a n a g e r s of the g r e a t city r a i l w a y p r o p e r t y in Boston h a v e done wisely in confining these elevated lines to t h e congested district a n d not c a r r y i n g t h e m to a g r e a t e r distahoe a w a y from the b u s i n e s s center. In Chicago, the Loop T e r m i n a l of all the e l e v a t e d lines, r e c e n t l y p u t into operation, has been a g r e a t c o n v e n i e n c e to the people, and h a s added l a r g e l y to the traffic, b u t it is a q u e s t i o n if it has not even so soon reached its train capacity, p a r t i c u l a r l y on days of its h e a v i e s t traffic; for on a recent holiday, no less t h a n 65 per cent. of t h e t r a c k a g e on one of the loop lines of the s t r u c t u r e was covered b y trains, L e., t h e y were less than a train l e n g t h a p a r t on an average. THE ~'RO~LEM OF MOTIVE POWER. No decisions w h i c h street r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s have been called upon to m a k e d u r i n g the past ten years have caused them such anxious solicitude, a n d hdve m e a n t so m u c h to the public and to stockholders as those connected w i t h motive power. T e n y e a r s ago horse t r a c t i o n was almost universal, w i t h t h e cable in use or b u i l d i n g on the h e a v y traffic routes of a few cities, and electricity j u s t c o m i n g into sight. To-day electricity r e i g n s t r i u m p h a n t , h a v i n g displaced b o t h horses a n d cable on n e a r l y all the m i l e a g e of A m e r i c a n cities. A synopsis of t h e reasons for this wonderful revolution in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m e t h o d s which has completely c h a n g e d the complexion of our cities, and added new life and vigor to t h e i r daily routine, will be of present as well as retrospective interest, i n a s m u c h as the p r i m a c y of electricity, a n d particularly, of o v e r h e a d wire electric traction is still occasionally disputed. Aft m o t i v e powers m a y be divided into two classes, those which m a k e a car a more or less i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t on t h e streets, a n d those w h i c h m a k e it c o n s t a n t l y d e p e n d e n t on VOL. CXLVII. No. 880. 2t
322
Hiffffin$ :
[J. F. I.,
some central source of power. To t h e first class b e l o n g the horse car, t h e s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y electric car, the compressedair ear, a n d various forms of gas, stored steam, p e t r o l e u m and o t h e r m o t o r cars. To the l a t t e r b e l o n g the cable s y s t e m and the electric o v e r h e a d wire and c o n d u i t systems. I n d e p e n d e n c e in the car u n i t is a h i g h l y desirable thing. W i t h it comes m i n i m u m d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e p a v e m e n t or o b s t r u c t i o n in the streets w i t h m i n i m u m i n v e s t m e n t for i n s t a l l a t i o n ; and w i t h it comes also an avoidance of the d a n g e r t h a t the central source of power m a y give o u t and stop the entire system, or a n y large section of it for a considerable period. T h e r e is no q u e s t i o n t h a t a really successful i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t s y s t e m would be h e a r t i l y welcomed b y street r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s , c e r t a i n l y as an auxiliary, and w o u l d find a large field i m m e d i a t e l y r e a d y for occupancy. But there are serious obstacles to success. It is probably impossible to devise a power g e n e r a t i n g a n d u s i n g system w h i c h will go w i t h i n the narrow space l i m i t s available in a m o d e r n popular car, and w h i c h shall be capable of exerting as a m a x i m u m a power four or five t i m e s the average a m o u n t r e q u i r e d for t h e propulsion of t h e car. Such a s y s t e m can be placed in a d u m m y car a n d some r o o m ' l e f t for passengers as well, b u t while one or m o r e trail cars are to be drawn, difficulties of t r a c t i o n come up i m m e d i a t e l y . At all t i m e s t h e r e is the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of g e n e r a t i n g power in. small a m o u n t s w i t h a n y t h i n g like the e c o n o m y w i t h which it can be g e n e r a t e d in large. If power be g e n e r a t e d in q u a n t i t i e s at some central s t a t i o n a n d stored in some one of several forms for t r a n s f e r to, and use on a car, t h a t car, is q u i t e as s u r e l y d e p e n d e n t on the central s t a t i o n as it w o u l d be were the power t r a n s m i t t e d b y wires or cable, and is likely to give even more t r o u b l e t h r o u g h tlle exhaustion of t h e stored power and the c o n s e q u e n t s t o p p a g e of tho c a r on the line. Still a n o t h e r difficulty is f o u n d with socalled i n d e p e n d e n t car operation (except w h e r e electric m o t o r s are used as in the s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y system), and that is the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o d u c i n g a r o t a r y m o t i o n w i t h o u t the use of an initial r e c i p r o c a t i n g motion, w i t h all th0 latter's well-known d i s a d v a n t a g e s in the m a t t e r of wear of
April, I899.1
Transportation Prbblerns iJz Cities.
323
parts and r e d u c t i o n of tractive effort on grades, curves and in starting. Finally, such d i s a g r e e a b l e c o n c o m i t a n t s as odor, noise, or d a n g e r of explosion m u s t be excluded if the i n d e p e n d e n t m o t o r is to be an entire success. Modern s t r e e t r a i l r o a d i n g r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t l y increasing average s p e e d s over city s t r e e t s w i t h o u t increasing d a n g e r of accident. W i t h t h e s h o r t runs b e t w e e n streets, and the m a n y stops n e c e s s a r y for t a k i n g on and l e t t i n g off passengers, high a v e r a g e speeds can be o b t a i n e d only b y m e a n s of high rates of acceleration in starting, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y high-braking effort in stopping. In o t h e r words, m a x i m u m speed m u s t be reached as quickly as possible and kept up as long as possible before brakes are applied. Now, the one propelling a g e n c y a d a p t e d for this peculiar class of work, so far d e v e l o p e d in the entire t r a n s p o r t a t i o n field, is t h e electric motor, w i t h its constant r o t a r y effort, or torque, and w i t h its a l m o s t infinite c a p a c i t y for automatically a b s o r b i n g and t r a n s f o r m i n g electric p o w e r into a rotary effort. A little ~5 horse-power car m o t o r can be overloaded IOO per cent. or m o r e if the occasion requires, and will take c u r r e n t until its wires actually melt in the process. T h e r e is no such r e s e r v e p o w e r in any form of reciprocating motion e n g i n e - - n o such c o n s t a n t torque, and no such ease of control. C o m p r e s s e d air. stored steam, gas, petroleum and o t h e r m o t o r s all h a v e their possibilities of development, m e c h a n i c a l l y and commercially, and w h e n proven s u c c e s s f u l in practice on any considerable scale, there will be certain portions of the general t r a n s p o r t a t i o n field open to them, b u t it is e q u a l l y true t h a t the electric motor has intrinsic a d v a n t a g e s such t h a t it will n e v e r be displaced in street r a i l w a y service, while it is certain also that it will reach into larger t r a n s p o r t a t i o n work n o w performed e x c l u s i v e l y b y s t e a m locomotives. Before p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r with electric motors, a w o r d should be said a b o u t the cable system. It w o u l d appear at first s i g h t t h a t h e r e also is found a s y s t e m which would fulfil the r e q u i r e m e n t of m a x i m u m acceleration and braking possibilities, and c o n s e q u e n t high schedule speeds. Maximum acceleration can certainly be o b t a i n e d w i t h the
324
H i g g i n s ."
[J. F. I.,
cable, as has f r e q u e n t l y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a surly or i n c o m p e t e n t gripman, to the g r e a t d i s e o m f o r t of passengers, b u t no cable line ean c o m p e t e with a parallel electric line in p o i n t of s c h e d u l e speed, for t h e reason t h a t the m a x i m u m speed is l i m i t e d to t h e s p e e d of t h e cable, and t h e latter m u s t be k e p t d o w n to a point s u c h t h a t slippage t h r o u g h t h e grip is n o t continuous. In o t h e r words, t h e r e is little p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t cable cars, once b e h i n d their schedules, can catch up to t h e m unless b y rare good f o r t u n e in n o t being r e q u i r e d to stop for p a s s e n g e r s , while w i t h t h e electric cars t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of flying t h r o u g h t h e streets in t h e s u b u r b a n or less c o n g e s t e d streets, so as to make up t i m e lost elsewhere. A s a m a t t e r of fact, the cable is disapp e a r i n g from A m e r i c a n s ~ e t railroads, partly b e c a u s e it is n o t popular, as it is f o u n d t h a t t h e people always prefer parallel eleetric lines b e c a u s e of the g r e a t e r s m o o t h n e s s in running, and p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e r e c o n o m y in operation, d e m o n s t r a t e d again and again in our l e a d i n g eities, where b o t h m o t i v e p o w e r s h a v e b e e n used. T h e cable s y s t e m is a c o m p l i c a t e d one, w i t h its i m m e n s e l y costly and c u m b e r s o m e s t r e e t construction, w h i c h r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t care and attention, a n d it is true, moreover, t h a t a cable line cannot be sectionalized to the e x t e n t t h a t an electric line can be done, to the end of minimizing t h e s t o p p a g e of traffic. Granting, therefore, t h a t t h e electric m o t o r is the city t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a g e n c y of t h e p r e s e n t and t h e future, there r e m a i n s to b e considered the relative a d v a n t a g e s of the overh e a d system, the c o n d u i t s y s t e m and the storage-battery system. In spite of n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s to p u t the latter s y s t e m u p o n a c o m m e r c i a l basis, it has n o t y e t b e e n demons t r a t e d to the satisfaction of s t r e e t r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s t h a t it can b e u s e d w i t h e c o n o m y on a large scale or t h a t good acceleration and grade-climbing work can be done where s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s alone are d e p e n d e d u p o n for r e s e r v e and c o n t i n g e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e e q u i p m e n t of the Chicago and E n g l e w o o d S t r e e t R a i l w a y w i t h s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s is a b o u t t h e only a m b i t i o u s e x p e r i m e n t on a scale t h a t is now b e i n g tried in this country, b u t a b r o a d b a t t e r i e s are used q u i t e largely and successfully in w h a t is called the " m i x e d
April, I899.]
l"ranspartation Pro3lems in Citws.
325
system," in w h i c h the overhead-trolley s y s t e m is used for s u b u r b a n and , o u t l y i n g lines, and s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s for the b u s i n e s s centers. T h e g r e a t difficulties in the w a y of stora g e - b a t t e r y work for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p u r p o s e s lie in the g r e a t w e i g h t of t h e b a t t e r i e s to b e transported, the deterioration of the plates, particularly w h e n called u p o n for the widely varying p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s of a street car, and the somewhat s l u g g i s h action of the cars in acceleration. It is b y no m e a n s u n r e a s o n a b l e to hope, however, that improvements will come in this line such t h a t commercially successful s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y cars m a y be m a d e possible. T h e central-station m e t h o d of o p e r a t i n g s t r e e t r a i l w a y systems, p a r t i c u l a r l y b y electricity, has m a n y intrinsic advantages. In the first place, p o w e r can be g e n e r a t e d at such stations in large q u a n t i t y and at e x t r e m e l y small expense. It is p r o b a b l e t h a t in the largest s t r e e t r a i l w a y power station in the world, n o w b u i l d i n g in N e w York, the cost of p o w e r will be r e d u c e d to } of a cent per car mile, or less than 8 per cent. of the total o p e r a t i n g expenses of the s y s t e m , this cost i n c l u d i n g all losses of generation, conversion, t r a n s m i s s i o n and reconversion. T h e inherent a d v a n t a g e s and possibilities of electric transmission for p o w e r p u r p o s e s are such t h a t it is difficult to conceive of a m o r e p e r f e c t a d a p t a t i o n of m e a n s to the desired end. W h e n , however, the m a t t e r of t r a n s m i s s i o n is taken up in detail, t h r e e m e t h o d s p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s for selection, the overhead-wire system, the open-slot c o n d u i t system, and t h e surface-contact, or " b u t t o n system." T h e o v e r h e a d - w i r e s y s t e m is the one in almost universal use, and the w i s d o m of its adoption has b e e n c o m p l e t e l y justified in a large m a j o r i t y of cases. It is inexpensive to install, as c o m p a r e d w i t h the o t h e r t w o s y s t e m s ; it is, w h e n well p u t up, p r o b a b l y m o r e economical t h a n either, and troubles can be easily located and q u i c k l y remedied. Its chief d i s a d v a n t a g e s from the p u b l i c point of view is the socalled u n s i g h t l i n e s s of poles and wires. In the early days of electric traction, t h e r e w a s certainly g r a v e cause for complaint a b o u t this feature, b u t since then the i m p r o v e m e n t s have been so radical t h a t it has no longer g r e a t force, while
326
Higg/ns :
[J. F. I.,.
the d a n g e r of falling wires and of o b s t r u c t i o n to firemen in t h e d i s c h a r g e of their d u t y has also b e e n done a w a y with to a v e r y large extent, so t h a t t h e r e are to-day as few accidents of a n y kind from t h e o p e r a t i o n of trolley cars in our principal cities as could p o s s i b l y be expected, in v i e w of t h e imm e n s e n u m b e r of p a s s e n g e r s carried, and t h e c o n g e s t e d conditions of t h e streets. T h e surface-contact, or " b u t t o n system," is n o t in use on a n y large scale in this country, b u t a large installation has j u s t b e e n m a d e in Monaco, w h i c h is said to b e w o r k i n g successfully. T h e chief t r o u b l e w i t h this s y s t e m lies in the e m p l o y m e n t of a g r e a t n u m b e r of pieces of mechanism, m o r e or less complicated, and liable to failure, the n u m b e r u s u a l l y b e i n g 5oo a t least per mile of single track. Theoretically, t h e s y s t e m is an excellent one and h a s m a n y points of a d v a n t a g e , b u t it has n o t come into c o m m o n use as yet, and time only will tell w h e t h e r or not" t h e m e c h a n i s m can be k e p t in good w o r k i n g order indefinitely w i t h o u t constant d a n g e r of " t i e - u p s " or delays. T h e open-slot c o n d u i t s y s t e m is in u s e in A m e r i c a only in N e w Y o r k City and W a s h i n g t o n . In N e w Y o r k it has cost p r o b a b l y t e n t i m e s as m u c h as an o v e r h e a d system w o u l d h a v e cost to a c c o m p l i s h the s a m e results, and its o p e r a t i n g expenses are p r o b a b l y a b o u t the same as, or perhaps slightly less than those of t h e e q u i v a l e n t overhead-. trolley system. T h e city of Glasgow, Scotland, in c o m m o n w i t h m a n y o t h e r British a n d E u r o p e a n cities, h a s b e f o r e it to-day the p r o b l e m of d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h of t h e s e t h r e e varieties of electric traction shall b e adopted. G l a s g o w h~s h a d some experience w i t h the o v e r h e a d system, and k n o w s t h a t it is reliable, r e a s o n a b l e in first cost, and economical in operation. T h e f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d on t h e c o n d u i t lines of N e w York, W a s h i n g t o n and a few E u r o p e a n cities have b e e n s t u d i e d in G r e a t Britain and e l s e w h e r e w i t h the g r e a t e s t care and interest, and y e t it has b e e n determined in G l a s g o w and o t h e r places to use the o v e r h e a d s y s t e m in preference to the conduit. T h e fact is t h a t it is only in cities w h e r e g r e a t traffic d e n s i t y obtains, and w h e r e the
April, i899. ]
Transportation Problems iTz Cities.
327
mileage to b e e q u i p p e d is c o m p a r a t i v e l y small, that it is possible to p a y interest u p o n the e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t requisite for t h e c o n d u i t system, and this is particularly true if this i n v e s t m e n t has to be piled up upon that for previous i m p r o v e m e n t s , such as the e q u i p m e n t of horse lines with the o v e r h e a d system. Moreover, the climatic conditions m u s t be f a v o r a b l e in order t h a t success with any form of c o n d u i t s y s t e m m a y be assured, and the sewer. age s y s t e m m u s t b e p e r f e c t ; for, unless the conduit can be kept p e r f e c t l y clean and free from s n o w and a c c u m u l a t i o n s of water, serious electrical t r o u b l e s will occur, w h i c h m a y tie up a r a i l w a y in whole or in part. If the street railways in this c o u n t r y n o w o p e r a t i n g on t h e o v e r h e a d electric system were c o m p e l l e d to c h a n g e to the c o n d u i t s y s t e m over their entire lines or any large portion of them, financial ruin w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y be the consequence. All t h e s e p r o b l e m s of m o t i v e p o w e r have h a d to b e faced by m a n a g e r s in this country, and are n o w before the t r a m w a y m a n a g e r s of Europe. T h e y are wise in their generation w h o h a v e looked and are looking f o r w a r d to t h e future of their properties and of the cities in w h i c h t h e y are located, and w h o recognize the i m p o r t a n c e of the p a r t which local transportation plays in the o n w a r d m a r c h of a g r e a t and constantly g r o w i n g city. T h e real i n t e r e s t s of t h e people and of the p r i v a t e capital e n g a g e d in s t r e e t railroading are, or should be, s u b s t a n t i a l l y the same. T h e ideal s y s t e m for both is one w h i c h can be" h a n d l e d w i t h the g r e a t e s t certainty in operation, and which can be indefinitely e x t e n d e d into s u b u r b a n t e r r i t o r y in a d v a n c e of p o p u l a t i o n w i t h o u t too g r e a t cost and w i t h o u t the n e c e s s i t y of transfers, and which can be b u i l t at m i n i m u m expense for the a d v a n t a g e s given. It c a n n o t be for the public interest to load d o w n street r a i l w a y c o m p a n i e s w i t h c o n s t a n t l y increasing burdens, such as the adoption of t h e m o s t costly forms of motive power, if cheaper w o u l d a n s w e r the p u r p o s e ; for, by doing so, t h e y t h u s postpone still f u r t h e r the time w h e n any r e d u c t i o n s can be m a d e in fares or a s y s t e m of profitsharing with the city can be established. ETo be Concluded.]
2ransportation Problems in Cities.
ELECTRICAL
315
SECTION.
" R a i l r o a d " 211reeling, March 28, I899. 80ME
OF T H E
LARGER
TRANSPORTATION
P R O B L E M S rN CITIES. BY ]~DWARD ]~. HIC,GINS.
The managers of a large city railway system are constantly called upon to deal with problems of great difficulty and complexity. T h e y have a double responsibilityma responsibility to the public and a responsibility to the investors of ~rhose interests they are trustees. T h e y are charged with the m a n a g e m e n t of thousands of employ6s, whose attitude toward the enterprise, w h e t h e r of content or discontent, is of vital importance to its success. T h e y must pass upon inventions and improvements in the science of municipal transportation, d e t e r m i n i n g where cost and true economy join hands; t h e y m u s t adopt operating methods adequate to the development of the system and of the city which it serves ; they m u s t care for the comfort and pleasure of the public ; and they must so u n i f y all of these varied and sometimes oonflicting duties as to develop an organization and m a n a g e m e n t successful as a whole and not unduly weak in any part. Grave misunderstandings often arise between street railway companies and the public. T h e people often believe the companies to be grasping, sordid, careless of their .duties as public carriers and desirous only of making the largest possible return to stockholders. T h e companies, on the other hand, daily harassed by complaints about inconveniences suffered, small or large, often came to regard the public as unreasonable in its demands, forgetting that that public is not in a position to see all the difficulties and perplexities which beset the m a n a g e m e n t at every turn, and which make it often either impossible to grant such demands or to explain w h y they cannot be granted. The
3 i6
[J. F. l.,
Higgins."
street r a i l w a y business, as a whole, is so c o m p l i c a t e d and so m u c h a m a t t e r of detail, t h a t no one d e p a r t m e n t of it can be well u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t some k n o w l e d g e of the others, and f r a g m e n t a r y or p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s of the reasons for specific decisions, h o w e v e r s o u n d in t h e i r relat i o n s h i p to the g e n e r a l plan of m a n a g e m e n t , m i g h t not always or often a p p e a r so to non-technical critics. I shall a t t e m p t in the f o l l o w i n g discussion to give such an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e s c h e m e of m o d e r n s t r e e t railr o a d i n g on its broad lines and of t h e principal problems w h i c h the m a n a g e r has to solve, as will lead to a clearer u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b y those who are n o t of " t h e faith," of w h a t t h e public has a r i g h t to expect f r o m the street railway companies, w h i c h are its s e r v a n t s a n d which are, as a rule, h o n e s t l y t r y i n g to fulfil all t h e obligation~ w h i c h can r e a s o n a b l y be i m p o s e d u p o n them. ESSENTIAL
DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
CITIES.
In t h e first place it c a n n o t be too clearly m a d e evident how different are the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n conditions in each city from those of a n y or all o t h e r cities. N o t h i n g can be more fallacious, or lead to g r e a t e r injustice, t h a n to say t h a t because such a n d such concessions are g r a n t e d by the companies to the people of a certain city, therefore, similar ones can and should be m a d e in a n o t h e r city. T h e m o s t common error of all p e r h a p s is to a s s u m e t h a t t h e conditions f o u n d in a small city o b t a i n in a large one or vice versa. Population and p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y h a v e an e n o r m o u s influence oa street r a i l w a y earnings, profits and possibilities of generosity. A ~econd even more c o m m o n error is to hold t h a t as much o u g h t to be expected from an old c o m p a n y w h i c h has passed t h r o u g h one or m o r e e x p e r i m e n t a l stages of s t r e e t railroadi n g a n d h a d to t h r o w a w a y e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t s for a n t i q u a t e d m o t i v e powers and to p u r c h a s e t h e i r s u b s t i t u t e s at h i g h initial prices, as from a new c o m p a n y j u s t e n t e r i n g t h e field, with all the a c c u m u l a t e d experience of m a n y years to d r a w upon, a n d w i t h the benefit of low prices for material and supplies of the p r e s e n t day. B e h i n d t h e s e more obvious i n j u s t i c e s come others tess easy to u n d e r s t a n d w i t h o u t
April. 1899.j
Transportation Problems in Cities.
317
some technical exposition. H o w , for example, can a manager satisfactorily explain to the p u b l i c t h e reason w h y the people of his city patronize their s t r e e t r a i l w a y System to the e x t e n t of only $3 per capita per annum, while in another city of the s a m e population, the earnings are over $5 per capita? W h e n the g e n e r o s i t y of the richer s y s t e m is cited as a p r e c e d e n t for the poorer to follow, it is a delicate m a t t e r to s h o w t h a t the latter's public is largely composed of the w o r k i n g classes to w h o m t h e daily 5- or iocent fare forms a m a t e r i a l burden, or a difficult one to m a k e clear t h a t the plans on w h i c h the two cities are laid o u t are radically different, the one calling for g r e a t e r p a t r o n a g e of street car lines than the other, w i t h o u t necessarily involving g r e a t e r e x p e n s e to the "operating company. A knowle d g e of these differences in city plans and lines of development is so essential to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the t h e o r y of street r a i l r o a d i n g t h a t a brief explanation of their effect upon earnings is desirable. T h e world's g r e a t cities are, w i t h scarcely an exception, built u p o n or a r o u n d some form of w a t e r f r o n t - - s e a , lake or river. U p o n s o m e section of this w a t e r front is always found the " c o n g e s t e d district," d e v o t e d to commercial and business purposes. T h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts of a city m a y or m a y not be on this w a t e r front, according to the location of the railroad termini and branches, the presence or a b s e n c e of rivers t r i b u t a r y to the main w a t e r front, and o t h e r g o v e r n i n g conditions. "-All, or nearly all cities are laid out and d e v e l o p e d on one of four distinctive plans, {I) the p e n i n s u l a plan, such as that of N e w York City ,(Manhattan Borough) and San F r a n c i s c o : (2) the valley plan, with a river or rivers r u n n i n g t h r o u g h the center, such as P i t t s b u r g h ; ( 3 ) t h e r a d i a t i n g plan, with t e r r i t o r y on one side only of w a t e r front, such as Chicago, Boston, Brooklyn and m a n y o t h e r cities; and (4) the r a d i a t i n g plan, w i t h territory on b o t h sides of the w a t e r front, of which e x a m p l e s are f o u n d in M e t r o p o l i t a n N e w York :(including E a s t e r n N e w Jersey), Paris, L o n d o n and m a n y o t h e r cities, large and small. T h e peninsula and valley plans u s u a l l y call for compara-
318
[J. r. I.,
Higgins :
tively small street railway track mileage, and great traffic density is fotmx~ on tlzat mileage, t o g ~ ~¢ith large gross earnings per capita served, per mile of track and per car mile. For example, the complete transportation system of New York City proper (Boroughs of Manhattan and the Bronx) earns about $I3 per capita gross, and that of San Francisco nearly $14. The radiating plans m e a n greater street railway mileage for the population served, and usually a m u c h less density of traffic and less gross receipts per capita. T h e Chicago surface and elevated lines, for example, earn less than Sto per capita, and the surface lines of St. Louis hardly $8 per capita. It can be easily seen how different, for example, is the transfer problem in a peninsula and valley city from that of a radiating city. In the former there m a y be a few through lines of heavy traffic, with m a n y cross-town feeder lines. Transfers in such a city m i g h t m e a n no additional expense to a company and little or no complication. In the radiating city, on the contrary, a transfer s y s t e m m i g h t mean a ride of great length, while the plan of the system m i g h t be such t h a t dishonestyin the use of transfers would be easily possible. Again, a city plan Very favorable to economical operation m i g h t make a 4-cent fare possible in a given city, while i n another city, even of the same population, such a fare would mean bankruptcy. A city system of large track mileage r u n n i n g m a n y cars m i g h t have immense m a i n t e n a n c e accounts to deduct from earnings, whereas, a more fortunate one in another city would have a great traffic density on small mileage. All that a comparison of practice between the street railway systems of two cities can do, therefore, is to put the burden of proof upon the system which is apparently less generous with the public of showing why the more generous practice cannot be followed, and the company's a r g u m e n t should be received with attention and respect, for after all, n o t h i n g is more certain than that the best reasonable service of the public will bring about the largest earning power to a street railway company, and none is more quick to recognize this fact than t h e average street railway manager. t
Transportation Problems in Cities.
April, I899.] THE F U N C T I O N
OF ELEVATED
AND UNDERGROUND
IN CITY TRANSPORTATION
319 RAILWAYS
SYSTEMS.
The question of adding to existing facilities or solving different congested district problems by t.k~ building of elevated or u n d e r g r o u n d railways is facing the managers of several of the principal cities of the world, and it is a serious one indeed. T h e enormous cost of tunneling, and the hardly smaller combined i n v e s t m e n t required for building an elevated structure,and paying damage claims to abutting property owners, leads and will lead to a postponement of the issue as long as possible. T h e great tunnels of Paris are an immense burden upon French taxpayers, while private capital cannot hope to make a success of tunnel enterprises except in countries where rates of interest are extremely low, and e v e n then the public m u s t usually be called upon to help by special concessions or subsidies of one kind and another. T h e London Metropolitan u n d e r g r o u n d system is a failure financially, partly because of its immense cost and partly because it was not properly laid out to obtain the greatest density of traffic. It is hoped that the new Central London U n d e r g r o u n d will be more successful, being comparatively short and built under one of the heaviest traffic routes of that great city. Private capital has so far shown very little enthusiasm for an u n d e r g r o u n d railway in New York City, where, if a n y w h e r e in America, such a railroad should prove profitable. T h e elevated railway system of Manhattan Island has been in the past exceedingly profitable, chiefly because it is built in a "peninsula c i t y " par excellence, where an immense tide of travel sweeps south in the morning and north at night, along few and narrowlines, but the fact that through all these years until the present time the New York elevated lines l~ave had as competitors only comparatively slow-moving horse cars, has been almost equally potent in effecting profits, since short-distance as well as long-distance travelers have been obliged to use the elevated wheil t i m e is an object. Elevated railroading in the two " r a d i a t i n g cities " of Brooklyn and Chicago has been distinctly unprofitable. In cities of this class it is difficult or impossible to find the
320
[-[iffgins ."
[J. F. I.,
d e n s i t y of traffic n e c e s s a r y for the p a y m e n t of operating e x p e n s e s and i n t e r e s t u p o n the h e a v y capital o u t l a y required. T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y true w h e r e t h e surface cars are run at f r e q u e n t intervals and at h i g h speeds, for the latter will i n e v i t a b l y obtain the short-distance or m o r e profitable class of traffic, l e a v i n g the long-distance or unprofitable class only to t h e e l e v a t e d lines. Moreover, in cities of the r a d i a t i n g class, the p o p u l a t i o n is u s u a l l y s p r e a d o u t over so large an area as to m a k e it impossible for a n y one line to o b t a i n a large p r o p o r t i o n of t h e traffic. T h e adoption of e l e c t r i c i t y on the e l e v a t e d lines in Chicago has favorably affected gross a n d n e t earnings, and with tile scaling down of capitalization, which h a s r e c e n t l y been accomplished, t h e r e is a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a r e a s o n a b l e r e t u r n on the n e w capitalization can b e m a d e if n e w c o m p e t i t i v e conditions do n o t arise ; a similar result is h o p e d for in Brooklyn. It is by no m e a n s i m p r o b a b l e , however, t h a t the only p e r m a n e n t sol u t i o n to the p r o b l e m of r u n n i n g surface, e l e v a t e d and und e r g r o u n d r a i l w a y s in the s a m e city is to h a v e t h e m under .one control and m a n a g e m e n t , so t h a t the surface lines can s e r v e as feeders to t h e e l e v a t e d or u n d e r g r o u n d lines, an e x p r e s s service only to b e given on t h e latter, and a fare c h a r g e d for t h e c o m b i n e d service s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r than t h e single 5-cent fare. In the c o n g e s t e d districts of our principal cities , elevated o r u n d e r g r o u n d lines, either or both, will find a true and v a l u a b l e field. T h e b u s i n e s s sections of Chicago and Bos. ton furnish p r o b l e m s of the m o s t serious and complicated character, w h i c h are only partially solved at present, and are likely to g r o w g r a v e r in g e o m e t r i c a l r a t i o as the y e a r s go on, and as t h e t e r r i t o r y t r i b u t a r y to the b u s i n e s s centers increases in area and p o p u l a t i o n . It is p r o b a b l e t h a t the only p e r m a n e n t solution to c o n g e s t e d district p r o b l e m s in cities lies in s u b w a y or t u n n e l lines and loops in these districts. T h e s e will take from t h e surface of t h e streets the e n o r m o u s c r o w d s of people w h i c h at m o r n i n g and evening h o u r s of the d a y p o u r into and o u t of t h e tall buildings w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e so n e c e s s a r y an evil in the m o d e r n city b u s i n e s s districts. Boston's n e w s u b w a y is a decided,
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t h o u g h n o t as y e t a complete, success in relieving conges. tion and s a v i n g t i m e t h r o u g h o u t a large portion of t h e twenty-four hours. T h e new Boston elevated lines at p r e s e n t under c o n s t r u c t i o n will be of g r e a t assistance in this congested district, p a s s i n g as t h e y do from its limits on t h e north a n d west (the l a t t e r projected) to those on the south, and the m a n a g e r s of the g r e a t city r a i l w a y p r o p e r t y in Boston h a v e done wisely in confining these elevated lines to t h e congested district a n d not c a r r y i n g t h e m to a g r e a t e r distahoe a w a y from the b u s i n e s s center. In Chicago, the Loop T e r m i n a l of all the e l e v a t e d lines, r e c e n t l y p u t into operation, has been a g r e a t c o n v e n i e n c e to the people, and h a s added l a r g e l y to the traffic, b u t it is a q u e s t i o n if it has not even so soon reached its train capacity, p a r t i c u l a r l y on days of its h e a v i e s t traffic; for on a recent holiday, no less t h a n 65 per cent. of t h e t r a c k a g e on one of the loop lines of the s t r u c t u r e was covered b y trains, L e., t h e y were less than a train l e n g t h a p a r t on an average. THE ~'RO~LEM OF MOTIVE POWER. No decisions w h i c h street r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s have been called upon to m a k e d u r i n g the past ten years have caused them such anxious solicitude, a n d hdve m e a n t so m u c h to the public and to stockholders as those connected w i t h motive power. T e n y e a r s ago horse t r a c t i o n was almost universal, w i t h t h e cable in use or b u i l d i n g on the h e a v y traffic routes of a few cities, and electricity j u s t c o m i n g into sight. To-day electricity r e i g n s t r i u m p h a n t , h a v i n g displaced b o t h horses a n d cable on n e a r l y all the m i l e a g e of A m e r i c a n cities. A synopsis of t h e reasons for this wonderful revolution in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m e t h o d s which has completely c h a n g e d the complexion of our cities, and added new life and vigor to t h e i r daily routine, will be of present as well as retrospective interest, i n a s m u c h as the p r i m a c y of electricity, a n d particularly, of o v e r h e a d wire electric traction is still occasionally disputed. Aft m o t i v e powers m a y be divided into two classes, those which m a k e a car a more or less i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t on t h e streets, a n d those w h i c h m a k e it c o n s t a n t l y d e p e n d e n t on VOL. CXLVII. No. 880. 2t
322
Hiffffin$ :
[J. F. I.,
some central source of power. To t h e first class b e l o n g the horse car, t h e s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y electric car, the compressedair ear, a n d various forms of gas, stored steam, p e t r o l e u m and o t h e r m o t o r cars. To the l a t t e r b e l o n g the cable s y s t e m and the electric o v e r h e a d wire and c o n d u i t systems. I n d e p e n d e n c e in the car u n i t is a h i g h l y desirable thing. W i t h it comes m i n i m u m d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e p a v e m e n t or o b s t r u c t i o n in the streets w i t h m i n i m u m i n v e s t m e n t for i n s t a l l a t i o n ; and w i t h it comes also an avoidance of the d a n g e r t h a t the central source of power m a y give o u t and stop the entire system, or a n y large section of it for a considerable period. T h e r e is no q u e s t i o n t h a t a really successful i n d e p e n d e n t u n i t s y s t e m would be h e a r t i l y welcomed b y street r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s , c e r t a i n l y as an auxiliary, and w o u l d find a large field i m m e d i a t e l y r e a d y for occupancy. But there are serious obstacles to success. It is probably impossible to devise a power g e n e r a t i n g a n d u s i n g system w h i c h will go w i t h i n the narrow space l i m i t s available in a m o d e r n popular car, and w h i c h shall be capable of exerting as a m a x i m u m a power four or five t i m e s the average a m o u n t r e q u i r e d for t h e propulsion of t h e car. Such a s y s t e m can be placed in a d u m m y car a n d some r o o m ' l e f t for passengers as well, b u t while one or m o r e trail cars are to be drawn, difficulties of t r a c t i o n come up i m m e d i a t e l y . At all t i m e s t h e r e is the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of g e n e r a t i n g power in. small a m o u n t s w i t h a n y t h i n g like the e c o n o m y w i t h which it can be g e n e r a t e d in large. If power be g e n e r a t e d in q u a n t i t i e s at some central s t a t i o n a n d stored in some one of several forms for t r a n s f e r to, and use on a car, t h a t car, is q u i t e as s u r e l y d e p e n d e n t on the central s t a t i o n as it w o u l d be were the power t r a n s m i t t e d b y wires or cable, and is likely to give even more t r o u b l e t h r o u g h tlle exhaustion of t h e stored power and the c o n s e q u e n t s t o p p a g e of tho c a r on the line. Still a n o t h e r difficulty is f o u n d with socalled i n d e p e n d e n t car operation (except w h e r e electric m o t o r s are used as in the s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y system), and that is the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o d u c i n g a r o t a r y m o t i o n w i t h o u t the use of an initial r e c i p r o c a t i n g motion, w i t h all th0 latter's well-known d i s a d v a n t a g e s in the m a t t e r of wear of
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parts and r e d u c t i o n of tractive effort on grades, curves and in starting. Finally, such d i s a g r e e a b l e c o n c o m i t a n t s as odor, noise, or d a n g e r of explosion m u s t be excluded if the i n d e p e n d e n t m o t o r is to be an entire success. Modern s t r e e t r a i l r o a d i n g r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t l y increasing average s p e e d s over city s t r e e t s w i t h o u t increasing d a n g e r of accident. W i t h t h e s h o r t runs b e t w e e n streets, and the m a n y stops n e c e s s a r y for t a k i n g on and l e t t i n g off passengers, high a v e r a g e speeds can be o b t a i n e d only b y m e a n s of high rates of acceleration in starting, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y high-braking effort in stopping. In o t h e r words, m a x i m u m speed m u s t be reached as quickly as possible and kept up as long as possible before brakes are applied. Now, the one propelling a g e n c y a d a p t e d for this peculiar class of work, so far d e v e l o p e d in the entire t r a n s p o r t a t i o n field, is t h e electric motor, w i t h its constant r o t a r y effort, or torque, and w i t h its a l m o s t infinite c a p a c i t y for automatically a b s o r b i n g and t r a n s f o r m i n g electric p o w e r into a rotary effort. A little ~5 horse-power car m o t o r can be overloaded IOO per cent. or m o r e if the occasion requires, and will take c u r r e n t until its wires actually melt in the process. T h e r e is no such r e s e r v e p o w e r in any form of reciprocating motion e n g i n e - - n o such c o n s t a n t torque, and no such ease of control. C o m p r e s s e d air. stored steam, gas, petroleum and o t h e r m o t o r s all h a v e their possibilities of development, m e c h a n i c a l l y and commercially, and w h e n proven s u c c e s s f u l in practice on any considerable scale, there will be certain portions of the general t r a n s p o r t a t i o n field open to them, b u t it is e q u a l l y true t h a t the electric motor has intrinsic a d v a n t a g e s such t h a t it will n e v e r be displaced in street r a i l w a y service, while it is certain also that it will reach into larger t r a n s p o r t a t i o n work n o w performed e x c l u s i v e l y b y s t e a m locomotives. Before p r o c e e d i n g f u r t h e r with electric motors, a w o r d should be said a b o u t the cable system. It w o u l d appear at first s i g h t t h a t h e r e also is found a s y s t e m which would fulfil the r e q u i r e m e n t of m a x i m u m acceleration and braking possibilities, and c o n s e q u e n t high schedule speeds. Maximum acceleration can certainly be o b t a i n e d w i t h the
324
H i g g i n s ."
[J. F. I.,
cable, as has f r e q u e n t l y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a surly or i n c o m p e t e n t gripman, to the g r e a t d i s e o m f o r t of passengers, b u t no cable line ean c o m p e t e with a parallel electric line in p o i n t of s c h e d u l e speed, for t h e reason t h a t the m a x i m u m speed is l i m i t e d to t h e s p e e d of t h e cable, and t h e latter m u s t be k e p t d o w n to a point s u c h t h a t slippage t h r o u g h t h e grip is n o t continuous. In o t h e r words, t h e r e is little p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t cable cars, once b e h i n d their schedules, can catch up to t h e m unless b y rare good f o r t u n e in n o t being r e q u i r e d to stop for p a s s e n g e r s , while w i t h t h e electric cars t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of flying t h r o u g h t h e streets in t h e s u b u r b a n or less c o n g e s t e d streets, so as to make up t i m e lost elsewhere. A s a m a t t e r of fact, the cable is disapp e a r i n g from A m e r i c a n s ~ e t railroads, partly b e c a u s e it is n o t popular, as it is f o u n d t h a t t h e people always prefer parallel eleetric lines b e c a u s e of the g r e a t e r s m o o t h n e s s in running, and p a r t l y b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e r e c o n o m y in operation, d e m o n s t r a t e d again and again in our l e a d i n g eities, where b o t h m o t i v e p o w e r s h a v e b e e n used. T h e cable s y s t e m is a c o m p l i c a t e d one, w i t h its i m m e n s e l y costly and c u m b e r s o m e s t r e e t construction, w h i c h r e q u i r e s c o n s t a n t care and attention, a n d it is true, moreover, t h a t a cable line cannot be sectionalized to the e x t e n t t h a t an electric line can be done, to the end of minimizing t h e s t o p p a g e of traffic. Granting, therefore, t h a t t h e electric m o t o r is the city t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a g e n c y of t h e p r e s e n t and t h e future, there r e m a i n s to b e considered the relative a d v a n t a g e s of the overh e a d system, the c o n d u i t s y s t e m and the storage-battery system. In spite of n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s to p u t the latter s y s t e m u p o n a c o m m e r c i a l basis, it has n o t y e t b e e n demons t r a t e d to the satisfaction of s t r e e t r a i l w a y m a n a g e r s t h a t it can b e u s e d w i t h e c o n o m y on a large scale or t h a t good acceleration and grade-climbing work can be done where s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s alone are d e p e n d e d u p o n for r e s e r v e and c o n t i n g e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e e q u i p m e n t of the Chicago and E n g l e w o o d S t r e e t R a i l w a y w i t h s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s is a b o u t t h e only a m b i t i o u s e x p e r i m e n t on a scale t h a t is now b e i n g tried in this country, b u t a b r o a d b a t t e r i e s are used q u i t e largely and successfully in w h a t is called the " m i x e d
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system," in w h i c h the overhead-trolley s y s t e m is used for s u b u r b a n and , o u t l y i n g lines, and s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s for the b u s i n e s s centers. T h e g r e a t difficulties in the w a y of stora g e - b a t t e r y work for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p u r p o s e s lie in the g r e a t w e i g h t of t h e b a t t e r i e s to b e transported, the deterioration of the plates, particularly w h e n called u p o n for the widely varying p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s of a street car, and the somewhat s l u g g i s h action of the cars in acceleration. It is b y no m e a n s u n r e a s o n a b l e to hope, however, that improvements will come in this line such t h a t commercially successful s t o r a g e - b a t t e r y cars m a y be m a d e possible. T h e central-station m e t h o d of o p e r a t i n g s t r e e t r a i l w a y systems, p a r t i c u l a r l y b y electricity, has m a n y intrinsic advantages. In the first place, p o w e r can be g e n e r a t e d at such stations in large q u a n t i t y and at e x t r e m e l y small expense. It is p r o b a b l e t h a t in the largest s t r e e t r a i l w a y power station in the world, n o w b u i l d i n g in N e w York, the cost of p o w e r will be r e d u c e d to } of a cent per car mile, or less than 8 per cent. of the total o p e r a t i n g expenses of the s y s t e m , this cost i n c l u d i n g all losses of generation, conversion, t r a n s m i s s i o n and reconversion. T h e inherent a d v a n t a g e s and possibilities of electric transmission for p o w e r p u r p o s e s are such t h a t it is difficult to conceive of a m o r e p e r f e c t a d a p t a t i o n of m e a n s to the desired end. W h e n , however, the m a t t e r of t r a n s m i s s i o n is taken up in detail, t h r e e m e t h o d s p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s for selection, the overhead-wire system, the open-slot c o n d u i t system, and t h e surface-contact, or " b u t t o n system." T h e o v e r h e a d - w i r e s y s t e m is the one in almost universal use, and the w i s d o m of its adoption has b e e n c o m p l e t e l y justified in a large m a j o r i t y of cases. It is inexpensive to install, as c o m p a r e d w i t h the o t h e r t w o s y s t e m s ; it is, w h e n well p u t up, p r o b a b l y m o r e economical t h a n either, and troubles can be easily located and q u i c k l y remedied. Its chief d i s a d v a n t a g e s from the p u b l i c point of view is the socalled u n s i g h t l i n e s s of poles and wires. In the early days of electric traction, t h e r e w a s certainly g r a v e cause for complaint a b o u t this feature, b u t since then the i m p r o v e m e n t s have been so radical t h a t it has no longer g r e a t force, while
326
Higg/ns :
[J. F. I.,.
the d a n g e r of falling wires and of o b s t r u c t i o n to firemen in t h e d i s c h a r g e of their d u t y has also b e e n done a w a y with to a v e r y large extent, so t h a t t h e r e are to-day as few accidents of a n y kind from t h e o p e r a t i o n of trolley cars in our principal cities as could p o s s i b l y be expected, in v i e w of t h e imm e n s e n u m b e r of p a s s e n g e r s carried, and t h e c o n g e s t e d conditions of t h e streets. T h e surface-contact, or " b u t t o n system," is n o t in use on a n y large scale in this country, b u t a large installation has j u s t b e e n m a d e in Monaco, w h i c h is said to b e w o r k i n g successfully. T h e chief t r o u b l e w i t h this s y s t e m lies in the e m p l o y m e n t of a g r e a t n u m b e r of pieces of mechanism, m o r e or less complicated, and liable to failure, the n u m b e r u s u a l l y b e i n g 5oo a t least per mile of single track. Theoretically, t h e s y s t e m is an excellent one and h a s m a n y points of a d v a n t a g e , b u t it has n o t come into c o m m o n use as yet, and time only will tell w h e t h e r or not" t h e m e c h a n i s m can be k e p t in good w o r k i n g order indefinitely w i t h o u t constant d a n g e r of " t i e - u p s " or delays. T h e open-slot c o n d u i t s y s t e m is in u s e in A m e r i c a only in N e w Y o r k City and W a s h i n g t o n . In N e w Y o r k it has cost p r o b a b l y t e n t i m e s as m u c h as an o v e r h e a d system w o u l d h a v e cost to a c c o m p l i s h the s a m e results, and its o p e r a t i n g expenses are p r o b a b l y a b o u t the same as, or perhaps slightly less than those of t h e e q u i v a l e n t overhead-. trolley system. T h e city of Glasgow, Scotland, in c o m m o n w i t h m a n y o t h e r British a n d E u r o p e a n cities, h a s b e f o r e it to-day the p r o b l e m of d e t e r m i n i n g w h i c h of t h e s e t h r e e varieties of electric traction shall b e adopted. G l a s g o w h~s h a d some experience w i t h the o v e r h e a d system, and k n o w s t h a t it is reliable, r e a s o n a b l e in first cost, and economical in operation. T h e f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d on t h e c o n d u i t lines of N e w York, W a s h i n g t o n and a few E u r o p e a n cities have b e e n s t u d i e d in G r e a t Britain and e l s e w h e r e w i t h the g r e a t e s t care and interest, and y e t it has b e e n determined in G l a s g o w and o t h e r places to use the o v e r h e a d s y s t e m in preference to the conduit. T h e fact is t h a t it is only in cities w h e r e g r e a t traffic d e n s i t y obtains, and w h e r e the
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Transportation Problems iTz Cities.
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mileage to b e e q u i p p e d is c o m p a r a t i v e l y small, that it is possible to p a y interest u p o n the e n o r m o u s i n v e s t m e n t requisite for t h e c o n d u i t system, and this is particularly true if this i n v e s t m e n t has to be piled up upon that for previous i m p r o v e m e n t s , such as the e q u i p m e n t of horse lines with the o v e r h e a d system. Moreover, the climatic conditions m u s t be f a v o r a b l e in order t h a t success with any form of c o n d u i t s y s t e m m a y be assured, and the sewer. age s y s t e m m u s t b e p e r f e c t ; for, unless the conduit can be kept p e r f e c t l y clean and free from s n o w and a c c u m u l a t i o n s of water, serious electrical t r o u b l e s will occur, w h i c h m a y tie up a r a i l w a y in whole or in part. If the street railways in this c o u n t r y n o w o p e r a t i n g on t h e o v e r h e a d electric system were c o m p e l l e d to c h a n g e to the c o n d u i t s y s t e m over their entire lines or any large portion of them, financial ruin w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y be the consequence. All t h e s e p r o b l e m s of m o t i v e p o w e r have h a d to b e faced by m a n a g e r s in this country, and are n o w before the t r a m w a y m a n a g e r s of Europe. T h e y are wise in their generation w h o h a v e looked and are looking f o r w a r d to t h e future of their properties and of the cities in w h i c h t h e y are located, and w h o recognize the i m p o r t a n c e of the p a r t which local transportation plays in the o n w a r d m a r c h of a g r e a t and constantly g r o w i n g city. T h e real i n t e r e s t s of t h e people and of the p r i v a t e capital e n g a g e d in s t r e e t railroading are, or should be, s u b s t a n t i a l l y the same. T h e ideal s y s t e m for both is one w h i c h can be" h a n d l e d w i t h the g r e a t e s t certainty in operation, and which can be indefinitely e x t e n d e d into s u b u r b a n t e r r i t o r y in a d v a n c e of p o p u l a t i o n w i t h o u t too g r e a t cost and w i t h o u t the n e c e s s i t y of transfers, and which can be b u i l t at m i n i m u m expense for the a d v a n t a g e s given. It c a n n o t be for the public interest to load d o w n street r a i l w a y c o m p a n i e s w i t h c o n s t a n t l y increasing burdens, such as the adoption of t h e m o s t costly forms of motive power, if cheaper w o u l d a n s w e r the p u r p o s e ; for, by doing so, t h e y t h u s postpone still f u r t h e r the time w h e n any r e d u c t i o n s can be m a d e in fares or a s y s t e m of profitsharing with the city can be established. ETo be Concluded.]